.

= J

by

Krystian W. Pilarczyk

Rijkswaterstaat

Dutch Ministry of Transport and Public Works

Road and Hydraulic Engineering Department april 1987

 SEA DEPENCES

DUTCH GUIDELINES ON DIKE PROTECTION

by

Krystian W. Pilarczyk

Report WB-NO-87110

- A review -

-.-iïiMiiii.v,. *.i--^-air^»^ïs-J'

I
-.'"o.oo
& • > ; •

Kon';K;r:A„v..: »
25?o A A 's-C'rsven'cs©

Ri j kswater staat
Dutch Ministry of Transport and Public Works
Road and Hydraulic Engineering Department
P.O. Box 5044, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands

April 1987
*

- 1 -
 CONTENT

ABSTRACT
1. INTRODÜCTION
2. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OP COASTAL DEPENCE
STRUCTURES

3. SHAPE AND HEIGHT OF A DIKE

3.1 Loading zones
3.2 Dike shape
3.3 Dike height and run-up

4. STRENGTH OP REVETMENTS
4.1 General approach
4.2 Failure modes and determinant wave load
4.3 Wave loading and wave structure-interaction
4.4 Stability of loosely materials
4.5 Uplift forces. Block and impervious revetments
4.6 impact forces. Asphalt revetments
4.7 Revetments under ship's induced loads
4.8 Stability of grass-slopes
4.9 Example of probabilistic calculations of revetment

5. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 General requirements
5.2 Dimensioning
5.3 Choice of revetment
5.4 Composition of dike and revetment
5.5 Subsoil requirements
5.6 Joints and transitions

6. MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING

7. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES

APPENDICES:

I A. Bezuijen, M. Klein Breteler and K.J. Bakker, Design

criteria for placed block revetments
and granular filters
II J.K. Vrijling, Probabilistic design of waterretaining
str uctures

2-
- 3 -
 DUTCH GUIDELINES ON DIKE PROTECTION

ABSTRACT

The increased demand on reliable design methods for protective

structures nas resulted in the Netherlands in preparing a set of
design guidelines for revetments of the sea-, and river-dikes, and
for bank protection. These guidelines are intended for technicians
and organizations directly involved in the design and management of
protective structures. In this report a brief review on general de-
sign philosophy, different hydraulic and geotechnical aspects and
design criteria for various types of revetments is given. The sta-
bility criteria based on small and large scale tests are formulated
for the following systems: rip-rap, concrete units, asphalt and
grass-mats. Developments for some other systems are also briefly
mentioned.

KEYWORDS; sea defences, dike protection, revetments, guidelines.

CATALOGUE ENTRY; Pilarczyk, K.W. (1987), Sea defences : Dutch

guidelines on dike protection, Rijkswaterstaat, Road and Hydraulic
Engineering Dpt., Report WB-NO-87110, April 1987, Delft, The
Netherlands.

CORRESPONDENCE:

Rij kswaterstaat
Road and Hydraulic Engineering Department
P.O. Box 5044
2600 GA Delft
The Netherlands

- 4-
 Dutch coast, arosionat areas

,~^,.., sandy beacMas and dunas

TÏ5ZSÜ «rosion areas, 1 to 5 m par yaar

Fig. 1 DUTCH COAST, EROSIONAL AREAS

landwards
fore-shore dune (secundary)

gro,ns or t«-proteHon o f ^
permeable groins
sea-dike

toe -/bottom -protection

sea-wall

Fig. 2 EXAMPLES OF SEA-PROTECTION

- 5 -.
1. INTRODUCTION
A large part of the Netherlands lies below the mean sea level; it
is protected by dikes, daros and dunes (fig. 1 en 2 ) . The country is
therefore dependent on good (safe) sea defences. Driven by the nec-
cessity to withstand the water, during centuries the Outch engi-
neers built up their knowledge on hydraulic engineering, and parti-
cularly on constructing of dikes and protection measures (revet-
ments) . However the design of dikes and their revetments was mostly
based more on rather vague experience than on the general valid
calculation methods. Due to the increasing demand on reliable de-
sign methode, i.e. as a result of more "hard" safety requirements,
the Dutch Ministry of Transport and Public Works (Rijkswaterstaat)
and the Technical Advisory Committee on Water Defences have initia-
ted a long term research program on preparing the guidelines for
the design of sea and river defence structures. Some of these gui-
delines have been reported recently (26 ) ,(27 ) ,(28) , ( 29) , ( 30) , ( 32

In the report aset of basic design guidelines for revetments of

the sea dikes, based on the published and unpublished sources, will
be given. This set of guidelines is intended for engineers and
technicians directly associated with the design and management of
dikes. Is is not intended as a scientific work dealing exhaustively
with theoretical f undamentals. It has been endeavoured as far as
possible to give the general practical design guidelines with some
background information but without offering a solution for every
conceivable problem. Por a treatment of these matters in greater
depth the reader is referred to the original reports.
For the revetment, i.e. the protective covering of a waterretaining
structure (dike) requirements are formulated with reference to the
purpose of the structure and the revetment, the technical features
of constructing it, and possible special circumstances involved.
The shape of the cross-sectional profile of the dike is of influen-
ce on the type of revetment material suitable for revetment con-
struction. The design of the shape and the height of a dike are
thus also discussed.

Various types of revetment are distinquished with reference to the

properties of the materials and/or the units, and of the base on
which they are installed. The following types of revetments are
treated: rip-rap and other loosely systems, concrete units, asphalt
and grass.

As an interim result of long-term research being still in progress,

some information concerning the stability of the different revet-
ments (i.e. new stability criteria) is given. Requirements are ap-
plied to the base layers of the revetment because these are impor-
tant in maintaining its stability under wave action and in ensuring
that the structure will continue to function permanently. In this
connection a distinction is drawn between permeable and impermeable
bases. It is stated what materials can suitable be used for a per-
meable- or impermeable-layer and what requirements they must satis-
fy, more particularly with regard to the material properties and
composition, compaction, penetration of material into the other
layers and the manner of use, while the circumstances of the job
may impose restrictions on applicability.
In the experience of many dike managers, substantial damage is
liable to occur at the transition from one type of revetment to an-
other and in zones where the revetment ends. Although it is not
practicable to give Standard solutions, outright mistakes can be
highlighted. The toe construction, the upper boundary of the hard

- 6-
 design ing execution management

problems
sandy coasts(incl.dunes)
• grass/day dikes
• rigid measures (groins)
• loose materialS rockfill.gravel,
SQnd
• pitched stone/concrete
blocks
• asphalt
• mattresses/mats
alternative measures

in-site measurements

1 1• models

\ f • calculations

\ •• experience

.solutions „

govermental/
research contractors consultants
institutions manufacturers

COASTAL PROTECTION-INTEORATED APPROACH

- i -
revetment and the transition to a different type of revetment are
considered.

Because of the complexity of the subject there are as yet no

simple-to-use mathematical models available for dealing with vari-
ous kinds of revetment and subgrade. The actual progress in this
direction is discussed. All the same, with the aid of the data
yielded by theoretical/empirical research, and the available expe-
rience, it is possible to determine approximately the necessary di-
mensions of the given types of revetments.

Although the Dutch guidelines and other reports on the discussed

subject are based on the research and experiences of the highly de-
veloped country, the basic ingredients of this knowledge are of
common value for the whole hydraulic engineering world including
the developing countries.

- 8-
RESEARCH POLICY

- 9 -
2. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF COASTAL DEFENCE STRÜCTURES

__ properly designed.
Although all categories of events, that may cause the inundation of
a polder, are equally important for the overall safety, the engi-
neers responsibility
neers responsibility is
is mainly
mainly limited
limited to
to the
the technii
technical and struc-
tural aspects. In the case of the sea-dike the following main
events can be distinguished (see also fig. 3 ) :
- overflow or overtopping of the dike

1 EROSION OF CREST

óvertopping settlement
" ^ T

wave overtopping slip circle outer slope

2 EROSION OF
INNER SLOPE za*
3 MICRO STABIUTY

-L I
4 SLIDING ~ ^ ^
slip circle inner stope liquefaction

5 INTERNAL EROSION

micro instability drtfting ice

6 FLOW SLIOE
(LIQUEFACTION)

7 WAVE IMPACT
"piping" ship collision

8 TOE- AND B0TT0M-

PROTECTION
sliding erosion outer slope
9SC0UR

10 SETTLEMENT
tilting erosion fore shore

A) DIKE B) DAM

F/g. 3 OVERVIEW OF THE FAILURE MECHANISMS

10
 GENERALLY:
INUNOATION FAILURE
| LQAD > STRENGTH

HUMAN FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE

FAILURE DIKESECTION 1 DIKE SECTION 2 DIKE SECTION N
EXPLOSION |_
SABOTAGE
EROSION EROSION INTERNAL
['ACTS OF GOD'"]—J
INNER SLOPE OUTER SLOPE EROSION
1
SLIOE PLANE REVETMENT PIPING
i l M W M M ^
3: FAILURE
OVERFLOW OVERTOPPING ETC.
FLOOD > DIKE WAVE DIKE WAVE » REVETMENT
LEVEL HEIGHT RUN UP HEIGHT ATTACK STRENGTH

WATER SLOPE
PRESSURE STABILITY

Fig. 4 SIMPUFiED FAULT TREE FOR A DIKE

DAMAGE

1
1 — ' — .
J PROBABILITY '
r i OF FAILURE i 1
1 1— 1 I

IPOTENTIAL ! MODEL ["RESISTANCE"!

THREAT
L j ' TEST !"•J
r__L_ OR , i—-,
; TRANSFER | rici n iTHEORETICAL;
r,LLU
i FUNCTIONS i I MODEL !
u___ J QATA i >_.j
i i

BOUNDARY MATERIALS
CONDITIONS GEOMETRY

Fig. 5 THE CONCEPT OF THE ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE

OF FAILURE MECHANISM

11
For all these modes of failure, the situation where the forces ac-
ting are just balanced by the strength of the construction is con-
sidered (the ultimate limit-state). In the adapted concept of the
ultimate limit-state (fig. 5 ) , the probability-density function of
the "potential threat" (loads) and the "resistance" (dike strength)
are combined. The category "potential threat" contains ba-s ie varia-
bles that can be defined as threatening boundary conditions for the
construction e.g. extreme wind velocity (or wave height and
period)water levels, and a ship's impact (colission) . The resistan-
ce of the construction is derived from the basic variables by means
of theoretical or physical models (e.g. theoretical of semi-empiri-
cal stability-model of grains). The relations that are used to de-
rive the potential threat from boundary conditions are called
transfer functions (i.g. to transform waves or tides into forces on
grains or other structural elements) .
The probability of occurence of this situation (balance) for each
technical failure mechanism can be found by applying mathematical
and statistical technigues. The safety margin between "potential
threat" and "resistance" must guarantee a sufficiënt low probabili-
ty of failure. The different philosophies are currently available
in construction practice:
1. deterministic, 2. quasi-probabilistic and 3. probabilistic.
For fully probabilistic approach more knowledge must still be acqu-
ired concerning the complete problems associated with the use of
theoretical models relating loads and strength; improved knowledge
of the theoretical relation between wave attack (induced pressures)
and the strength of the revetment, of the probability of slope
(in-)stability related to the various soil parameters, and also of
the theory of internal erosion is urgently needed. Studies on all
these topics are still going on in the Netherlands. The present
Dutch guidelines for dike and dune design follow a philosophy, that
lies between the deterministic and the quasi- probabilistic ap-
proach (13) ,(31) , (35 ) .

The ultimate potential threat for the Dutch dikes is derived from
extreme storm surge levels with a very low probability of exceedan-
ce (1% per century for sea-dikes and 10% for rivet dikes) and equa-
ted with the average resistance of the dike without any apparent
safety margin.

Besides the ultimate limit-state, there are situations, where the

ever continuing presence of a (frequent) load causes a detoriation
of constructional resistance in time, without any imminent danger
of failure (e.g. fatique of concrete and steel, creep or erosion of
clay under the revetment, clogging or u.V. detoriation of geotex-
tile, corrosion of cabling, un-equal settlements or deformations,
etc.) . However , this detoriation of constructional resistance can
cause an unexpected failure in extreme conditions. These are, so
called, the serviceability- and fatique limit states which can also
be considered as inspection and maintenance criteria.

As already mentioned, the fully probabilistic approach for dikes

based on the limit-state concept is rather cumbersome because a
theoretical description for various failure modes is not available
yet. To overcome this problem a scheme to simulate nearly all pos-
sible combinations of natural boundary conditions in a scale model
of the construction and to correlate the damage done to the boun-
dary
conditions can be developed (black box approach). Of course, field
data of boundary conditions, resistance parameters and damage are

- 12 -
 aUALITY ASSURANCE / CQNTROL

and
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS

THERE IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE RISK FOR THE

CLIENT AND THE RISK FOR THE CQNTRACTOR
THE RISK FOR THE CLIENT IS TO END UP WITH
DELAYS, CLAIMS AND IN THE WORST CASE WITH
AN INADEGLUATE PRODUCT.
THE RISK FOR THE CONTRACTOR IS TO LOSE MONEY
ON THE PROJECT OR HIS GOOD NAME.
IT IS BECOMING MORE AND MORE COMMONPLACE TO
ASK A CONTRACTOR IN ADVANCE HOW THE
aUALITY OF THE RESULT WILL BE GUARANTEED
AND CONTROLLED = aUALITY ASSURANCE / CONTROL

aUALITY ASSURANCE WILL GIVE INCREASED

CONFIDENCE THAT THE FINAL JOB IS FIT FOR ITS
PURPOSE AND WILL REMAIN SO FOR A STATED
PERIOD OF TIME UNDER SPECIFIED CONDITIONS OF
USE AND TIME.

FOR aUALITY ASSURANCE TO BE EFFECTIVE IT IS

NECESSARY TO DEFINE THE PURPOSE OF THE
SCHEME, CONDITIONS OF USE, THE EXPECTED LIFE
AND SERVICEABILITY. A FORMAL PROCEDURE SHOULD
BE SET UP TO MONITOR EACH STAGE OF THE
PROJECT (OLUALITY CONTROL).

_ J

- 13 -
preferred as base for correlation, if they are available in suffi-
ciënt amount.

It has to be also stressed that having quantified (even roughly)

the fault tree, it is possible to pay extra attention to those
mechanisms which contribute most to the overall probability of fai-
lure. Thus, this approach is an important element in the attempt to
the total quality control of the dike design and dike execution.Mo-
reover, the probabilistic approach can be applied to some important
parts of the total defence structure (e.g. revetments) where the
necessary input is already available from the recent investigations
in the Netherlands (9) , (12) , (31) .

The fully description of probabilistic approach for dike design

lies to far beyond the scope of this report. However , the detailed
information can be found in the Dutch reports and publications (1),
(9), (31),(35). Taking knowledge of these recent developments can
be rather profitable especially for estimation of possible risks
involved in the realized projects and for finding the optimum be-
tween the risks and the investment.

QUALITY COSTS

total
quality x normal
costs 'X
v situation
o»
optimum! >
o
\ situation. c
u
3

failure
costs

appraisal
costs

pr«v«ntion
costs

low •> high

QUALITY LEVEL

- 14 -
design water levet
oading

Fig.. 6 LOADING ZONES ON A DIKE

- 15 -
3. SHAPE AND HEIGHT OF A DIKE

3.1 Loading zones (26)

The degree of wave attack on a dike or other defence structure du-
ring a storm surge depends on the orientation in relation to the
direction of the storm, the duration and strength of the wind, the
extent of the water surface fronting the sea-wall and the bottom
topography of the area involved. For coastal areas there is mostly
a certain correlation between the water level (tide plus storm sur-
ge and wind set-up) and the height of the waves, because storm sur-
ge and waves are both caused by wind. Therefore, the joined fre-
quency distribution of water levels and waves seems to be the most
appropriate for the design purposed (also from the economical point
of view) .
For sea-walls in the tidal region, fronting deep water, the follo-
wing approximate zones can be distinguished (fig. 6 ) :
I the zone permanently submerged (not present in the case of a
high level "foreshore")j
II the zone between MLW and MHW; the ever-present wave-loading of
low intensity is of importance for the long-term behaviour of
structure;
III the zone between MHW and the design level, this zone can be
heavily attacked by waves but the frequency of such attack re-
duces as one goes higher up the slope;
IV the zone above design level, where there should only be wave
run-up.
A bank slope revetment in principle functions no differently under
normal circumstances than under extreme conditions. The accent is,
however, more on the persistent character of the wave-attack rather
than on its size. The quality of the sea-ward slope can, prior to
the occurrence of the extreme situation, already be damaged during
relatively normal conditions to such a degree that its strength is
no longer sufficiënt to provide protection during the extreme
storm.
The division of the slope into loading zones has not only direct
connection with the safety against failure of the revetment and the
dike as a whole, but also with different application of materials
and execution- and maintenance methods for each zone (fig. 7 ) .

3.2 Dike shape (21)

The shape of the dike needs to be observed in cross-section as well

as longitudinally.

Cross-section

The gradiënt of the bank may not be so steep that the whole slope
or the revetment can lose stability (through sliding) . These crite-
ria give, therefore, the maximum slope angle. More gentle (flatter)
slope leads to a reduced wave-force on the revetment and less wave
run-up; wave energy is dissipated over a greater length. By using
the wave run-up approach for calculations of the crest height of a
trapezoidal profile of a dike for different slope gradients, the
minimum volume of the embankment can be obtained.
However, this does not necessarily imply that minimum earth-volume
coincides with minimum costs. An expensive part of the embankment
comprises the revetment of the waterside slope and the slope sur-
face (area) increases as the slope angle decreases. The optimum

16 -
 5.50 m +
BLOCK PAVEMENT

2.50m + 015m .r ^ f f f P * ' ' ^ ' O.SOroCLAY

FIXTONE ^ \ \ £ l * ^ J3.40m +
-. ' .0 1 2 J l ^ K . COniCRETE SLAB
T
|0.20m\2 \^JS^^ \ °- 10m
W.L 0.20m+ 'TTT* ^HfSANDASPHALT N.A.P. - 0
RIPIwp 111 r 11 ini^tffB^ 1 KSff •
600
kg/m* j ^ S Ö S B * * ^ 020mT
L \020m

\ PALE FENCE
FASCINE / REED / GEOTEXTILE

• 4.00
r«v*tro«trt of
concr«tt Mockl 050 xO.50 x 0.20

subtayar contlsts of clay 0.80 thick or mineitone dim«n»ion* in m

0.70 thick undar crushad stona 0.10 thick ktvtlt r«iat«d to N.A.F»

F/g. 7 EXAMPLE OF DIKE PROTECTIONS

- 17 -
cross-section (based on costs) can be determined when the costs of
earth works per m 3 and those of revetment per m 2 are known. Careful
attention is, however, needed because the revetment costs are not
always independent of the slope angle, e.g. for steep slopes the
heavy protection is necessary while for the mild slopes the (cheap-
er) grass-mat can provide a sufficiënt protection. Another point
of economie optimalisation can be the available space for dike con-
stuction or improvement.
The common Dutch practice is to apply the slope 1 on 3 on the inner
slope and between 1 on 3 and 1 on 5 on the outer (seaward) slope.
The minimum crest width is 2 m. The original (old) Dutch dikes were
made of local clay and as steep as possible to minimize the quanti-
ty of soil. The steep outer slopes were protected against wave at-
tack by all kinds of materials like wood, stone, bricks, mattresses
of willow twigs balasted with stones, grass, etc. The core of a
modern dike is made of great quantities of sand, brought into place
mostly as hydraulic fill. This sand is covered mostly with a clay
layer of thickness up to 1 m. In some recent works the clay layer
have been replaced by the layer of mine-stone. In both cases the
dikes have been protected by a revetment of pitched stones (basalt)
or placed concrete blocks. The need to repair great lengths of sea
dikes in a short time after the 1953 flood-disaster in the Nether-
lands, led to the introduction of asphalt revetments. This has ne-
cessitated entirely new dike construction with asphalt revetments
overlying directly the sand core. Depending on the type of asphalt
mixture the special requirements and restrictions can be formulated
on the steepness of the slopes and the zone of application (under
water of d r y ) , (27).

The water-side berm is a common element in the Dutch dike construc-

tion. It could in the past lead to a reduction in the expenditure
on stone revetments (on a very gently sloping berm a good grass-mat
can be maintained) and it produced an appreciable reduction in wave
runup.
Present practice in order to obtain a substantial reduction in wave
run-up, is to place the outer berm at (or close to) water level of
the design storm flood. If the berm lies too much below that level,
the highest storm flood waves would not break beneath or on the
berm and the run-up will be inadequately affected, and the grass-
mat on the upper slope too heavily loaded by waves leading to pos-
sible erosion.
For the storm flood berms at high design levels as in the Nether-
lands (freq. 10"^) there are in general no problems with the growth
of grass on the berm and the upper slope. However , there can be
circumstances which require also the application of a hard revet-
ment on the berm and even on a part of the upper slope i.e. when
higher frequency of water level is applied leading to more frequent
overwashing of the upper part by salt water due to the run-up or
wave-spray (a comon grass-matt can survive only a few salty events
a year). An important function of the berm can be its use as an ac-
cess road for dike maintenance.
In general care should be taken to prevent erosion of the grass-mat
at the junction with the revetment. The abrupt change in roughness
may lead to increase of bottom turbulence and more local erosion.
It is advisable to create a transition zone by applying the cell-
blocks, geogrids or other systems allowing vegetation.

Longitudinal profile

Due to irregularities in the longitudinal profile of an embankment,

- 18 -
 S1

S ,-settlement , execution (evet V

^ seo level changes. frnat crest heiqht __
v
seiche/squall oscillation • gust ^

run up

dike after construction

final dike shape

-toe protection

Fig, 8 DETERMINAT/ON OF DIKE HEIGHT

construction

H stQ
9e H LOG time •
i.e.30years

primary
settlement
(execution stage)

settlement
secundary
settlement

Fig. 9 SETTLEMENT AS FUNCTION OF TIME

- 19 -
in connection with the topography of the terrain in front or behind
the bank, some reaches of the slopes could be subjected to more
than normal wave or current attack. Not all revetments are equally
suitable for use on a curved longitudinal profile, e.g. some (ree-
tangular) block systems may leave gaping joints going around cur-
ved.Also, the mechanical methods for placing of blocks is in prac-
tice limited mainly to straight lines or to large radius bends with
sufficiently large areas.

3.3 Dike height and wave run-up

3.3.1 General consideration on the height of a dike (16), (21)

The height of a dike was for many centuries based on the highest
known flood level that could be remembered. It is evident that in
this way the real risk of damage or the probability of flooding we-
re unknown. Little was known about the relation between the cost to
prevent flooding and the cost of the damage that might result from
flooding. In the 20th century it was found that the occurrence of
extremely high water levels and wave heights could be described
adequately in term of frequency in accordance with the laws of pro-
bability calculus. However the curves of extreme values, based on a
relatively short period of obsevations, have to mostly be extrapo-
lated into regions far beyond the field of observations with the
risk for some uncertainties.
After the 1953 disaster, the frequency of the risk of flooding was
studied in the Netherlands in relation to the economie aspects. Fi-
nally it was decided to base the design of all sea dikes fundamen-
tally on a water level with a probability of exceedance of 10~ 4 per
annum. In the Netherlands the storm-surge is mostly incorporated in
the estimated water level. If it is not a case, the storm-surge
should be calculated separately and added to design water level.
Besides the design flood level several other elements also play a
role in determining the design crest level of a dike (fig. 8 ) .
- Wave run-up (2% of exceedance is applied in the Netherlands) de-
pending, on wave height and period, angle of approach, roughness
and permeability of the slope, and profile shape (gradients,
berm) .
- An extra margin to the dike height to take into account seiches
(oscillations) and gust bumps (single waves resulting from a sud-
den violent rush of wind); this margin in the Netherlands varies
(depends on location) from 0 to 0.3 m for the seiches and 0 to
0.5 m for the gust bumps.
- A change in chart datum (NAP) or a rise in the mean sea level
(assumed roughly 0.25 m ) .
- Settlement of the subsoil and the dike-body during its lifetime
(at least 30 years),(see also fig. 9 ) .
The combination of all these factors mentioned above defines the
freeboard of the dike (called in Dutch as wake-height) . The recom-
mended minimum freeboard is 0.5 m.

3.3.2 Wave run-up (15, (18)

The effective run-up (R) , on an inclined structure can be defined

as R = Rn-YR-YB-YB
where R n • run-up on smooth plane slopes, defined as the vertical

- 20 -
 i
Ru max/Hs
Ru2%
Jsmooth slopes

up
V
l" Rumax/Hs=0.9gp
,2 ,4 ,6 ,8 1i0
0^
gp=tana/]/2TcHs/gTp2
^ ^ % ^ /-np-rap
down 1 -
Rd max^s Rdmax/Hs=031gp-0.17

I 2- smooth slopes;
Rd2%/Hs=0.33gp

3h
rip-rap: D 35/015= 2.25
D5o=20; 30;40mm
IRREOULAR WAVES

Fig. 10 RUN-UP AND RUN-DOWN FOR SMOOTH AND

RIP-RAP SLOPES

- 21 -
height above still water levelfYR5* reduction factor due to slope
roughness and permeability, Y B * reduction factor due to berm and
YR • reduction factor due to oblique wave attack and £ • breaker
index.
For random waves Rn can be expressed by
Rn , tana 1 .25
- a c
n /ÜF 6 p - 2.5 C n ip where § p - . . « - ^ Tp tana < 2.5

where C n a constant depending on the type of wave spectrum and ex-

ceedance percentage, Hg » significant wave height, Tp - top period
and a - angle of slope. The values for C n • C2% (run-up exceeded
by 2% of waves) estimated from the measurements are roughly equal
to:
c
2 % • 0.55 a 0.60 - for a small spectrum and C2% a 0.70 - for a
wide spectrum.
üsing C2% » 0.70 and wave steepness of about 5% (typical. storm
value for the North Sea Coast) one obtains the so called "Old Delft
Formula" commonly used in the past for calculation of 2% run-up
(R2%) o n t h e Dutch sea dikes, viz.
R 8
2% • Hg tana
which is valid for ctga = 3 and relatively smooth revetments.

As a safe approach it is recommended to use C2% • 0.70 for deter-

mining the run-up due to the wind-waves (smooth slopes) . In this
case
2*2.% =» 1.75 p or R2% => 0.7 T p ]/ g Hs' tana for g p < 2 a 2.5
Hl
and
^2.% - 3.5 or R2% - 3.5 H g for ^ p S 2.5
H7
Some experimental results for smooth and rip-rap slopes are summa-
r ized in fig . 10.
The reduction factors for surface roughness and permeability,
YRcan be roughly estimated as follows:
Covering layer _IB
asphalt, smooth concrete 1
concrete blocks, geotextile-mats, 1 0.95
open stone-asphalt, grass-mat '
pitched stone, basalton 0.90
rough, permeable block mats 0.80
gravel, gabions 0.70
rip-rap (min. thickness 2XD50) 0.60
In a case of slopes with a berm the run-up will be reduced by a
factor B« T n e effect of a berm with a constant width (B) is ma-
ximum when the berm is situated approximately at the average water
level (dB < 0.5 H, see definition scheme in fig. 11).
It has furthermore been found that the run-up diminishes with in-
creasing berm-width although the reduction rapidly falls off once a
certain minimum width is exceeded, i.e. B • 0.25 L 0 for non- and
weak breaking waves, and B » 4H for strong breaking waves,
H/L0 > 0.03. The reduction factors Y B f o r t n e berm width equal or
larger than the minimum width mentioned above, may be roughly esti-
mated as follows:

- 22 -
 FIQ.ADEFINITIONS

-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0A -0.2 O 0.5 10 15 2.0 2.5

Ro H

FIG. B REDUCTION OF WAVE RUN-UP DUE TO BERM

AS FUNCTION OF &j- AND -RS~

1.0

0.9

0.8

(3 o.7

t 0,6

0.5

0,4

0.3

0.2

0.1

n
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 o 90

s s cos
YR T^- P • ^2-cos32p
"O «O

FIC f REDUCTION OF RUN-UP DUE TO OBLIÜUE WAVE APPROACH *

Fig. 11 REDUCTION OF WA VE RUN-UP

- 23 -
 slope, ctga Y B (at d B < 0,5 H)
5 to 7 0.75 a 0.80
4 0.60 a 0.70
3 0.50 a 0.60
Oblique wave attack, under an angle (3 can be roughly taken into ac-
count by Yp:
Yp » cos (|3 - 10*), |5 = 65*
For |3 > 65°, Rn = H s (not less than H s t)
(N.B. (3 is reduced by 10* on account of variation of P ) .
Note 1° : a recent investigation in Gerraany *} on the oblique wave
attack indicates that in the range 0<B<35*, instead of reduction,
there is even a slight increase of the runup (see Fig. 11c). For
this reason (at this moment), it seems better to assume no reduc-
tion of runup in this range or (more safely) to follow the Fig. 11
c.

Note 2* : depending on the wave spectrum, i.e, the anticipated ma-

ximum wave height and the type and permeability of revetment, type
of subgrade, the run-up can vary reasonably and thus, the slope
protection has to be more or less extended. For particular cases
model investigation may give a proper answer.

The lower limit of slope area attack by waves (where a primary

protection is necessary) can be roughly defined by
-1 (down) * (0,8g + 0.5) for %< 2.5
Hs
and Rd *• ^
-£=2.5 for £ i 2.5
Hs

Below this limit, if necessary, slope protection has to be designed

on the base of occurring return flow (shipwaves) or on the base of
longshore current or (orbital-) velocities of wind waves.

*) Tautenahin, E, Kohlhase, S. and Partenscky, H.W., Wave run-up at

sea dikes under obligue wave approach. Proc. 18th Conf. on Coastal
Engineering, 1982.

- 24 -
 STATIC EQUIUBRIUM FILTER
GRAVEL
TOPLAYER -STONES - THICKNESS / WEIGHT ?
GRANULAIR SYNTHETIC
BLOCKS DYNAMIC EQUIUBRIUM
DESIGN CRITERIA %****
FLOW PATTERN
??? <Öfc SC
%£ OÜR
MEASURES

CRITICAL
SAND-PACKING ? q>
FLOW SLIDE?

CHOICE PROTECT1VE STRUCTURE AND DESIGN PROCESS

- 25 -
 a « farces die to down-rush
b - uplift pressures due to water in filter
c - uplift pressures due to approaching wave front
d - change in velocity field

Fig. 12 FAILURE MECHANISMS OF 5L0PE REVETMENT

- 26 -
 GEOTECHNICAL FAILURE MOOES

circutar slides suffosion

&'/tiWtWfW/ZL
dtstruction toptaytr or «trosion pattern
local iliding due to wave impact piping under clay-laytr »*dirtction
groundwater flow

b) macro-mtchanismi

lifting up af prottctivt units cyclic compactian dut to wavi impact

dtformation
_,- s prof ile
s-shape)

micro initability at tht surfact

flow stidt
y phreatic tin*

dtformation
profilt
<Y„-Yw)

consolidation
mtirnal filttr transport

a) micro -mtchanims

Fig. 13 REVIEW OF GEOTECHNICAL FAILURE MODES OF A DIKE

- 27 -
4. STRENGTH OP RBVETMENTS

4.1 General approach

Once the hydraulic design conditions have been established, actual

design loads has to be formulated. Por a given structure many dif-
ferent modes of failure may be distinguished, each with a different
critical loading condition. Schematically, this is shown in fig.
12 and fig . 13.
For the dike as a whole, instability may occur due to failure of
subsoil, front or rear slope. Each of these failure modes may be
induced by geotechnical or hydrodynamical phenomena.

A modern (good) engineering pratice requires that attention should

be given to all possible modes of failure of the construction under
design .

A brief overview of the failure mechanisms of dikes, dams or banks

is given below (35):
An overflow and/or wave overtopping at high water-levels is a well
known mechanism, which leads to water entering the polder and to
soaking of the dike. The dangerous consequences result from the
soaking of the body of the dike and erosion of the inner slope.

Micro-instability of the soil material at the inner slope may re-

sult due to seepage and a high phreatic plane.

A slip circle at inner slope may be caused among other things by a

high phreatic plane in a dike. This will be the case when the dura-
tion of the high waterlevel is long or permanent.

A slip circle in the outer slope may occur when a low water follows
an extreme high water (or sudden draw-down). The body of the dike
is heavy with water and slides down.

A slip circle in the waterway bank may obstruct the fairway. This
instability can be caused by a rapid draw-down of the water table
in the waterway or the presence of weaker or impermeable layers in
the subsoil.

A local shear failure (sliding of a revetment) parallel to the slo-

pe may also be the consequence of a rapid draw-down or hydraulic
gradients perpendicular to the slope.

Erosion (removal of particles) of the dike/bank protection or the

bed may be caused by wave or current induced shear forces sometimes
assisted by hydraulic gradiënt forces.

Piping (internal erosion) may occur i.e. the gradual formation of a

material entraining flow under an impermeable revetment or through
a local concentration of permeable material in the dike body/foun-
dation. When the "pipe" eventually reaches the high waterside the
process of internal erosion will accelerate.

Migration indicates the transport of material behind the revet-

ment. The transport may be parallel to the bank causing local slum-
ping of the revetment or vertical resulting in an S-shaped pro-
file. Material may also be lost through the revetment when filter
requirements are not met.

- 28 -
 waves
water - structure
level
4 externpl
geometry

external
pressures
interna!
geometry

internal
pressures

resultant
load
L

Fig. U SET UP OF BASIC RESEARCH AND

STABIUTY COMPUTATION

- 29 -
A liquefaction may occur in loosely packed sands under influence of
a shock or a sudden draw down. In this case the sudden increase of
pore pressure reduces the shear strength pratically to zero and the
soil behaves as a liquid.

Pumping is seen when the revetment bends under external pressure

and thus generates a flow of water underneath. The flow entrains
particles of the soil.

Settlements are due to consolidation, compression, migration, oxi-

dation of organic material (i.e. peat layers).

Horizontal sliding or tilting is mostly unlikely for a dike or an

earth dam, however , for rigid structures it is of paramount impor-
tance.
Ice may severely attack the revetment during wintertime.

Heave of the soil may be caused by the formation of ice crystals

within the grain skeleton of the soil during the winter.

Ship collision against the dike/bank may cause considerable damage.

In the design process, one is most interested in the ultimate limit

state (U.L.S.) of a failure mechanism. This state is reached when
the acting extreme loads are just balanced by the strenght of the
structure. If the ultimate limit state is exceeded, the structure
will collapse or fail. The concept of the ultimate limit state is
given in fig. 5.

The present section is restricted to the stability of the front

slope, moreover only instability as a result of hydrodynamical pro-
cesses is taken into account.
The set-up of the studies and stability computation is shown sche-
matically in fig. 14.
Starting with the hydraulic input data (waves, water levels) and
the description of the structure, external pressures on the seaward
slope are determined. Together with the internal characteristics of
the structure (porosity of revetment and secondary layers) these
pressures result in an internal flow field with corresponding
internal pressures.
The resultant load on the revetment has to be compared with the
structural strength, which can be mobilized to resist these loads.
If this strenght is inadequate the revetment will deform and may
ultimately fail.

In many cases, the various processes cannot be described as yet.

Therefore a "black box" approach is foliowed in which the relation
between critical strength parameters, structural characteristics
and hydraulic parameters are obtained empirically.

The types of revetments which are presently being studied are shown
in fig. 15. in this figure the critical mode of failure, the cor-
responding determinant loads and the required strength are summari-
zed qualitatively. Results obtained for rip-rap, placed block re-
vetments, asphalt and grass are discussed in more detail in the
following sections.

- 30 -
 critical determinant
strength
failure mode wave loading
sand/gravel • inition of • velocity field • weight,
mofion in waves friction
• transport of • dynamic
i
i
i
material 'stability'
• prof i Ie
formation
clay/g rass • erosion • max. velocity • cohaesion
• deformation • impact • grass-roots
• quality of
clay
4P*

rip-rap • inition of • max. velocity • weight,

motion • seepage friction
• deformation • permeability
of sublayer/
^ \ core
gabions/ • inition of • max. velocity • weight
(sand-,stone-, motion • wave impact • block ing
cement-) • deformation • climate • wires
mattresses • rock ing • vandalism • large unit
incl.geotextiles • abrasion / • permeability
corrosion of incl. sublayer
wires ^P^s^
• u.v.
placed blocks • lifting • overpressure • thickness,
incl. block mats • bending • impact friction,
• deformation interlocking
• sliding • permeability
incl. sublayer/
geotextile
• cabling/pins
asphalt • erosion • max. velocity • mechanical
• deformation • impact strength
• lifting • overpressure • weight

Fig. 15 REVIEW OF SLOPE REVETMENTS WITH CRITICAL

MODES OF FAILURE

- 31 -
4.2 Failure modes and determinant wave load

Classical slope revetments may be divided in different categories

(see fig. 15) e .g .
- Natural material (sand, clay and grass)
- Protected by loose units (gravel, rip-rap)
- Protected by interlocking units (concrete blocks and mats)
- Protected by concrete and asphalt slabs.

In this order the resistance of the protection is derived from

friction, cohesion, weight of the units, friction between the
units, interlocking and mechanical strength. As a result of the
difference of strength properties, critical loading conditions are
also different.
Maximum velocities will be determined for clay/grass dikes and gra-
vel/rip-rap, as they cause displacement of the material while up-
lift pressures and impacts, however, are of more importance for pa-
ved revetments and slabs, as they tend to lift the protection.
As these phenomena vary both in space and in time, critical loading
conditions vary both with respect to the position along the slope
and the time during the passage of a wave. Instability for grass/
clay and gravel/rip-rap will occur around the waterlevel, where ve-
locities are highest during up and down rush. Moreover , wave im-
pacts are more intense in the area just below the still water
level.
Instability of paved revetments without too much interlock occurs
at the pink of maximum down rush, where uplift forces are higher ,
just before the arrival of the next wave front.
If the protection is pervious uplift forces are strongly reduced.
Instability will have occurred due to the combined effect of up-
lift- and impact forces, just after wave breaking.
Concrete slabs and asphalt will mainly respond to uplift forces at
maximum set-down. Due to the internal strength of the protection
wave loads are distributed more evenly over a layer area, thus cau-
sing a higher resistance against uplift, compared with loose block
pavement.

4.3 Wave loading and wave structure - interaction

The interaction between waves and slopes is dependent on the local

wave height and period, the external structure geometry (waterdepth
at the toe, slope with/without berm, the crest elevation and the
internal structural geometry (types, size and grading of revetments
and secondary layers). The type of structure wave interaction is
conveniently characterized by the so called breaker parameter
defined as (see also fig. 1 6 ) :

tga where H • incident wave height

L 0 = wave length at deep water
(= 1.56 Tz in metric units)
T • wave period
a • slope angle of the front face

For large values of the wave length or for large values of (X

(steep slopes), the wave behaves like a long wave, which reflects
against the structure without breaking - a so called surging wave.
For shorter waves and medium slopes waves will short and break,
causing plunging breakers for g values in the range of 1 + 3. This
figure is common along the Dutch coasts with slope angles of
1 to 3 + I to 5, wave periods 6-8 s and wave heights of 3*5 metres.

- 32 -
 STABILITY
(STATIC EQUILIBRIUM)

AND
PROFILE DEVELOPMENT
(DYNAMIC EQUI LIBRIUM)

OF COARSE MATERIALS . . • • • • #
AND
THEIR APPLICATION
IN
COASTAL ENGINEERING

- 33 -
For mild slopes wave breaking becomes a more continuous process,
resulting in a more gradual dissipation of wave energy. This type
of breaking is called "spilling".
For the design of structures, surging and plunging breaker are of
main importance.
The area which suffers from wave-loading is bounded by the highers
uprush and the lowest downrush point. Obviously this zone is vary-
ing with the tide. The value of maximum up and downrush is shown in
fig. 10, both for impervious and pervious slopes. If the uprush ex-
ceeds the crest level, figures are no longer applicable.

No reliable formula are available to predict the maximum velocities

during uprush and downrush. Por surging and spilling breaker, nume-
rical solutions have been obtained, which are, however , not yet
operational. A solution for the plunging breaker has not yet been
obtained. Thus, the wave loading on grass/clay dikes and gravel
(rip-rap protection) cannot yet be computed properly.

4.4 Stability of loosely materials

An extensive research program has been performed recently in the

Netherlands on static and dynamic stability of rubble mound revet-
ments, breakwaters and gravel beaches (12), (17), (18), (19). These
type of protection were studied experimentally to determine the re-
lationship between the critical strength parameter, H s /Aön (H • wa-
ve height, D n « nominal grain/stone diameter and A • specific den-
sity p s - p w / p w ) , and the parameter \ describing the type of wave
attack. Using H s / Dn parameter, the rough classification of protec-
tive applications is given in figs. 17 and 18.

tpilling

Fig. 16 BREAKER TYPES

borm dynomically
break- profil» stabi«
watars S-shapa rock slopas groval baaches •and btacto»

1000 3000 5000

H D
•* s'A n50

Fig. 17 TYPE OF STRUCTURE AS FUNCTI0N OF Hs /ADn50

New stability formula have been determined for different applica-

tions. An example of the general stability criterion involving all
design variables is presented for rubble mound revetments in fig.
19.

- 34 -
prof ec f ion layer

homogeneous
rock-fitl

rubble-mound breakwaters profile formation

strengthened part

homogeneous
gravel

! "self adjusted" or berm profile formation

prof i Ie

sandy

beaches
(nourishment)

10 20 40
H/ADn

static stability rock-fill

dynamic stability rock-fill

dynamic stability gravel

Fig. 18 APPLICATION OF COARSE MATERIALS

IN COASTAL ENGINEERING

- 35 -
 S » A/D r
D
n'50 " (W50/PS
W s o = 5 0 % value of the
ÏÏA'
mass distribution
0.7 N • number of waves
a impermeable core B / a
Hs significant wave
0.6 . m permeable core B "/ height
Thompson (1975) T2 a average wave
B / *
• permeable core petiod
0.5 "7 m«
B
B k B
* homogeneous structure !az< 3(breaking waves)
B /• B
P =» permeability
0.4
coëfficiënt
S=A/D2
0.3 SWL ^
S/]/N"
0.2
' ^ l L 8
*§fc '
»ï<aïY a

H^5 S
B
0.1
8É
Bj^W
••

0.0 . 2.0
• • J l l 3.0
P l ^ ^4.0 5.0 7.0
1.0 6.0
H s -Dn50.l/iz". P#-0.18

formula for plunging waves

Fig. 19A GENERAL STABIUTY FORMULA FOR RUBBLE MOUND REVETMENTS

A physical description foc S is the number of cubical stones with a

side of 1 x D n 5o, eroded over a width of 1 x D n 5o. The "no damage"
criterion is taken generally to be when S is between 1 and 3 stones
eroded.

In order to obtain stability formula including the permeability of

the structure (revetment), a permeability coëfficiënt P is introdu-
ced. This permeability in the stability formula e .g. P • 0.1 for
the impermeable core and P » 0.6 for the homogeneons (permeable)
structure tested. In fig. 20 four structures are shown with diffe-
rent estimated values for p. For the time being it is left to the
engineers judgement to choose the correct value for the structure
to be designed. The final formula for plunging waves (breaker index
< 3) is

H,
• ]/ïT ~ 6 - 2 P°' 1 8 (S/]/N)0-2
°n50
with S z tand (2Tt H s /g T z 2)-0.5
(T Z average wave period)

- 36 -
 ,H.
Ï D ,nSO H,/ADn50- 4.4(S2/v/ïT)°22 $Z"°M
/-»/ . r-\ 1/6 _0.1
H,/ADn50-1.25v 3 ( S 2 / y N ) £, FORcotQ^3

H./ADnso- 1.25Vcota' ( S 2 / \ Z H ) V S $J" 1 FORcota€3

—*- ^ j - t a a / N / z i f H t / g T i

0.5 ae a7 o.e 0.9 1 S 6 7 8 9 10

Fig, 19B RIP-RAP STABIUTY FORMULAE FOR N=3000 WAVES

AND AN IMPERMEABLE CORE

- 37 -
 0*
\$& Dn50A/Dn50F = 4.5
Dn50F/Dn50C = 4

. ^ B=oi

Dn50A/Dn50C=3.2 " <*** no filter

no core
Dn50A = nominal diameter armour
DnSOF = nominal diameter filter
Dn50C = nominal diameter core
Structures on (a),@ and (d) have been fested.
The value of P for @ has been assumed.

Fig. 20 THE PERMEABILITY COËFFICIËNT "P"

The methods of improvement of stability of rip-rap protection and
the conceptional transition from the rip-rap into the block revet-
ments are illustrated in figure 21 (19),(25).

£uJLriLn.JL iL^3^.^ • I n s o n , e cases, especially regarding the toe and

bottom protection in front of the structure, it can be necessary to
control the stability of loosely materials against attack of the
current. For this purpose the formula developed by pilarczyk (16)
can be applied:
2 5
n
Dn50
V B l |/k gjcr gAh' /

where: D n 5Q = grain diametre; ( W 5 Q / P S ) 1 / 3 > 1 mm, h = water

depth, ü c r = critical velocity, i[tcr = critical Shields parameter,
Azrelative density k = slope reduction factor = ( 1-sin2a/sin2<J>) °. 5 ,
<t> » angle of internal friction of material, O, = slope angle Bi =»
stability coëfficiënt. The values of | c r and Bi can be estimated
from tables 1 and 2 below:

- 38 -
 0. A U STONES ARE PLACED
WITH THEIfl LONGEST SlDE
PERPENOICLLAR TOTHE
SLOPE
A. RIPRAP
PLACEO STONES
t r (l5+2»

FILTER (RIPRAP)

E. STONE PITCHING (BASALT)

WITH OR WITHOUT GROUTING
B STONE OVERUY
(ONE TOP-LAYERI

C. BINDERS ARE PLACED

PERPENOICULAR TO
THE SLOPE

BINDERS

G ROUTING

F. BASALTON

Fig. 21 RIPRAP DESIGN AND IMPROVING MEASURES

- 39 -
Table 1 Table 2

state of particles 4>cr flow conditions »1

absolute rest 0.03 major turbulent flow incl. local 5-6
disturbances and constrictions;
start of instability 0.04 also outer bends of rivers

movement 0.06 normal turbulence of rivers and

channels 7-8
minor turbulence; uniform flow
smooth bed conditions 8-10

It has to be stressed that, whatever method is adapted, the experi-

eno? and sound engineering judgement play a large part in a proper
design of protective structure.

4.5 üplift forces. Block- and impervious revetments

The uplift forces are of importance as well for the impervious (as-
phalt, concrete) as for the pervious (block-) revetments. However
the calculation methods of uplift are quite different for the both
cases.

Blocjt r e v e ^ n ^ s ^ £arge_ .sca_lj5 u ^ t s jinder ^ra_ve att^cjc

The quality of concrete blocks was gradually improving in the last

decades and the cost diminishing (a.o. due to mechanical placing) s
that, at present concrete blocks of various sizes and shape are
used satisfactorily in coastal (dike) protection under a variety of
conditios (especially in countries with shortage of natural materi-
a l s ) . Many different kinds of, often patented, revetment blocks ha-
ve actually been used. The fact that design rules are still limited
in guantity has stimulated investigations in this area.

In respect to the block revetments a distinction can be made be-

tween:
1. Pree blocks of different design.
2. Flexible interlocked blocks, i.e. due to grouting, cabling, etc.
(i.e. Basalton blocks, Armorflex-mats).
3. "Rigid" interlocked blocks(i.e. ship-lap, tongue- and groove,
etc .) .
The first two systems (see also figure 22) have been recently teste
in the Delta Wave Plume at the Delft Hydraulics Laboratory (DHL) in
co-operation with Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory (DSML).
The free placed blocks were tested for both, permeable as well as
umpermeable (clay) sublayers. The large scale tests have shown that
rectangular closed blocks placed directly on clay form a very
strong revetment. When there was "good" quality clay (no erosion
of the sublayer) it was impossible to. create damage conditions
within the range of possibilities of the wave generator
(H s • 2.0 m, H m ax " 2 * 6 m ' blocks D * 0.10 - 0.15 m thick). Besides
the requirement of good and homogeneous clay a very important
execution requirement is the smooting of the slope before the
placing of the blocks. If the blocks are to perform properly, they
must adhere to the clay without the presence of too many
interstices and cavities. In the case of poor clay (sandy clay) or

- 40 -
 PLACED STONES
(VILVOOROSE
STONE)

PLACED BLOCKS TYPE 'HARINGMAN'

STONE f ^
PITCHING ^c^> BUILDING
(BASALT) GOBI BLOCK FW^J BLOCKS

TONGUE- MODIFIEC
AND TONGUE
GROOVE TYP AND GROOVE
TYPE

STEPPED
WAFFLE TYPE TYPE
interlocking blocks

'A BLOCK'
BASALTON

SIBfiEi BASALTON
REVETMENT
• • wiiwrgi wwuff» wwTEM
fijafc

ARMORFLEX BLOCK AND MAT

Fig. 22A EXAMPLES OF BLOCKS TESTED ON LARGE SCALE

- 41 -
sand (properly compacted), it is prefereable to use blocks with
multilayer geotextile inbetween and H S /AD values about 20% higher
than these in the case of a permeable sublayer. The Basalton (hexa-
gonal prisms, polygon connection) and the Armorflex-mats (connected
by cabling) were tested only on a permeable sublayer. The Armor-
flex-mats were tested without cabling to be able to detect the
strength of this system without involving the additional strength
by cabling. Por both systems when grouted (filling of surface
interspaces by gravel), it was impossible to create an instability
(damage) within the possibility of the wave generator ( H S / A D S 8 ) .
More information hereabout can be found in (4,9,25,26).

Jjp3 L ijEt_f£r£e£ juid £t.abj : lj : ty_ £,f__b.i,0clk j^ev^jiinenj^s

Wave uprush will cause an increase in water table, when the per-
vious protection is placed upon a granular filter. This increase in
hydraulic head, together with the low external level during down-
rush, will cause uplift presures, which are highest near the point
of maximum downrush.
The actual value of these uplift forces is dependent on the exter-
nal pressure in the breakers wave and the internal pressures due to
the ground water flow in the filter and in the dike body.
For schematized geometries of block revetments and steady state
conditions uplift pressures can be computad analytically (9) . If
the specific weight of the fluid and the blocks are known, together
with the thickness of the layerr the critical stability number
H / A D can be obtained, for which critical uplift conditions are ob-
tained. Where H « critical wave height, D • thickness of block, and
A • relative density of block material.

Parallel to the experimental and analytical studies, the Delft Soil

Mechanics Laboratory developed a numerical model, in which the in-
ternal flow field and related pressures can be computed, using any
arbitrary description of the external pressure. With this model the
time dependent flow field can be determined for any given point
within the structure (even with a more complicated geometry) , (9).

For wave impact no numerical models are available, and empirical

data have to be obtained as given in (9), (21), (23), (26),(27).
An evaluation of all (large scale) empirical data on block revet-
ments, obtained from the Dutch research and other studies abroad
leads to the design criteria as shown in the table 3 (see also
fig. 29).

- 42 -
 f OROUTED, ~ t > 8
AD'
6
B
ARMORFLEX-MAT
D-0.11m
ctga«3
(B)-SPECTRUM
m
'GOOD' CLAY Jg > 7 • • GROUTED, ? * > 1 0
I AD

i BASALTON-PRISMS
D-0.1Bm
AD ctga«3
(O-SPECTRUM
i « - F R E E PRISMS

l.l.l.l,

SQUARE BLOCKS
0.25 x 0.25 m
O » 0.15 m
SQUARE BLOCKS
_ 0.25 x 0.25 m
OESTERDAM-PROFILE
±5=6 _ . _a-3
NAP+3£m
(SMAU^ SPECTRUM
ctga«4 A-JONSIW»" •
(O-SPECTRUM B-PIERSOrTMCHHO
C- MAROLLEGAT (OESTER DAM)
RIPRAP (OE.RJC.)
etgo» 3+4
(REGULAR WAVES)
tga
« -
•\f2vtH

F/g. 22B STABIUTY NUMBERS FOR SOME BLOCK REVETMENTS

- 43 -
Table 3: Stability of concrete revetment3

H- cosa for g z < 3 (breaking waves)

V
V
AD f& /F ctga > 2
category cover layer definitions

2 < ip < 3 rip- rap (2 layers) ip » strength coëfficiënt defined

N i 3000 waves at e- = 1 . n _
vp - 3 denotes max. . lz =* tafia (2 Tt H g / g T z 2 ) - ° . 5
tole rable damage
. D • thickness of the block
II . Por rip-rap D - D S Q » (W 5 0 /p g ) V 3
< ^ < 4 Pitched stone
Loose blocks . For long term loading effects the
Blocks connected thickness D should be increased
by geotextile; by 25%
III a = slope angle
< lp < Blocks interlocked
by friction . Filter requirements of the soil
Grouted blocks have to be met by the geotextile
connected by geo- and/or granular sub-layer (9),
textile (26)
Cabled blocks . Blocks placed directly on geo-
IV textile and well compacted sand:
< 6 Loose blocks max. H s - 1.2 m
directly on "good
clay" . "Good clay" =» according to re-
quirements given in (26)
q> > 6 Grouted cabled
blocks . Cat. V must be carefully designed
Mechanically and examined
interlocked blocks
Notes blocks/systems with a well defined interlock have got a very
high stability (category V ) . The behaviour of the sub-layer/filter
can be a restrictive factor however. The adequate design criteria
on internal stability of sub-layers/filters related to the level of
hydraulic loading are necessary.
In all cases-, the experience and sound engineering judgement play
an important role in applying these design rules.

Research is now being directed towards a better description of the

time dependent external pressure during the passage of the waves.
Once this has been determined, the resultant loads on the elements
can be determined.
The structural strength of the block forms the final stage of this
study. More complicated reactions are being studying starting with
a single block, where the weight of the block delivers the stabili-
zing force. With these data a probabilistic design approach can be
developed.

- 44 -
 c w : p w . 9 l p t hcosa)

schematization of the water pressure

triangle-rule under a sealed revetment

-—vfeg^
V¥*
E: ~ öxarctg(n)*~-

max «"Pv

n=1
2 (slopej
3
6
1.0 / r ' •
! // i
1 -\ -
0,9 i
V \
X
) •
1
t - -- -—
0,8 i N
\
i
n 0
j -- Z stationary flow
0,7
••I j i
i
- ^ ^ - .i,. - . —
Nf
- - --I • -
-
0,6 .02 non-stationary
— - - _. ^ . \— ^
E^
• • • -

1^ flow
0,5
—- - — ..._ - - -- ... j ....^ •-j--
V^ 1
0,4 v

X *4j
— _- 1 •- i \
0,3 ai= 1 - JL
— .._ ._.. X C-- •

0,2 X triangle rule

_.. ._.. .... --- .... •— — • - - - •

0,1 X
- - • • - •
\
— X
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0

H,

Fig, 23 SCHEMA TIZA TION OF THE WA TER PRESSURE

UNDER AN IMPERMEABLE REVETMENT
U p l i f t f o r c e s for irope£,viojas r_£vetinent£ ( i « e « c o n c r e t e or dense a s -
"phTlt) "" • ~ '
Hydr aulic uplift p r e s s u r e s d e v e l o p under a b s o l u t e l y or r e l a t i v e l y
wate r-impermeable dike revetment as a result of d i f f e r e n c e s in wa-
ter level inside and o u t s i d e the dike b o d y . H y d r a u l i c uplift p r e s -
sur e s can be caused by:
- Qu a s i - s t a t i c c o n d i t i o n s i.e. the g r o u n d w a t e r level in the dike
la gs behind the ebb and flood of the tide or after a storm surge
wh en the water level o u t s i d e the dike body falls r a p i d l y and the
gr oundwater in the dike falls more s l o w l y .
- Dy namic c o n d i t i o n s i.e. uplift p r e s s u r e d e v e l o p s in the dike body
wh en the water level o u t s i d e is lowered l o c a l l y , over a shore ti-
me p e r i o d , by a passing ship (water d e p r e s s i o n ) or uplift p r e s s u -
re s d e v e l o p when wind waves produce c h a n g e s in water level on the
di keface .
The (quasi-)static p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e , p , at the surface of the
r eve tment can be c a l c u l a t e d by simplified a n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s (i.e.
Van de V e e r - m e t h o d (25,(27) an e l e c t r i c a l a n a l o g u e or a finite
elem ent c a l c u l a t i o n . The first a p p r o x i m a t i o n can be obtained by the
tria n g l e - r u l e (fig. 2 3 ) :

max

where 0 V is a position of the phreatic line above still water le-

vel (assuming that this p o s i t i o n is k n o w n ) . The real uplift water
p r e s s u r e , CT w o , is defined by (fig. 2 3 ) :
J g (p + h c o s a )
'wo w
which indicated that when p = 0, the uplift pressure

Pw h. cosa
wo
The d i m e n s i o n s of the revetment can be obtained using the following
formulas ( 2 7 ) :

1. Sliding criterion
f • °wo
h > pa g (f c o s a - sina )

2. Uplift c r i t e r i o n
C"wo P
h >
p a .g .cosa A cosa
Pa -Pw
where A
Pw

To prevent the revetment as a whole against sliding, off the dike

body (equilibrium c r i t e r i o n ) , the slope angle must be less than the
angle of internal f r i c t i o n . Por r e l a t i v e l y impermeable revetment,
the slope angle in p l a c e s where water is likely to occur behind the
r e v e t m e n t , should be

3. E q u i l i b r i u m criterion
Pw
tg a s tg<t> (1 - H - )
Pn

- 46 -
OIKES AND BANKS
PROTECTION
SLOPE PROTECTION
OF DAMS

BOTTOM PROTECTION OF CLOSURE-STRUCTURES

W ^ W W ^ W T T T T I T J I i • 11 i'i iTTfi r ivw* i Fii-i'riy^PPP*

BOTTOM PROTECTION OF DISCHARGE SLUICES

""•^•.•.-SÜWIM:**

SEAL
FUNCTIONS
RESERVOIRS/CANALS

'••••^"•:::S!S?!¥SW?OTW.O:U.V.'!^V.

BITUMINOUS SEAL OF DAMS

REDUCTION OF GROUNDWATER FLOW/HYDRAULIC GRAOIENTS

H.W.
JJÜL zSi&
^
,SANDASPHALT

'. Wl1 U 1 I 9 ^ S
^ y&mwmtmssr^^
W^>>„
f i i i i w i i i j l i ' i ' i i j i i I I i i"i«w i t i i - i '

DAM CONSTRUCTION
H.W. SANDASPHALT
_L»L ><^

[.•. 11.'!".".. i ••« . . i . i 11 iwi^ri'wrrr-p^w 1111 in i'ri'i rrii'J"! 11 iPiiWTTPPf

< OPEN STONEASPHALT

SANDASPHALT
(FILTERLAYER)

BLOCK '.
REVETMENT
SANDASPHALT [
(FILTERLAYER) ^///,
FILTER FUNCTIONS
OPEN STONEASPHALT
SANDASPHALT
STONE
SAND

Fig. 2k APPLICATION AND FUNCTIONS OF ASPHALT

47
Symbols used: h • revetment thickness (m) , £7wo • maximum uplift
pressure (N/m2.) , a_* slope
_ of dike face,. p, a _ • concrete or asphalt
bulk density (kg/m ), p w * density of water (kg/m 3 ), p n
3 density
of wet soil (kg/m 3 ), g * acceleration due to gravity (m/s 2 ), f •
coëfficiënt of friction: f » tg 0 if c|) > 0, else f » tg9 , <t> •
angle of internal friction of the subsoil and 0 • angle of friction
between the revetment and the subsoil.
More information hereabout can be found in (27).

4.6 impact forces. Asphalt revetments

Waves breaking on the slope cause high forces of short duration,
called impacts. Apart from the wave conditions and the structural
geometry, wave impacts are also affected by the physical properties
of the water and the revetment, in particular the compressibility.
For water this figure is determined highly by its air content.
Wave impacts cannot be computed, as yet. Although the basis equati-
ons are available solutions cannot be obtained due to lack of mea-
sured data for the material properties. Empirical data are used
therefore, obtained from large scale model test performed in Hol-
land and Germany. Results of these tests are summarized below, used
data mentioned in the guidelines for the design of asphalt (27).

Impact forces are of primarily importance for the impervious revet-

ments (i.e. dense asphalt) and to the less extend for the pervious
revetments (i.e. block revetments).

A wave impact (P) is in fact regarded as a pressure (p) which acts

over a certain width (b): P * p.b. The
V maximum
lil O A X Hl Udl pressure
^ 1 COO J T 6 p
P ( N / l i l )
3
XS
a
given by p»pw.g.q.H in which : p w • density of water (kg/m ), g
2
acceleration due to gravity (m/s ), H « wave height (m) and q - a
factor related to the slope e.g. q • 2.7 for 1:3, q • .2.3 for 1:4
and q • 2 for slope 1:6. The acting width is assumed equal to:
b = 0,4 H.
Plate thickness of an asphalt revetment can be determined using the
calculation model developed in (27), The formula reads:
27 1 4 0.2
h * 0.75 (.*
(1-V2) \<Jb ) 9
in which: h - thickness of revetment (m) , <7D = asphalt stress at
failure (N/m 2 ), P • wave impact (N/m 1 ), S • stiffness modulus of
the asphalt (N/m 2 ), V = Poisson ratio for asphalt ( ~ 0.35), c -
modulus of subgrade reaction (N/m3) and 0.75 • reduction factor.
It is evident that the stability of asphalt revetment should also
be controlled regarding the uplift and sliding criteria which can
be found in (27) (see also paragraph 4.5).

Bitumuous mixtures are placed on a large scale in dry as well as

under water as protective elements of Dutch sea-dikes,
closing-dams, breakwaters and banks of navigation channels (see
fig. 24).
The different mixtures are applied as shown in fig . 25 .

- 48 -
r
10.6
slope 1 : 3
0.8

0.6
slope 1 : 2 / 1 : 4
0.6

0.6
slope 1:6

ij 0.4 Hs(ml 0.4 0.4

£ \H s lml Hs(m)
^^6
| 02 ^ - 5 0.2 ^0^6 0.2
4
—-~J—s
1 .
- ^
0 ,
^ = ? 0
:==*
o107 to* 109
t
107 10" 109 107 10« 109

F/O A Necessary layer thickness for a revetment of dense stone asphalt plotted against the
"' modulus of subgrade reaction and for various significant wave heights and slopes

107 108 109 "lO 7 10a

modulus of subgrade reaction (N/m3)

Fig, B Necessary layer thickness for a revetment of open stone asphalt plotted against the
modulus of subgrade reaction and for various significant wave heights and slopes
10

flxtont on IMttr Manktt

I T . M l H C
O T < 4.10 MC
O T i S.12 MC

fixtont on wn« atpnaH

» T i 3.03 MC
• T • 4.10 MC
• T . RW MC
«
•4-4- A • 11 <o 1.15

i * i\
i . w
\V.
W
A \
^
\
H
Fig. C Fixtone®:
damage-parameter
versus
breaker-parameter
^
'O

,«n-«^.„ a /v^

Fig. 26 DIMENSIONING OF ASPHALT REVETMENTS AGAINST WAVE IMPACT

- 49 -
a-UNMftFIUCO MIX t-INTERMEOMTE • - OVEMIUEO MIX
FIUINO

v o
I EITUMEN EZ3 MMEML AMMOATE Q *M

% . 25 Z?£ïï/?£f 0 f BITUMEN FILLING OF AGGREGA TE

In overfilled mixtures the visco-elastic properties of the bitumen

dominate, in underfilled mixtures the properties of the mineral
aggregates are dominant. The described overfilled mixtures are
mastic asphalt and overfilled stone asphalt; asphalt concrete
belongs to the category exactly filled mixtures, underfilled
mixtures are very permeable to water.
The large scale- and prototype-tests indicated that the open-stone
asphalt, if properly designed, can resist the current attack up to
6 m/s and the wave attack up to H s • 3 m ( 6 ) , (20,(25).
It is also reasonable to expect that open-stone asphalt revetment
on the thick bed of sand-asphalt can be designed even to unfrequent
loading of waves of H, 5 m. However , in such extreme cases,
special attention should be paid to the preparation of sand-body
(compaction).
The resistance of the sand-asphalt is limited to the velocity of 3
m/s and the wave height of 2 m.

As an example of the calculation method mentioned before (fig. 26) ,

for some asphalt revetments, with slope 1 on 3 and the bed constant
c •' 10 8 N / m - 3 (compaoted sand b e d ) , the following layer thickness
can be given as an indication:
wave height asphalt open sand
*s (m) concrete stone asphalt asphalt

2 0. 10 0.20 0.40
3 0. 20 0.40 0.80
4 0. 30 0.65
5 0. 40 0.90
The detailed information on design and execution methods for diffe-
rent applications of asphalt can be found in (20) and (27).

4.7. Revetments under snip 1 s induced load

Por design of bank protection of navigation channels and harbour

entraces is not only the laod due to the wind-waves but also the
load induced by ship movement (waves and currents) of major iLmpor-
i
tance.

The design criteria in respect to this aspect are still scarce.

However, in respect to the inland vessels, the systematic model-
and prototype researach on this subject is being carried out in the
Netherlands. Reference should be made to Blaauw et al (1984) and
Pilarczyk (1984) , (3) .
The prototype measurements took place in the Hartel Canal (Rotter-
dam) j bottom width 75 m, depth 7 m. The following test embankments,
equipped with geotextile filter, were purposely constructed on
slope 1:4 for the measurements campaigns (see fig. 2 7 ) :

- 50 -
 HARTELCAHAL

fflB Ptaced - btacks

m*«ting
cabfn
potitfOMnf tyitwn

F/j.-4 Schematized set-up of prototype measurements

! saüing paraid te HM emtraliM . — «auo* i—»

•MrMvX iMUr
• «atarvaloetty meter
• f low dlractfon m»t«r
m «cho soundvr

F/V7.3 Cross-profile at central measurement stage

+ 500.

Example of a Reno mattnns

ACZ-0«tta mat

Fiitons (o.15m)-

-gaotaxtil*

F/p. f Typical cross-section of prototype embankments Sand-mattrass on gravel Fixtone on sand-asphalt

Fig.0 Examples of constructions tested

F/g. 27 PROTOTYPE TESTS HARTEL CANAL (ship's waves)

1. rip-rap (5-40 kg) on clay
2. blocks (0.15 m) on Clay
3. blocks on gravel, on sand
4. blocks on sand
5. basalton (0.15 m) on sand
6. rip-rap (5-40 kg) on sand
7. coarse gravel (80-200 mm) on sand
8. fine gravel (30-80 mm) on sand
9. basalton (0.12 m) on silex/sand
10. fixton (0.15 m) on sand asphalt on sand
11. sand-mattresses (0.20 m) on gravel/sand
12. armorflex-mats (0.11 m) on gravel/sand
13. PVC-Reno matresses (0.17 m) on sand
14. ACZ Delta block-mats (0.16 m) on gravel/sand
The test embankments (toplayer and subsoil) , testships and wet
cross-section of the test location were equipped with various in-
struments. The tests have been carried out with tugs (700 hp and
1120 hp) and with push-tows (pushing units 4500 hp and 5400 hp) .
Both, four loaded and empty barges and six loaded barges in 3 x 2
and 2 x 3 formation have been used. These test ships sailed both
along the central axis and close to the embankment of the canal at
different speeds to study the relationship between the- ship-induced
water motion and the forces exerted on the banks. The typical maxi-
mum values of watermotion-components induced by these testships
were as follows: maximum velocity of return flow, ü r • 2 m s " 1 ,
maximum waterlevel depression, Z 0.85 m and maximum height of
secundary waves, H * 0.85 m.
The gravel embankments (30-80 mm and 8 0-2 00 mm) were applied to
verify the model relations describing the beginning of movement and
transport of loose materials under ship-induced water motions. It
has been proved that, in general, calculation methods based on mo-
del results give a proper approximation of the prototype values.
The following stability criteria have been established:

*r2 t a n 2 c t -1
1° 050 C O S 0C 1 -
=T "2gS tan2(|>

where: ü, velocity of return flow [ms" 1 ) , a • angle of slope, $ =

angle of internal friction, R = slope factor and 0 » 1.1 to 1.4.

2* Zmax/AD 5 0 =§ 2.3

where: Z m a x * waterlevel depression in front of transverse sternwa-

ve
. Hi (cos B ) 0 . 5
3' — ! S 1.8 to 2.3
AD 50
where: Hi * height of secundary waves, ö • angle of wave approach;
ji s 55', D50 •" average sieve value diameter (50%) .

The hydraulic components of ship induced water motion (ü r , Zmax>

Hi) can be calculated accordingly to Blaauw, et al (1984),(3).

The behaviour of the other revetment types, used in the prototype

tests, was rather satisfactory. With some exceptions, no instabili-
ty was detected.

- 52 -
CUTTING OF THE SOOS FROM A DIKE

- 53 -
After the completion of the short-term measurements in the Hartel
Canal it was decided to keep all these prototype embankments for
further studies on long term behaviour in the coming years.

4.8 Stability of grass-slopes

Some of the existing dikes along the Wadden Sea (Northern part of
the Netherlands) need still reinforcement as these do not yet meet
the specific safety requirements. One of the options for reinforce-
ment is a slope pcotection of grass on a bed of clay, rather than
stone, concrete or asphaltic protection. This option is feasible
because vast mud-flats (high foreshore) and grasslands stretch away
on the seaside of the existing dikes and are inundated only during
storm surges. Moreover, the wave action in the Wadden Sea is much
reduced by a row of barrier islands. Due to these factors the de-
sign wave height does not exceed 2 m. The Delft Hydraulic Laborato-
ry was commissioned to assess the stability of such a grass dike by
means of a full scale model study which was an absolute requirement
as grass cannot be scaled down. Two investigations have been per-
formed.
In the Delta Flume, a five metre wide section of the grass dike was
reproduced on full scale. The model consisted of a sand core co-
vered with a clay layer on a slope 1 on 8. Sods of grass with the
depth of the roots of approximately 40 cm were laid on top of the
clay layer (the grass was taken from an existing dike that was re-
inforced ten years ago). During the tests, the wave heights and pe-
riods and water levels (tidal cyclus) were varied continuously ac-
cording to predetermined boundary conditions during the design
storm surge. The maximum H s was equal to 1.85 m with Tp • 5.6 sec.
(plunging breaker falling on a water cushion). The measured maximum
velocity on the slope (1:8) was about 2 m/s. After 30 hours of con-
tinuous random wave attack the condition of the grass dike was
still exceptional well. The surface erosion speed of clay protected
by grass was not more than 1 mm per hour. In a number of additional
tests, the durability of the grass and the enlargement of holes
previously dug in the grass were studied. Although wave action con-
siderably enlarged some of these holes, the residual strength of
the dike was such that its collapse was far from imminent (7).
The second investigation was carried out in a large (site) f1urne on
slope 1 on 4. Special equipment was used to simulate the run-up and
run-down velocities on this slope. Two qualitatively different
grass-mats on clay were used.
The grass-mats were tested with the average velocity of 2 m/s (ave-
rage over 40 hours of test) and the thickness of a water layer of
about 0.6 m. The maximum velocity was about 4 m/s. Erosion speed
of the clay surface was 1 to 2 mm per hour up to 20 hours depending
on quality of grass-mat. After 20 hours of loading the erosion
speed started to grow much progressively for a bad quality grass-
mat. Similar process took place for a good quality grass-mat but
after 40 hours of loading. The detailed information on the results
and grass-mat specification can be found in (8).

Some additional information on resistance of unprotected clay-sur-

face (slope 1 on 3.5) were obtained during the investigation car-
ried out for the Eastern Scheldt dikes (10). Also in this case two
qualitatively different clays were used (fat and lean clay). The
surging-breaker conditions were applied to eliminate the effect of
wave impact (Ha • 1.05 m, T p • 12 s, max. velocity 3 m / s ) .
The erosion on the upper part of slope was for both clay-types the
same and equal to about 2 - 3 cm after about 5 hours of loading.

- 54 -
FULL-SCALE STABILITY TESTS OF A "GRASS DIKE"

- 55 -
After the sarae time, the erosion below S.W.L. was about 7 cm for a
good clay, while for a lean qlay a local cavity of about 0.4 m
depth was created at the impact point. This latest probably because
of the local non-homogenity of clay. Also during this investigation
a number of additional tests on the erosion of different sublayers
(incl. clay) at locally damaged toplayers (some protective units
were removed) were performed.

All the tests mentioned above indicated that the strength of the
grass slopes is strongly affected by the guality of clay and the
condition of grass and its rooting. The general design rules cannot
be defined yet. However, these informations can be of a great value
for the designing of grass dikes at the present time. Some additio-
nal information on this subject can be found in (5).

4.9 Example of semi-probabilistic calculation of revetment

The deterministic approach is the most traditional design method

( ) . The designer selects values of load parameters that are assu-
med to be adequately high and thus safe. The choice of load and
strength parameters is often subjective, based on traditional prac-
tice or the designer's personal experience. The design method is
based on the assumption that the structure will not fail if the
loads are less than the strength, provided a good (and verified)
theoretical model is available. A factor of safety is used to cover
uncertainties.

The probabilistic method is a systematic approach using statistical

techniques. For constructional design the use of probabilistic cal-
culations is preferred. A probabilistic procedure for revetments is
currently under development, and a report will be presented by
PIANC workinggroup no. 3 later in 1987. The reliability function z
may be defined as Z • R (Xj) - s (Xi), where R * resistance functi-
on, S • load function and Xi * basic variables. The limit state of
the considered component occurs at Z * 0; the failure state is re-
lated to Z < 0.
There are three internationally agreed levels on which the limit
state equations may be solved (31),(35):
Level I : jc[u£S_i^j)rj3babil^Sjtic £P£r£ac_h; present construction de-
sig"n"~ methods witlï relevant" partial safety factors.
Level II: j^nü-proj3aj3rlist_£c a£p£oa_c£j approximation methods are
applied* in whTch normal probability distributions are
assumed for both strength and laoding:
1. First order mean value approach.
2. First order design-point approach.
3. Approximate full-distribution approach.
Level III: Full-distribution approach; this method accounts for the
exact joint probability distribution functions including
the correlations among the parameters. It usually requi-
res a considerable computational effort.

It goes beyond the scope of this report to deal with all the me-
thods in detail, but the mean value approach will be discussed be-
cause of its simplicity and its illustrative value for studying the
effect of the value of various strength and load parameters invol-
ved. In this method the reliability function Z is linearized about
the expected mean value of the parameters involved. Mutually inde-
pendent normally distributed variables are assumed. The mean value
\Xz and Standard deviation Cfz can be evaluated as:

- 56 -
ISITENOUGH?

- 57 -
|iz - z ( M- (XT ) V- (x n >)
and
0 5
^z"

The reliability index |i = |iz/ G"z is

the distance between Z • 0 and the |3Z=HZ/C7
mean value, measured in Standard
deviation units and is as such a
measure of the probability that Z
will be less then zero.
Assuming the normal distribution
for Z: 4>N(Z -[1/(7), then for Z
• °s0N(-|i). Now the probability
of failure can be read from tabu-
lated normal distribution. Thus the
probability of failure is now: P(Z
< 0 ) = <3>N(-(3) .
This method is less accurate then a
more detailed elaboration and bet-
ter approximations of the reliabi-
lity function but is i l l u s t r a t i v e
for becoming aware of t h e most im-
Flg. 28 RELIABILITY INDEX
portant parameters.
The next example may illustrate this: stability of block revet-
ments, according to the Pilarczyk formula (for 2 s ip < 3 - , also
valid for rip-rap on relatively impermeable sublayer):

l
s cosa tana 1 .25 T p tana
and
AD j/fÊ ^Hs/Lp'
where: H s ° significant wave height, A • relative density of
block-units; A = ( p g - p w ) / p w ,
a= angle of slope, * (top-)wave period (LT wave
length), • thickness of block,
length) , D »
p-, •
« breaker index and ip * stability factor.
The limit state function: H
Z • R - S * tp .A.D - sVf£
cosa
Tp tana
• ip . A . D - Hs 1 .25
cosa
The derivative of Z according to each variable:
6z 3 . 5 T p tana
9H S 8 cosa
dz
,— • ip . D
3A
H s ^ 5 Tp/4 1 sina
3z
2 c t g a i/ctga' c o s a ]/ctga" c o s 2 a (1+ctg2a)
3(ctga)

- 58 -
?

59 -
az H, 5 tand.
3Tp 2 cosa 4T p /Hs*

— - AD
39
-vpA
3D

The following steps are taken to calculate the mean value of Z (|iz)
and the Standard deviation G"z as a result of the weighed partial
Standard deviation of each stochastic parameter . The assumed values
of input variables are as follows:
variable CT(Xi)
Hs 2.0 m 0.25 m or (0.10 n)
A 1 .4 0.05
ctga 3 (cos a =0.95 0. 25
5 s s or (0.5 s) <Si 1.47)
5 0.50
D(assumed) 0,45 m 0.0 1 m
N.B.
The deterrainistic calculation provides in this case D » 0.36 m with
(per definition) 50% probability of failure (in this case the mean
value for Z is 0: |!z • 0, so {i • M-z/^z a 0 ) . When the uncer tainties
regarding the H s and ip are taken into account, e.g. H, « 2 + 0 . 2 5 =
2.25 m and ip =» 5 - 0.5 = 4.5, the determinist ie calculation provi-
des D » 0.45 m.
Assuming, as a first approximation, D = 0.45, the probability of
failure will be calculated in the following way:
2.0 1.25 5.1/3
|iz - 5(1 .4)0.45 - 3 . 1 5 - 2.555 0.595
0.95 yT

e.
x
i
3XÏ
<ÖCi 9z GV.
& N' Ti,
Hs 3z/3Hs - - 0.960 0.25 240. 10~3 57.6. 10-3 22
A 3z/3A • ^ « D * 2.250 0.05 112. 1 0 - 3 12.66. 10-3 5
ctga 3z/3<ct9°0 - 0.512 0.25 1 . 2 8 . 10-3 16.38. 10-3 6
T 3z/3Tp * 0.256 1 .00 256. 10-3 65.54. 10-3 26
P 99.23. 10-3
3 z / 3 9 - A-D - 0.630 0.50 315. 10-3 39
D 3 z / 3 D = q>.D * 7.000 0.01 7 0 . 10-3 4.90. 10-3 2

<TZ2 - 256.31 . 10-3 100%

|iz
p-- / ( 7 Z * 0 . 5 9 5 / 0 # 5 0 6 = 1 m 176 gz m 0.506

the
of.
.es
(Xi) on C7Z

- 60 -
 3*|

Ik \
(o) frcqucncy § •= £
of toading | *• *
c *> o

•f intcnsity
of tooding(P)

(b) r«spen*«
function

intensity
of loading(P)

(e) damag»
domogo S « fcs.f.T

inttnsity
of lood ing (P)

% <?* OUTUNES OF A PROBABIUSTIC

DESIGN APPROACH

-61-
Further research for lowering the probability of failure may then
focussed on the characteristics of these parameters. In this case
the variability (or uncertaintly) about the actual wave conditions
(wave height and wave period) is most important (assuming that the
accuray of the formule, thus , can not be improved). Of course if
one takes a larger thickness of block, a more safe situation and
thus, a lower probability of failure can be expected.

Assuming that in this case the prediction of the actual wave con-
ditions can be improved nl. G"Hg=i 0,1 m and G"Tp • 0,5 sec, the re-
peating of this calculations provides p * 1.495 and the probability
of failure equal to about 7%.
The lay down of the criterion of acceptable probability of failure
is mostly left to the responsible authorities. However, the best
way is to calculate the probability of failure for various design
alternatives in combination with some economical studies regarding
the execution and maintance costs, and economical consequentes of
failure. Such an approach can easily be used for decisional analy-
sis, where the costs of each decision and its consequences are
weighed by the probability of these events.

The general outlines of the probabilistic approach are shown in

Fig. 29 One may relate this to the design of slope protection by
loosely materials (i .e. r iprap) . First of all one shoul'd be able to
"predict" the frequencies of occurence of hydraulic loads during
the lifetime of construction (Fig.29a.)
Secondly, the response function should be obtained from hydraulic
model tests or by applying known "transport" relationships (Fig.-
29b). The resultant damage (Sd) during the lifetime of the con-
struction is obtained as shown in Fig 29c.
P
Sa • I s.f.T.
where: T * lifetime of the construction, f • frequence of occurence
of a given load intensity, s * damage per unit time and p » inten-
sity of load.
If more than one type of loading is acting, the summation of the
damage should be computed by integration over the various load com-
binations and their probabilities. The resulting total damage is a
measure of the expected maintance of the slope protection works for
a given size of the top layer and revetment composition.
A process of economical optimalization, based on the costs of con-
struction and maintance, can further be carried out, leading to the
selection of the optimum size of the revetment. Besides this mini-
mum integral cost criterion, one should als restrict the "expected
total damage".
The maximumn acceptable damage depends on:
the relationship between "expected total damage", which is an
average over the total protection length and the "maximum possi-
ble damage" that may take place at a certain location,
the type of"construction and the vulnerability of the subsoil,
the risk of progressive damage if repair in time is impossible
for technical, organisational or financial reasons.
The actual state of the knowlegde allows to apply this approach on-
ly for slope protection by loosely materials where the adequate
transfer-functions (transport formulae) have been developed in the
recent years. However in general, there is still a lack of data and
insight in many of the above aspects. Therefore the research pro-
grammes in the Netherlands for the coming years are being systema-
tically directed towards economically justified design criteria for
different protective structures and different applications.

- 62 -
undesired top event collopse of
embankment/
revetment

ac
probability of single segments of
transitions
faiture/damage element structure

r4~i\ JT^L
shear pressure element
stress head weight

probabilistic ship
s
ship bank
calculations traffic traffic slope
with density of
events, or:
river ground- — cohesion
events and
ftow water
effects guesses
flow

surges filter — friction

charac-
teristics

wind wind toleronce

woves set-up in
alignment
L J l_. I

F/g. A Example of simplified fault tree for a riverbank

and dike revetment
faitun
sta dikt GCNERALLY:
Mttp wattri
|FAILURE[

wtr- brtaeh LOAD > STRENGTH

topping
(S) IR)

«won inttrrwl «rosion

auhrsloa troiion inner slopt
>R
M
wavt
X
rtvthntnt
*Tp'ptn«"
ovtr-
£
WQVt (lip
ottack stitnglh toppinq OMtrtopping, crew

-rafi
luit tlip x
liqut-
htod
m ,—I
M
flood WQVt
5zfc X
dikthtight rWlowl
H friction
r#*thii#nt cirtlt fotrion length hraht run up slop* durarion phrta plant
grainsin
5*1 53E 5'""
_—I l—' *—I
rabbi t- bom stttlcffltnt
DonrtrucMor
MM hol» ntQnT

nLn fhickn*»
(ow t i l t
friction
X
(ow tidt
loost sent
ortock rtvttmtnt phrta, ptam
guwtffy

tro*nn troswn
fort «hom fortthort / v ^ . ft^w faulMre» of o dike section
S>R

cumott
ëf^ pront non
ttrtngtt)

F/g. 30 FAULT TREES FOR WATER DEFENCE STRUCTURES

- 63 -
5. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

5.1 General requirements for revetments

By definition, a revetment is a slope ptotection designed to pro-

tect and stabilize a slope that may be subject to action by water
currents and waves. To fulfil this function, the following aspects
have to be taken under consideration in the design process:
a) stability (toplayer, sublayer, subsoil, foundation).
b) flexibility (e.g. following the settlement without influencing
the stability).
c) durability (toplayer, asphalt, concrete, geotextile, cables,
etc.) .
d) possibility of inspection of failure (monitoring of damage) .
e) easy placement and repair (local damage).
f) low cost (construction/maintenance).
g) overall safety (primary or secondary defence, geometry of fore-
shore , etc .) .
h) additional functional requirements, i.e. special measures for
reduction of run-up and/or roads for maintenance activities
(berm requirements, e t c , ) .
The best revetment is one which combines all these functions.

An essential part of the design of revetments, which as a rule can

only fully be applied quantatively at this design stage, is the
fault tree. This is a scheme in which the events and their consequ-
ences or the errors and causes, which contribute to the probability
of failure, are arranged in a clear way (fig. 3 0 ) . Por some events
in the fault tree it is not yet possible to calculate with mathema-
tical models or to measure -in physical models or actual practice-
the probability of occurrence. Then, a best guess based on enginee-
ring judgement has to be made. Whatever the origin of the probabi-
lities, there are always many uncertainties. Therefore the probabi-
listic calcülations should also be made for both optimistic and
pessimistic sets of assumptions. Only in this way does it become
possible to investigate the contribution of the probability of a
potential failure to the probability of the "undesired top event" .
If this contribution is significant then it becomes relevant to
put more effort into making a "better guess" either by means of mo-
re engineering expertise or further research, in order to rule out
this uncertainty by changing the design. This means that this tech-
nique also provides a guideline for the selection of (additional)
necessary research and, finally, for the proper selection and
design of the final protective structure.(Fig. 31)

5.2 Dimensioning

Por revetments it is essential to distinguish the nature of the at-

tack and the duration of time; short loading times and loadings
with a long cycle time. To the fir'st category belongs the wave at-
tack from wind- and ships waves; to the second category belongs the
variation of the waterlevel caused by tidal- and seasonal influen-
ces, which can induce ground water flows. The first type of load
(wave impact) is of importance for all types of revetments, while
the second type of load (slow variation in ground water flow and in
phreatic-line) is of primarily importance for impermeable revet-
ments only.
The variation of the pressure due to the variation of phreatic-line
can be determined using an electric analogue or a finite element
calculation. The uplift pressure due to wave attack has to be de-

- 64 -
boundarv conditions

technicQl
optimal |alternafive design I
alternative
____r__i
(see to fhe left)

finat design
I
execution

Fig. 31 DESIGN OEVELOPMENT

65 -
termined mostly by model (or prototype) tests for each revetment
type under consideration. Por permeable revetments on permeable
sublayer the mathematical model "Steenzet", as developed in the
Netherlands, can be used (9) .

Por the dimensions of the revetments the following (genetal) design

criteria can be set out ( 26, 27 en 28) :
1. Sliding criteria: the revetment should be designed so that it
does not slide under frequently occurring loading situations.
2. Equilibrium criteria: the revetment including sublayers and sub-
soils must be in equilibrium as a whole.
3. Uplift criteria: in loading situations which occur rarely, such
as storm surges, the component of the weight of the revetment,
normal to the dike face should be greater than the uplift pres-
sure caused by water.
4. Surface-resistance criteria: the surface partiele of revetment
should have enough resistance against wave and current attack.

The models selected to establish the dimensions of a structure will

have to prove itself in practive to ensure that this represents the
primary behaviour of the prototype, as well as to ensure that the
used safety factor is sufficiënt to cover the secondary effects and
inaccuracies in the used data and boundary conditions.

5.3 Choice of revetment

From the classification of revetments (see fig. 15) it is obvious

that there are very many possible combinations that can lead to a
large number of possible constructions. This does not simplify the
choice of a revetment. Besides, the choice of the main revetment
construction has its own repercussions for the transitions and the
other parts of the dike, and the execution and maintenance method.
To make a choice out of various and in a certain situation possible
alternatives, criteria for judging need to be formulated (functio-
nal , technical and financial) with the help of the demands that are
made. Even the best design may fail as a result of poor workmanship
and bad management. Thus, the aspects which are concerned with con-
struction and with management and maintenance should also be invol-
ved in this stage. Because all the various criteria have not been
defined equally well and do not play an equally prominent part in
the definite choice, subjective experiences and/or prejudice can
be decisive.
It seems to be wise to make the choice in a group so that the sub
jective aspect can play the least possible part. Por the different
aspects weighing factors can be made so that a more objective choi-
ce might be possible. This problem is actually treated by a special
working group in the Netherlands.
Som e possible aspects and solutions that can play a part in the
choice of the construction of the revetment will be mentioned, in a
more or less arbitrary way below.

5.4 Composition of dike and revetment

Composition of the construction (profile, yes/no berm, etc.) is an

important condition for the design of a revetment. On one side this
can influence the division of the wave forces on a dike. On the
other side this can restrict the freedom of design concerning the
revetment. The choice of a berm yes of no can be of a great influ-
ence to the choice of the upper part of the slope. The hollow shape
of a slope can increase the clenching forces (and so stability) of

- 66 -
 geotextïle

Fig. 32 DESIGN PRINÜPLES

- 67 -
block revetments and at the same time decrease the follow-up of
foundation-transformations. A high or a low foreshore can be deci-
sive for the level of extending the rip-rap and the sort of under-
layer and/or toe construction.
Conclusion: the design of a slope revetment must be seen as an in-
tegral part of the total dike-design. The design also needs to be
made (executed) and maintained. Both aspects must therefore already
be taken along within the stadium of designing.

j?r,inc_ip_le_s_oJ[ ^oinpc^s^t^oii

a) Stability of top layers strongly depend on the sort/composition

of sublayers and they must therefore be regarded as a whole. As
an example, from the large scale tests (9), (26) it appears that
a block revetment on a sublayer of "good clay" provides more
stability than one on a permeable sublayer (see also table 3 on
stability of concrete revetments) .
b) Instability (erosion) of sublayers and/or subsoil can lead to
failure of a toplayer. The stability of toplayers and sublayers
must therefore be designed steadily (with an equal opportunity
of failure) .
c) A good tuning of the permeability of the top layer and sublayers
(including geotextiles) is an essential condition for an equal
design. The permeability (k) of the different parts of the con-
struction must increase from toe to top:k ground < k sublayer/
filter < k top-layer.
This principle is illustrated in figure 32 for block revetments.

The granular filters are mostly more expensive and difficult to re-
alize (especially under water) within the requirement limits (fig.
3 3 ) . A substitutional solution is a geotextile {filter function)
with a certain thickness of graded stone layer (with function to
dump the internal hydraulic loads). A good and cheaper solution can
also be realized by applying a thick layer of broadly graded waste
products as minestone, slags, silex, etc. (range 0.5 m for high hy-
draulic loads, compacted, composition according to criteria of in-
ternal stability (9)). The extend review on geotextiles can be
found in (23) and (32).

5.5. Subsoil requirements (26),(27)

Subsoils as dike or bank body play an important role in the stabi-

lity of revetments and in the total stability of protective struc-
ture. Thus, the type and state of subsoil or dike body can be deci-
sive for the choice of the revetment type. In this respect the fol-
lowing aspects are important:
- the bearing capacity of the dike/bank body determines among other
the performance of a revetment under wave and current attack. If
- the bearing capacity is large than the thickness of the revetment
can bè reducéd (especially for asphalt revetments). Of importance
are the properties of the soil such as the modulus of elasticity,
the bedding constant and Poissons' ratio. They themselves are in-
fluenced by the degree of compacting.
- A high degree of compaction can, among others, avert the lique-
faction of a saturated or almost saturated soil by impact loads,
for example wave attack. A relative proctor density degree of
95-100%, down to a depth of about 2 m, can in sand reduce the
possibility of liquefaction, in general, to an acceptable mini-
mum .

- 68
 GRANULAR FILTERS
FILTER RULES

GEOTEXTILES
THIN TYPES
WOVEN
NON-WOVEN

MULTILAYER TYPES
FILTER- AND
THICKNESS FUNCTION

COMPDSED FILTERS

GRANULAR LAYER
THICKNESS-DAMPING
FUNCTION
GEOTEXTILE
FILTER FUNCTION

Fig, 33 CHOICE OF FILTER/SUBLAYER

- 69 -
- The permeability of the sand bed is important in connection with
groundwater flow in the dike body and, therefore, the occurring
of uplift pressures under a relatively watertight revetments and
the softening of the sand body.
- The compaction by vibration in a loosely packed saturated sand-
body can cause a liquefact ion. The dry placing of an open asphalt
mix on a satucated sand bed through the influx of water will re-
sult in the early development of stripping. Under impermeable
mixes, as asphalt concrete, uplift pressures can develop while
the asphalt is still soft when placed on hydraulically filled
sand bed. To obtain a good compaction the sand-body can be built
up in this layers using bulldozers for compacting and for profi-
ling of the dike face. It is also possible to dump an excess of
material, and then, after this has been compacted (for example by
a vibration roller) to make the required profile.
- After construction the dike body will tend to settle. If it has
not been well compacted or if there are clay of peat layers in
the subsoil, the settlement can be large and irregular. If the
bed is at the same time badly permeable then it is possible that
the grain stress only recovers slowly and that the bearing capa-
city of the bed temporarily appears to be insufficiënt. This ef-
fect must certainly be taken into account with clayey subsoils;
good drainage in this case is essential. With very permeable ma-
terials the situation does not develop.
- Por placement of block revetments on clay subsoil (or sublayer)
besides the requirement of right composition and homogenity, the
proper compaction and smooth surface (blocks placed as close as
possible to the clay surface) are of primarily importance (26).
in the case of "poor clay" (concerning composition or surface
preparation) it should be recommended to protect the clay surface
with a geotextile.
- The use of open top layers directly on sand body (with geotextile
in between) is restricted to wave height of H s • 1.2 m. The good
compaction of sand is essential to avoid sliding or even lique-
faction.
Por loads higher than H s • 1.2 m a well graded layer of stone on
a geotextile is recommendable (e.g.alayer 0.2-0.3 m for
1.2 m <H S <2.5 m)
5.6 Joints and transitions (21), (26), (27)
In general, slope protection of dike or bank consists of a number
of structural parts such as: toe protection, main protection in the
area of heavy wave and current attack, upper slope protection (very
often grass-mat) , berm for run-up reduction or as maintenance
road. Different materials and different execution principles are
mostly applied for these specific parts (see, as example, dike con-
struction in figure 7 ) . Very often a new slope protection has to be
connected to an already existing protective construction which in-
volves another protective system. To obtain a homogeneous strong
protection, all parts of protective structure has to be taken under
consideration. Erosion or damage often starts at joints and transi-
tions. Therefore, an important aspect of revetment construction,
which requires special attention, are the joints and the transi-
tions; joints onto the same material and onto other revetment mate-
rials, and transitions onto other structures or revetment parts,A
general design guideline is that transitions should be avoided as'
much as possible. If they are inevitable the discontinuities intro-
duced should be minimized. This holds for differences in elastic
and plastic behaviour and in the permeability or the sand tight-

- 70 -
 concrete blocks asphalt-concrete

gravel
minestone
dumped
stone
penetration

A Penetration of sand info the mine-waste stone

geofexfile bet ween sand and minestone /gravel
is necessary
concrete
blocks
separation
board
basalt
columns penetration

B Transition from basalt columns f o concrete blocks

separation board too short

Fig. 54 ILLUSTRATION OF TRANSITION PROBLEMS

- 71 -
ness. Proper execütion is essential in order to obtain satisfactory
joints and transitions.
When these guidelines are not foliowed the joints or transitions
may influence loads in terms of forces due to differences in stiff-
ness or settlement, migration of subsoil from one part to another
(erosion) , or strong pressure gradients due to a concentrated
ground water flow.
Examples to illustrate the problem of transitions are given in fi-
gures 34 and 35.

BASALT (traditional/old Dutch solution)

geotextile
brick layers
dumped
rubble
stone ^ - clay
(rubble) ^ c l o s e pile-row

PLACED BLOCKS

sea bottom geotextile

77777* 5-10cm gravel 5-20mm
(broken stone)

spaced piles and wooden plank (board)

asphalt
blocks with
penetration concrete
geotextile

sand

\ - wooden sheetpile

F/g. 35 EXAMPLES OF TOE-PROTECTION

- 72 -
 technical
the modical check-up
as alarmbell

prevention
is better than
cure

- 73 -
6. MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING

Coastal zone management involves management and decision-makig re-

garding:
• a coastal ptotection plan, that is a coherent set of measures,
specified in time and space, to achieve a certain extend of pro-
tection against existing or anticipated damage;
• a monitoring and control system (inspection system, measure-
ments).

Coastal zone mana gement is ch aracterized by its integ ral nature.

Firstly, an integ ral approach to the coastal problems is required
because of the in ter relations hip between land use, co astal protec-
tion measures and the daily m anagement and control. S econdly, an
integral approach is required since various disciplin es and techni-
ques are involved in the anal ysis of the coastal prob lems and their
potential solutio ns, for exam ple, coastal engineering , economics,
land use planning , environmental science, mathematica 1 and physical
modelling techniq ues , etc. Th irdly, a certain spatial integrat ion
is required becau se of the po tential physical interac tions between
adjacent coastal sections.

In generating and analysing a coastal protection plan, the follo-

wing steps can be distinguished:
1. definition of coastal sections;
2. creation of basic alternatives;
3. identification of coastal protection measures;
4. screening of measures, by section;
5. creation of alternative coastal protection plans;
6. impact assessment (full specification of all relevant effects);
7. evaluation (by the decision-makers).

Inform ation about the actu al s tate of the coastal area including
coasta 1 str uctures is indi spen sabl e for optimal coastal manage-
ment ( Fig. 3 6 ) . Coast al ma nage ment , is therefore intimately connec-
ted wi th mon itoring a ctivi ties and the design of routine monitoring
networ ks and ,/or speci fic f ield sur veys.
To red uce th e, often high, cos ts o f the monitoring system, its de-
sign s hould yield an optim al s yste in which provides the responsible
agenci es wit h suffici ent i nf or raation at minimal costs.
A gene rally applicabl e met hod for the design and optimalization of
monito r ing n etworks b eing actu ally developed in the Netherlands
consis ts of the five main step s :
1. ide ntifie ation and quan tif icati on of the objectives;
2 ide ntifie ation of the r elev ant proces dynamics;
3 det ermina tion of t he ef fect iven ess of the information provided
by the ne twork;
4. cal culati on of the cost s of the monitoring network;
5. exe cution of a cos t- ef fectiveness analysis.

Based on the results of analyse done in the second step, the neces-
sary instruments for monitorig can be defined. It will lead very
often to development of the new types of monitoring-instruments.

A new philosophy in coastal monitoring involves the combination of

mathematical simulation models and measurements. in this approach,
which is similar to that applied in the control of industrial pro-
cesses, the results of measurements are compared with the forecast
of the mathematical model.

74
 AIM CRITERIA CRITERIA
FUNCTION ••CONSTRUCTION -HMAINTENANCE
(tolerante) MANAGEMENT
Lhrg
~/\-
i-Ut rp
RESPONSE
PREDICTION
DESIGN FUTURE
MODEL CHANGES

SUPERVISION
±_1
CONSTRUCT»* HAINTENANCE
EXECUTON AS BUILT SCENARIO
iquality contrd briginal state!

INSPECTION ACTUAL
MONITORING STATE OF
tONSTRUCTION]

3
lL BOUNOARY CONOITIONS (LOAOS)

F/g. 36A MANAGEMENT MODEL

- 75 -
The main activities on the subjects mentioned above are carried out
by the Rijkswaterstat and the Technical Advisory Comittee on Water
Defences in co-operation with the Centre for Civil Egineering,
Research, Codes and Specifications, the Delft Hydraulics and the
Delft Geotechnics (laboratories) , and some other organization.

.o
m
X) observation limit
o
(warning)

'J5 \ (minimum) acceptable Standard

1

time
*=inspection

Fig. 36B INSPECTION CRAPH

- 76 -
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
SEA-DIKES, BANKS
INTERNAL
x
EXTERNAL LOAD LOAD EXTERNAL LOAD
y
u J

DESK STUDIES
t
U
MODELS

•*—(SCALE EFFECTS>

LARQE LARGE
NATURE FLUME(S) MODEL (S) NATURE
i r
SEMI ANALYTICAL SEMI
BLACK-BOX SOLUTION BLACK-BOX
F i =1
MATHEM.
APPLICATIONS MODEL(S) APPLICATIONS
i :
VERIFICATION
FILTERS/ MODIFICATION MATERIAL
SUBSOIL PROPERTIES

LONG
TERM EFFECTS
FUNCTIONAL / DESIGN CONSTRUCT./COSTS
REQUIREMENTS RULES MAINTENANCE

Fig. 37 SEA-DIKES AND BANK PROTECTION RESEARCH

RESEARCH APPROACH

- 77 -
7. CONCLUSIONS
The limitation of this report does not allow to prepare a fully
(detailed) evaluation of the available Dutch data on the dike pro-
tection. The problem is too wide and too complicated for that. How-
ever , this brief evaluation seems to be sufficiënt for the desig-
ners and institutions involved in this problem to find a way to the
detailed informations. The guidelines presented will bring de-
signers closer to the solution of the typical problem of the design
of dikes and the proper choice of revetments in respect to design
hydraulic load, ability of materials and skill, and desired func-
tion of constructionThe local conditions in respect to availability
and price of manpower, materials and equipment will be decisive for
the final choice of construction.

It has to be stressed that, whatever calculation method and protec-

tive system is adapted, the (local) experience and sound engineer-
ing judgement play an important part in a proper design of protec-
tive structures.

The research on dikes construction (sea and river dikes and other
sea-r and bank-defence systems) is still going on in the Nether-
lands. Research is now being directed towards a better probabilis-
tic description of the design, better understanding of the failure
mechanisms, application of new or alternative materials (e.g. waste
products of industry: minestone, slags, etc.) ,monitoring of damage,
economical aspects of design and optimal choice of constructions
applied incorporating future maintenance aspects. All these aspects
are being treated in accordance with the terms of the current re-
search on bank and dike revetments (fig. 37).

Because of the worldwide interest and the complexity of. the proper
design and management of the water defence systems the internatio-
nal cooperation in this field should be stimulated. It will not on-
ly safe money, but it will increase the reliability of the design
and in this way it may guarantee more safety for the population and
the economical values to be protected all over the world.

- 78 -
REFERENCES

1. Bakker, W.T. and J.K. Vrijling (1980), Probabilistic design of

sea defences. In: Proceedings 17th Coastal Engineering Conferen-
ce, Volume III, chapter 124, Sydney.
2. Bezuijen, A, Klein Breteler, M and Pilarczyk, K.W. (1985), Large
Scale tests on a block revetment placed on sand with a geotexti-
le as separation layer , 3rd Int. Conf. on Geotextiles, Vienna,
Austr ia.
3. Blaauw, H.G., De Groot, M.T. , Van der Knaap, P.C.M, and
Pilarczyk, K.W. (1984), Design of bank protection of inland na-
vigation fairways. Pilarczyk, K.W. (1984); Prototype tests of
slope protection systems.
Int. Conf. on Fleixible Armoured Revetments Incorp. Geotextiles,
London, 1984. Published by Thomas Telford Ltd., 1985.
4. Boer, K, Den, Kenter, C.K. and Pilarczyk, K.W. (1983), Large
scale model tests on placed blocks revetments, Coastal Structu-
res 1983, Washington.
5. Construction Industry Research and Information Association
(CIRIA, 1985), Reinforcement of steep grassed waterways, techni-
cal note 120, London.
6. Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory
(1983) Bitumarin B.V., Fixtone: Stability under wave attack,
report M1942.
7. Delft Hydraulics Laboratory (1984), Stability of the grass-dike
during superstorm (in Dutch), Report M 1980.
8. Delft Hydraulics Laboratory (1984), Resistance of grass on clay
slopes, Report M 1930 (in Dutch).
9. Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory
(1984), Slope protection by placed blocks, summary of results
1980-1984, report M 1725/M 1881 (in Dutch) (the final report
will be published in 1988).
10. Delft Hydraulics Laboratory (1985), Stability of the Eastern
Scheldt dikes under wave attack at the fixed water level , report
M 2036.
11. Delft Hydraulics Laboratory (1985), Hydraulic design criteria
for rockfill closuce of tidal gaps. Evaluation report M 1741.
12. Delft Hydraulics Laboratory (1987), Slope protection by loosely
materials. Static and dynamic stability under wave attack. Serie
reports under M 1983- research (in Dutch).
13. Graaff, van de (1983, Probabilistic design of dunes. In: Procee-
dings Coastal Structures 1983, Arlington, Virginia.
14. Hijum, E. van and Pilarczyk, K.W. (1982), Gravel beached: equi-
librium profile and logshore transport of coarse material under
regular and irregular wave attack, Delft Hydraulics Laboratory,
Publ. no. 274.
15. Kaa, E.J;, v.d., De Groot, M.T., Hijum, E, van, Pilarczyk, K.W,,
Stuip, J. and Verhey, H.J. (1985), Erosion control of navigation
embankments, XXVI PIANC Congress, Brussels.
16. Mature, P.C. (1982), The development of the Dutch polder dikes,
Keynots International Symposium "Polders of the World",
Lelystad, the Netherlands.
17. Meer, J.W. van der, and Pilarczyk, K.W. (1984), Stability of
rubble mound slopes under random wave attack, 19th International
Conference on Coastal Engineering, Houston, D.H.L. Publ. no. 332
(see also Breakwaters 1985 Conference, October 1985, London),
and D.H.L. Publ.no. 378, Febr. 1987).
18. Meer, J.W. van der, and Pilarczyk, K.W. (1986). Dynamic stabili-
ty of breakwaters, rock slopes and gravel beaches, 20th Inter-
national Conference on Coastal Engineering, Taipei.(Also, Delft
Hydraulics Laboratory, Publ.no. 379, March 1987).

- 79 -
Pilarczyk, K.W. and Boer, K. den, (1983), Stability and profile
development of coarse materials and their application in coastal
engineering. International Conference on Coastal and Port Engi-
neering in Developing Countries, Sri Lanka, D.H.L. public, no.
293 (see also "Gravel beaches: D.H.L. publ. no. 274, 1982).
Pilarczyk, K.W. (1985), Stability of revetments under wave and
current attack, 21st International Association for Hydraulic Re-
search Congress (IAHR), Helbourne.
Pilarczyk, K.W. (1986), Design aspects of block revetments.
Post-graduate course on bank and dike protection. Delft Univer-
sity of Technology, Civil Engineering Department (PATO), Delft,
the Netherlands.
Pilarczyk, K.W., Misdorp, R. , Lewis, R.J. and Visser, J (1986),
Strategy to erosion control of Dutch estuaries, 3rd Int. Sympo-
sium on River Sedimentation, Jackson, Mississippi.
Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses
(PIANC, 1986), Guidelines for the design and construction of
flexible revetments incorporated geotextiles for inland water-
ways. Report of a working group of the Permanent Technical Com-
mittee 1 (be published in 1987).
(1984), Flexible armoured revetments incorpo-
rated geotextiles. Proceedings of the International Conference
organised by the Institution of Civil Engineers, London, March
1984 (published by Thomas Telford Ltd., London 1985).
(1984), The Closure of Tidal Basins, Delft
University Press, the Netherlands.
(1984), Guide to concrete dike revetments,
Netherlands Committee for Research, Codes and Specifications for
concrete and Technical Advisory Committee on water defences. Re-
port 119, 1984 (in Dutch; English translation available).
(1985), The use of asphalt in hydraulic engi-
neering. Technical advisory Committee on water defences/Rijkswa-
terstaat. Rijkswaterstaat Communications, no. 37, 1985, The
Hague.
(1985), Guide for design of river dikes. Part
I: Opperriver-reaches. Technical Advisory Committee on water de-
fences, The Hague, 1985, Governmental Publication Office (in
Dutch).
(1984), Guide to the judgement of the safety
of dunes as a sea defence system. Technical Advisory Committee
on water defences (TAW), Staatsuitgeverij, The Hague, the
Netherlands (in Dutch).
(1986), Manual on Artificial Beach Nourish-
ment, Rijkswaterstaat, Centre for Civil Engineering Research,
Codes and Specifications, Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, the
Netherlands.
(1985), Probabilistic design of sea defences,
Technical Advisory Committee on water defences. Internal report
TAW 10 (in Dutch), the Netherlands.
Veldhuijzen van Zanten, R, Editor (1986), Geotextiles and Geo-
membranes in Civil Engineering (Handbook). A.A. Balkema, Rotter-
dam/Boston .
Vellinga, P (1983), Predictive computational model for beach and
dune erosion during storm surges. In: Proceedings Coastal Struc-
tures 1983, Arlington, Virginia.
Vellinga, P (1986), Beach and dune erosion during storm surges,
Doctor thesis, Delft university of Techn., Civil Eng. Depart-
ment, Delft, the Netherlands.(Also DHL Publ.no.372 Dec. 1986).
Vrijling, J.K. (1985), Probabilistic Design of Waterretaining
Structures, in the Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study
Institute: Conference on the Engineering Reliability and Risk in
Water Resources, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A.
- 80 -
 APPENDIX I

DESIGN CRITERIA
FOR
PLACED BLOCK REVETMENTS
AND
GRANULAR FILTERS
by

A. Bezuijen , Delft Geotechnics

M. Klein Breteler, Delft Hydraulics
K.J. Bakker , Rijkswaterstaat, Hydraulic Eng. Div
 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PLACED BLOCK REVETMEMTS AND GRANULAR FILTERS

by

A. Bezuijen, Delft Geotechnics, The Netherlands

M. Klein Breteler, Delft Hydraulica, The Netherlands
K.J. Bakker, Public Works Department (Rijkswaterstaat), The Netherlands

ABSTRACT

Design criteria for the coverlayer and filter layer of a placed block revetment
are presented. These design criteria were derived on the basis of large scale
model tests on revetments and tests on granular filters. It is shown that the
hydraulic loading in the filter layer can be described with equations of quasi-
stationary flow. General filter criteria are developed on the basis of the
similarity between flow in channels and flow in the pores of a filter.

1 . INTRODUCTION

In several areas of the world the land has to be protected against the sea by
dikes. These dikes themselves must be protected against wave action by a
revetment.
The design of the revetment was formerly based on tradition and experience. For
the Deltaplan, however, the Dutch Department of Public Works (Rijkswaterstaat)
has the task of guaranteeing safety of dikes in conditions that are outside our
experience. Therefore fundamental knowledge of revetment failure mechanisms is
essential. To acquire the knowledge necessary for the design of placed block
revetments the Dutch Department of Public Works commissioned Delft Hydraulics
and Delft Geotechnics to carry out a research project on the stability of this
type of revetments. Large scale model tests and detailed tests have been
performed in this research project, the latter to investigate individual
failure measurements in detail. In addition to these tests analytical and
numerical models have been developed to determine the pore pressure response
under the coverlayer when it is subjected to waves.
This research programme has increased the qualitative and quantitative
knowledge about possible failure mechanisms in a placed block revetment. The
results will be used to assess the safety of existing revetments in the
Netherlands and also for the design of new revetments. The results will be
especially useful when a revetment has to be built with local materials for
which there is llttle experience.
This paper describes the theoretically based steps in the design procedure for
placed block revetments: the calculation of the uplift pressures below the
coverlayer and the hydraulic gradients in the sublayers and subsoil. The uplift
pressures are compared wi-th the strength of the coverlayer against lifting and
the hydraulic gradients with the strength of the subsoil against filter
erosion.
These steps are not the only steps in revetment design. The geotechnical
stability of the structure is also important and there must be no possibility
that the sublayer can be washed out through the coverlayer. These geotechnical
steps have been studied in the research programme [1, 2], but are not discussed
in this paper.
The design steps are closely inter-related. The hydraulic loads on the
coverlayer, the filter layer (the granular sublayer directly below the
coverlayer) and subsoil are described in Chapter 2.
The loads on the coverlayer are used to evaluate its stability. This is
discussed in Chapter 3. Information about the hydraulic loads in filter layers
and the subsoil can be used to design a filter which is not sand tight
according to geometrie rules, but which will be stable for the hydraulic loads
- 1 -
expected. In order to design such a filter, using less stringent filter rules,
it was necessary to obtain more detailed information on the strength of non-
geometrical granular filters. How this knowledge was gained, is dealt with in
Chapter 4.

2. HYDRAULIC LOADS

2.1 Loads which can contribute to failure

Wave attack on a revetment is a complicated process. In this paper we focus on

a type of block revetment frequently used in the Netherlands, see Figure 1.
This type of revetment comprises blocks placed on a filter layer of gravel or
minestone laid on the subsoil. There are only small joints between the blocks.

phreatic line

Figure 1: Placed block revetment with granular filter layer

This type of revetment may be subjected to the following types of hydraulic

loads:
- shear forces on the coverlayer caused by wave run-up and run-down on the
revetment surface
- dynamic pressure forces caused by wave impact
- quasi-stationary pressure forces on the coverlayer caused by the difference
between the pore pressures in the filter layer and the wave pressures on the
revetment
- shear forces on the grains of the subsoil due to water movement in the filter
layer.

The shear forces on the coverlayer are a dominant type of hydraulic loading on
breakwaters. For placed block revetments, however, this type of loading can be
neglected. This is because of the great strength of the coverlayer parallel to
the slope. The loading forces in this direction are unimportant. In fact, the
forces perpendicular to the revetment surface are decisive for coverlayer
stability.
Although the wave impact is the most visually impressive loading, it is not
necessarily the most dangerous. The duration of wave impact loading is
generally less than a second (0.1 to 0.4 s) and to move a block more than just
a few millimeters out of the revetment in such a short period would require
enormous acceleration forces. In addition the force caused by the wave impact
is transferred inside the revetment and only the considerably damped reaction
forces, generated by the impact and transferred in the opposite direction can
damage the revetment.

- 2 -
The two hydraulic loads last mentioned are of major importance when analysing
the stability of the revetment:
- quasi-stationary pressure differences which result In uplift pressures that
can exist long enough to lift blocks out of the revetment, and
- shear forces on the grains of the subsoil due to water flow in the filter
layer which can cause filter erosion.

The knowledge that quasi-stationary phenomena are dominant simplifies the

description of the hydraulic loads on a revetment due to wave attack
considerably. The pore pressure distribution in the filter layer, necessary for
the calculation of uplift pressures and the water velocities in the filter
layer, can be described with a quasi-stationary flow model which is governed by
the equation:

V'kV$ = 0 (1)
where: <J> : the potential piezometric head Cm]
k : the permeability [m/s]

For the type of revetment shown in Figure 1, the permeability of the filter
layer is often much larger than the permeability of the subsoil which can
therefore be neglected. In most structures the pore pressure distribution will
be dominated by the flow in the filter layer which is parallel to the slope. In
this situation the mean potential (<j>) can be derived using:

<(> - l/b <j> dx (2)

with: b : the thickness of the filter layer Cm]

Equation (1) then simplifies to;

d20 4>-<j),
(3)
dz z
where: z the vertical axis Cm]
the potential on the surface of the revetment Cm]
the mean potential in the filter layer Cm]
the leakage factor Cm]

The leakage factor is defined as:

\ - sina /(bDk/k') (4)

where: et the slope of the revetment C-]
b the thickness of the filter layer Cm]
D the thickness of the coverlayer Cm]
k' the permeability of the coverlayer Cm/s]
k the permeability of the filter layer Cm/s]

Solutions for Equation (3) are presented in the following sections. A numerical
solution is presented in Section 2.2, the results of which are confirmed by
comparison with results of large scale model tests.
An analytical solution is presented in Section 2.3, which can be usefully
applied in the design of a revetment.

- 3 -
 2.2 Numerical calculations

Equation (3) can be solved using a rather simple finite difference

discretisation (see Figure 2 ) .

Figure 2: Finite difference discretisation used in the STEENZET/1 program

Near a joint in the coverlayer the flow to the joint raust be equal to the flow
from the joint plus the flow through the joint. This leads to the following
equation:
1 •kbD
<J>. ,1 +
^ 2 kbD <ïïïï7K-i + *i + i) +
*t,i> (5)
FÏ7
where: <{>. : the potential in the filter layer near joint i Cm]
<j> . : the potential on the revetment near joint i Em]
L ' : the length of the blocks Cm]
For the other parameters, See Equations (2) and (H)

With some modifications for the highest and lowest joint in the revetment and
at any phreatic surface, Equation (5) can be used for every joint in the
revetment.
In the computer programme STEENZET/1 this set of equations is solved
iteratively in order to take into account turbulent flow. A turbulent flow
description is used for the joints of the revetment, whereas a linear
description is used for the filter layer. If turbulent flow is expected in the
filter layer, the permeability at mean hydraulic gradiënt is used.
In order to solve the pressure distribution, or potential, in the filter layer
with STEENZET/1, it is necessary to know the permeabilities of the coverlayer
and the filter layer and the pressure distribution generated by wave attack on
the surface of the coverlayer.
In the research programme mentioned above permeability experiments have been
performed to determine the permeability of coverlayer and filter layer. These
experiments have led to permeability formulas described in [8]. To date an
adequate description of the time-dependent pressure distribution on the
coverlayer (the wave pressures) has not been made. Data recorded in model tests
have been used, in the numerical calculations.
These model tests were performed at scales of 1:1 or 1:2 in the Delta Flume of
Delft Hydraulics and made it possible to test the validity of the numerical
model. The pore pressure response calculated, using the wave pressures and
permeabilities measured in the model, has been compared with the pore pressure
measured in the model. A result of such a pore pressure response simulation is
presented in Figure 3.

_ H-

i
A best fit calculation is also presented in addition to a calculation with
measured values of the permeabilities. The best fit result gives an indication
of the uncertainty in the determination of the permeabilities and of the
accuracy of the numerical model for describing the measured phenomena. From
Figure 3 it can be concluded that this accuracy is good for this type of
revetment. In a structure without a filter layer a different model has to be
used [33. Such a model, STEENZET/2, has been developed and is described in [4].

— measured Hj = 0.3m
---calculated k' = 0.01 m/s K =0,1 m/s
1-1 best fit k' = 0.02 m/s 5 =2.41
0
-1

-2
pressure
[kN/m2]7800 7845 78.90 7935 7^80 8025 8070 8115 81.60 Q205 82 50
time [si

Figure 3: Measured and calculated pore pressure response

f indicates the point where measured and calculated pressures are
compared

008

0.04-

- 0.04- -

-0.08-:

Figure kt Calculated hydraulic gradiënt at maximum uplift pressures on the

revetment

- 5 -
From the pore pressure distribution in the filter layer it is easy to calculate
the hydraulic gradiënt and the local filter velocity. The result of such a
calculation, the hydraulic gradiënt in the filter layer at the time of maximum
uplift pressure, is presented in Figure H together with the uplift pressures
over the coverlayer at that moment.

2.3 Analytical oaloulations

Although the numerical calculations showed the validity of the calculation

model, the model can be too complicated to apply in the early stages of the
design. As an alternative analytical solutions are also possible if a linear
relationship between filter velocity and hydraulic gradiënt is assumed and if
wave pressures on the revetment are schematized. In this type of solution the
leakage factor U ) is an important parameter.
The solution derived by Wolsink [5] gives a good indication of the maximum
uplift pressure that can be expected on a coverlayer loaded by wind waves.
Using the schematisation shown in Figure 5 and some simplifications in the
description of the pore pressures near the hydraulic surface the following
formula for the maximum difference in potential ($_ ) has been derived:
max
H
A<t> X (1 - exp(-tana tanB -y).)+ ~] [ 1 - exp(-2z,/A)] :6)
max 2tana tanB
where: the position of the phreatic surface Cm]
H wave height Cm]
b
a the slope of the revetment [°]
6 the angle of the wave (see Figure 5)

A graphical presentation of Equation (6) is also shown in Figure 5 for Zj - Hv

ï ï l i 6 i è » 10
Hb/X
Figure 5:- Results obtained with the 'Wolsink' solution and the schematization
used

A long leakage factor X and a small value 'of 6 will result in high uplift
pressures. In [6] it is shown that the schematization of the wave pressures, as
presented in Figure 5 is relatively accurate at the moment of maximum run down
when the maximum uplift pressures are expected. Values of between 20 and 60
degrees were found for the angle B.

- 6 -
The maximum negative hydraulic gradiënt in the filter layer is reached if there
is no pressure building up under the coverlayer. In this situation the
potential in the filter layer in each pöint is equal to the position of that
point. The maximum negative hydraulic gradiënt is therefore determined by the
slopeof the revetment. It can never be less than the value -sinci. Normally the
slope of a revetment varies between 1:2 and 1:7 and the maximum negative
hydraulic gradiënt possible between 0.4H and 0.14. The hydraulic gradiënt
present in the filter layer is often even less, see Figure 4. This means that
in most cases the maximum negative hydraulic gradiënt is so small that it is
not necessary to apply geometrie filter criteria. Less stringent hydraulic
criteria, which can be used, are presented in Chapter H.

3. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THE COVERLAYER

After the uplift pressures have been calculated the stability of the coverlayer
can be calculated provided that a strength criterion for it is known. In an
early stage of our research project a simple stability criterion was suggested:
the uplift pressure should never exceed the underwater weight of the blocks per
square metre. With such a criterion Equation (6) becomes very useful. Analysis
of the stability of various revetments built in the Netherlands indicates that
these do not in fact meet this stability criterion for storm conditions which
frequently occur. In spite of this the stability of these revetments has been
quite satisfactory in these conditions. This stability has probably been due to
friction and clamping forces. Friction and clamping forces between the blocks
lead to increased coverlayer strength; the clamping forces especially, however,
can rarely be quantified and it is always possible that they do not occur
between all blocks. Occasionally a block is not clamped between its neighbours,
but simply lies in the revetment. When analysing the stability of a coverlayer
the clamped blocks are unimportant since the stability is determined by the
incidental presence of loose blocks.
The stability of a loose block is determined by its weight, the friction force,
but also by the duration of the pressure difference and probably also by the
fact that water has to flow out of the filter layer to 'push' the block out of
the revetment. More experimental evidence is needed, about the latter aspect.
To date the stability of a loose block in a block revetment has been analysed
analytically using Equation (3) and stability factors which depend on the mass
of the block, the friction force etc, [93. A more detailed numerical analysis
is, however, possible with special versions of STEENZET/1 which includes the
calculation of the block movement and acceleration forces if uplift pressures
exceed the pressure corresponding to the weight of the block [7]. A result of
such a stability calculation, in which a maximum block movement of 1.5 cm was
allowed is presented in Figure 6 and compared with the results of a large scale
model test. The stability is presented as a dimensionless parameter H/AD
against 5, the surf similarity parameter. Where H is the incoming wave height,
A the relative density of the blocks ((p -p)/p) and D the thickness of the
blocks.
From Figure 6 it is clear that the measured stability is higher than the
calculated value. This higher measured value is due to the difference between
the failure criterion used in the model and that used in the calculations and
the fact that there is clamping between the blocks in the model tests. It
should be noted that the scatter in the calculated values of H/AD is much
larger for the shorter leakage factor. In. this situation the stability is
determined by the local steepness of the measured wave pressures at run down
which varies more than the general wave pressure distribution on the revetment,
a factor which is decisive for the stability of a revetment with a long leakage
factor. The drawn Unes give the minimum stability calculated. This minimum is
important in the design of a revetment.

- 7 -
 4-

3 -

2-
JH_
AD *©.
©
x calculQted X = 0.19m
• cülculated X = 0 32 m
© measured X estimated O 3m
-+•
10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Figure 6: Stability calculations for a loose block in a block revetraent

U. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR GRANULAR FILTERS

4.1 Theoretlcal background

Instability of a placed block revetment can be caused by several failure

mechanisms, such as uplift of the coverlayer, dealt with in Chapter 3, or
unacceptable erosion of the base material under the filter layer. The latter
causes deformation of the coverlayer, leading to the loss of the regular
pattern of the blocks which decreases the stability enormously. For this reason
investigations on filter stability have been included in our research program
on placed block revetments.
Granular filters have a much wider field of application than placed block
revetments. They are used in bed protection, offshore structures, rubble mound
breakwaters, in front of seawalls, etc. The results, presented in this chapter,
refer specially to granular filters between a block revetraent coverlayer and
the core (sand) of a dike or bank protection, but are applicable to any
granular filter.

As occurs in an open channel, the base material will only be set into motion if
the current near the interface is sufficiently large. This means that if the
hydraulic gradiënt in the filter is sufficiently small, no erosion will take
place, even if the pores in the filter are much bigger than the grains of the
base material.
However, if the pores are smaller than the grains of the base material then no
erosion can ever ocour, even at an unrealistically high hydraulic gradiënt.

Conventional design criteria for granular filters rely completely on the

geometrical condition that the pores of the filter have to be smaller than the
base material grains. This criterion leads to what is referred to as a
"geometrically sand tight" gran ular filter. An uneconomic consequence of this
conventional design criterion is that in many applications several layers of
filter material have to be used to guarantee sand tightness.
An advantage of the convent ional design criterion, however, is that no
knowledge of the loading condit ion is necessary in order to design a granular
filter.

- 8 -
Since in many cases, such as block revetments, Information about the loading
conditions is available, more economie design criteria can be applied which
take into account this information. In Chapter 2 it is shown that the maximum
gradiënt in the filter layer (directed downward along the slope) is never
larger than sina. Model tests have been carried out on filters which in fact
demonstrate that in this situation, conventional design criteria are too
stringent, see for example [15] and C U ] , A filter which is not geonetrically
sand tight can still perform satisfactorily up to a certain filter velocity
(and accompanying pressure gradiënt in the filter).
The basic assumption behind the design criteria proposed here is that the flow
in the pores of a filter is similar to the flow in channels, even at the
threshold of sediment transport. It is assumed that, given a granular filter
with pores much wider than the grains in the base layer, the critical shear
over the sand interface is equal to the critical shear in a channel with the
same bed material.
The threshold of sediment motion in open channels has been investigated very
thoroughly by various scientists in the past. Shields [10] for example, found
the following (empirical) formula for the critical shear:

i|> Ag D b50 v (7)

er
with: critical shear [N/ma]
. er Shields parameter [-]
relative density of sand grains (p -p)/p (-)
gravity [m/s2]
grain size corresponding to 50% by weight
b50 Cm]
of finer particles
mass density of water [kg/m3]
mass density of sand [kg/m3]

The Shields parameter \|> was determined empirically by Shields and depends,
among other things, on thesgrain size and specific weight of the base material.
i|> is plotted against D 5 Q in Figure 7. The figure is derived6for a sand bed
wfth relative density A » T?55 and for a water viscosity v - 10 m 2 /s.

0.1
By introducing the shear velocity,
v, - /(x/p), Equation (7) can be
0.05 z^_ ^ ^
4>;s
rearranged as follows: 0.03
/( 0.15 0.3 0.5 1 2 5|mm]10
*cr *s A* W (8)
Db50
An equation for the critical filter
velocity in a granular filter
v„ can be derived from Equation (8), Figure 7: Shields parameter
assuming a simple v„/v ratio:

v^, • n v - n/e /(\D Ag DHt.n) (9)

f er per s ° b50
with: n porosity of filter [-]•
e coëfficiënt - v * / v D [-]
v critical pore velocity [m/s]
per
The coëfficiënt e takes into account the differences between granular filters
and open channels, for example, the fact that the current distribution in the
pores of the filter near the interface is different from that in an open
channel. In case of a filter there is hardly any development of a boundary
layer at the interface due to the irregular flow area between the grains.
Consequently the shear velocity is bigger than at the bottom of an open

- 9 -
channel. The magnitude of the coëfficiënt e has been de.termined empirically.
This is discussed in Section M.2.

Equation (9) is derived for stationary flow parallel to a horizontal interface.

The influence of oscillatory flow can be estimated by considering an open
channel. The threshold of sediment motion in an open channel is usually
encountered at a smaller velocity amplitude with oscillatory flow than with
stationary flow. This is because there is no time for a boundary layer or an
ordinary velocity distribution to develop during each wave period, which causes
a higher shear velocity. With filters however, since there is no development of
a boundary layer or of an ordinary velocity distribution with either stationary
or oscillatory flow, it is expected that the critical filter velocity amplitude
with oscillatory flow will be equal to the critical filter velocity with
stationary flow.
A formula describing the influence o f a sloping interface and a perpendicular
gradiënt component, can be derived as follows, assuming that* at threshold of
sediment motion, there is an equilibrium of three forces [ 1 1 ] , see Figure 8.

Fj_ : perpendicular force assumed to be induced by the

perpendicular gradiënt component ij_ [N]
F : parallel force induced by the flow parallel
P
to the interface [N]
F : gravitational force [N]
o
Figure 8

F + F since
P g tan<)>, the coëfficiënt of friction (10)
F cosa + Fix
g
with: <j> : natural angle of repose of single grains of
the base material C°3
a : slope angle [°-]

The influence of the sloping interface is represented by the force ratio

(F /F ) relative to this force ratio at o. - 0 and ij_ - 0. It is assumed to be
eqBal8to the critical shear stress T relative to the critical shear stress at
a - 0 and ij_ - 0: er
T F /F
or p g
(11)

Since T - p vj, Equations (10) and (11) can be used to derive the following
equation which describes the influence of the sloping interface and the
perpendicular gradiënt component:
F.
sin(<J> - a)
*cr A- (12)
rvT~! sin<f>
g
*cr
in which: [v* ] 0 - critical shear velocity at a - 0 and i - 0.
*cr j_
A first order approximat'ion for the quotiënt Fj/F can be given by using
Equation (13) which describes the critical vertical gradiënt for fluidization
[12]:

Ml "b> (13)

with: if = the critical vertical gradiënt for fluidization [-]

n£ = porosity of the base tnaterial [-3

- 10 -
For the situation with a horizontal interface the critical filter velocity is
zero if i f « ij_. With this fact, and Equations (8), (9) and (12) the following
formula has been derived:

v
fcr " n / e *^*g Ag D
b50 (sln(<(> " a ) / s i n * " l y ^ d - nb))) (11)
This r'esult is compared with results of model investigations in Section 1.2.

1.2 Model investigations

Model investigations have been performed on various filters under different

loading conditions to measure the critical hydraulic gradiënt and filter
velocity. The critical filter velocity, v. , is the maximum velocity in the
filter at which the sediment motion is such tnat the stability of the total
structure is not yet in danger. This appears, in fact, to be comparable to the
criterion used by Shields.

The investigations with stationary flow were performed in the Delft Hydraulics
Filter-box. As an example, the test set-up with a sloping interface is shown
schematically in Figure 9.

The hydraulic gradiënt was increased

step by step until considerable
erosion took place.
A test was completed without
interruption. During each step the
hydraulic gradiënt was kept
constant for at least half an hour,
after which the transported sand
was collected and dried.
Sand transport of 0.2 gr/s/m of dry
sand was considered to bè critical.
The tests were performed using sand
with steep sieve curves and which
were well compacted, with an
estimated porosity of approximately
10*.

Figure 9: Delft Hydraulics Filter-box test set-up

Some of the results of the model investigations using a horizontal interface

and stationary flow are presented in Figure 10.

MEASUREO:
A Db50= -82mm
o Db50= .16mm
V 0550= .K)mm
CALCULATEO:

30 AO 50 70 90 —-'

Figure 10: Filter-box tests stationary flow parallel to a horizontal

interface.
The values for the coëfficiënt e determined empirically from Figure 10, were

- 11 -
 •0.2'
if 0.1 < < 0.2 mm: e 0.75 Re (15)
b50
if 0.7 < < 1 mm: e 0.22
b50
The Reynolds number Re is shown to be related to the filter grain size as
follows:

Re v
f Df15 / v

A dependency of the Reynolds-number Re for small values of Dh_n could be

expected from a theoretical point of view [13]. From measurements of Brauns
[14] it can be concluded that for 0.2 < D.
calculated by a linear interpolation.
b50 < 0.7 the value of e can be

Tests on sloping interfaces were performed to test Equation (1*1). Two tests
were performed with fine base material (D.50 - 0.15 mm) with cota - 3 and -3.
Both tests resulted in the same value for the natural angle of repose $, which
confirms the validity of Equation (14) for 1_L * 0. The results are shown in
Figure 11, together with the results of Fernandez-Lugue 4 v.Beek [11], who
performed tests on a sand bottom in a pipe.

The test results which show the

80 •—- r TT"r"—• • ' 1—
influence of the vertical
1
1 , ; • '; : gradiënt component are
i : ; i ., , presented in Fig. 12. The
60 critical horizontal gradiënt
component for l± *
1 j 1,T H ! " " ^ -0-
1 > 0 is given
40 ! relative to the critical
!
: j MEASURE0 horizontal gradiënt at
i 1 ;
20 4>[°] T
i i j ' 0 cot(a)= 3
1
1 1 ij_ - 0. Gradients are used here
1 j 1 i • cot(a)=-3 because filter velocities were
i not measured in most of the
Db50 Immjl -< r * ) ! V [111
.2 .3 .4 .5 .7 1 1.5 2 tests. The calculated values
of the critical hydraulic
gradiënt given in Fig. 12 have
been calculated from v, using
Figure 11: Stat. flow along the permeability law of
a sloping interface Forchheimer [14].

The coefficients of the permeability law were adjusted in such a way that the
inaccuracy of these coefficients did not affect the aocuracy of i .
1.2
er
| o > » MEASURED
! 0
1.0 ST«* 0 |o E v E } CALCULATED
O !
o Df 15 = 1.5 mm
.8 0
! } 0b50= .15mm
f • Df 15 = 3.3 mm
t>Dfl5=10.5mm Db50= 82mm
.6
1
1^? •

.4
!
1
.2 r_ i
1 0
iero 1
i 11
»x l -1
.
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Figure 12: Stationary flow with vertical gradiënt component.

- 12 -
Frotn the figures it is clear that the calculated results are in good agreement
with the measured values, except for the tests with a vertical gradiënt
component. From the large variance in the measured values shown in Figure 12
one oan conclude that there are influences which are not yet completely
understood. Nevertheless Equations (14) and (15) can be used for design
purposes, since they give a safe approximation.
The tests with cyclic flow and with a oombination of cyclic and stationary flow
were performed in the Delft Hydraulics pulsating water tunnel. The test set-up
and test results are shown in Figures 13 and 14.
TUNNEL ROOF BALLAST LASER-DOPPLER VELOCITY METER
3
to
pulsating
piston

-PRESSURE CELL -TUNNEL BOTTOM

lm

Figure 13: Vertical cross section of Pulsating water tunnel.

The tests were performed with a wave period of 2 sec, which is relatively small
compared with wave periods experienced on dikes and bank protection.
From the results of the measurements it is clear that the critical filter
velocity amplitude for cyclic flow is equal to the critical filter velocity for
stationary flow, even for this small wave period.

Finally the formulas have been verified successfully by model investigations

carried out at a prototype scale in a wave flume.
50
"ö"Db50= .16,Dfi5 = 3.8mm
Imm/s
T ° b 5 0 = - 8 2 ; D f 1 5 = 20mm
O)
vfcr i oA MEASURED

\ ! — CALCULATED
30 \

20
CYCLIC
COMPONENT
10
v
f
0 10 20 30 401mm/s]
STATIONARY COMPONENT

Figure 14: Results from measurements with non-stationary flow

4.3 Discussion of results

From the previous sections it can be concluded that the calculated critical
filter velocity agrees with the measured values. From the fact that the
measured trends correspond very well with the trends calculated for the
critical filter velocities, it can be concluded that the theory is correct. The
coëfficiënt e is fitted to the measurements, which results in a useful formula.
The present investigation was basically different from most previous work in
this field, which was aimed directly at a description of the critical hydraulic
gradiënt. Most of earlier work did not investigate the basic causes of erosion,
which are the velocity and accompanying shear stress between the pores of the

- 13 -
filter near the interface. This led to the need to solve two problems at the
same time: an equation for the critical filter velocity and a permeability
equation. By aiming in the present investigation at the critical filter
velocity only, it has been possible to compare the erosion in granular filters
with the erosion in open channels, which simplified the investigation.

A design diagram for practical use is given in Figure 15. One can start in
this diagram, for example, at a certain characteristic grain size of the filter
(here 3.8 mm for a base material of 0.15 mm) and find the critical hydraulic
gradiënt (here 0.2) via the filter porosity, 0.35, and slope angle, coto - 4,
as is indicated by the broken line (example) or one can start at a desired
critical gradiënt and find the necessary filter characteristics. The diagram is
based on Equations (14) and (15) and the Forchheimer permeability law [11].

Figure 15: Design diagram

5. CONCLUSIONS

In this paper it has been shown, that in order to analyse the strength and
stability of placed block revetments it is not sufficiënt to look at the
external hydraulic loads alone. It is also necessary to analyse the internal
water flow underneath the coverlayer of the revetment.
This analysis can be made successfully using the model techniques employed when
analysing groundwater flow. For placed block revetments on a granular filter
especially it appears to be possible to derive simple analytical solutions for
the potential distribution in the filter. Comparison with the results of the
model tests and more detailed numerical solutions has shown that the method is
accurate for calculating the maximum uplift pressures. Depending on the
strength criterion against uplifting for a loose block, it is possible to
evaluate the stability.
Concerning the filter stability, it seems that for this type of structure the
hydraulic gradients are relatively low, and so an approach based on
geometrically sand tight filter criteria will be too strict. Using an approach
in which the hydraulic load is taken into account gives a much less stringent
criterion enabling perhaps local material to be used instead of other materials
at high costs.
The also presented hydrodynamic solution for filter stability, based on the
analogy between filter flow near an interface and channel-flow, in which the
slope angle and perpendicular gradiënt are taken into account leads to less
stringent filter criteria.
- 14 -
REFERENCES

[I] Hoogeveen, R.,

Analytical solutions for judging the geotechnical stability of block
- revetments (in Dutch).
Delft Geotechnics, Report CO-286010/4, 1986.
[2] Klein Breteler, M.,
Washing of filter grains through the coverlayer (in Dutch).
Delft Hydraulios, Report M1881-16B, 1985.
[3] Bezuijen, A., Klein Breteler, M., Pilarczyk, K.W.,
Large scale model tests on a block revetment placed on sand with a
geotextile as separation layer.
Proc. Illrd Int. Conf. on Geotextiles, Vienna, 1986.
[4] Hjortnaes-Pedersen, A.G.I., Bezuijen, A., Best, H.,
Non-stationary flow using the Finite Element Method.
Proc. 9th Int. Eur. Conf. on Geotechnics and Foundation Engineering,
1987.
[5] Placed block revetments, research 1980-198*1, Summary report
(in Dutch).
Delft Hydraulics/Delft Geotechnics, Report M1881/ XIV, CO-272500/7,
1984
[6] Duits, E. te,
Sensitivity analysis (in Dutch).
Delft Geotechnics Report CO-276920/5, 1986.
[7] Hoogeveen, R., Bezuijen, A.,
Design charts with STEENZET/1 (in Dutch).
Delft Geotechnics Report CO-28570/7, 1987.
[8] Klein Breteler, M.,
Permeability of the coverlayer (in Dutch).
Delft Hydraulics Report M1881/hl95.07, 1986.
[9] Klein Breteler, M.,
Coverlayer stability without clamping or interlocking.
Delft Hydraulics Report M1881-04, 1986.
[10] Paintal, A.S.,
Concept of critical shear stress in loose boundary open channels.
Journal of Hydraulic Research 9 (197D, No. 1.
[II] Fernandez Luque R., Beek, R. van,
Erosion and transport of bed-load sediment.
Journal of Hydraulic Research 14 (1976), No. 2.
[12] Graauw, A. de,
Storm surge barrier Oosterschelde; Stability of granular filters for
stationary gradients (in Dutch).
Delft Hydraulics. Report M 1488, Volume 1, February 1982.
[13] Koenders, M.A.,
Hydraulic Criteria for filters, internal report.
Estuary Physics, 1985.
[14] Brauns, J.,
Critical hydraulic gradiënt for filters with horizontal flow
(in German).
Wasserwirtschaft 10/85, October 1985.
[15] Graauw, A." de, Meulen, T. van der, Does de Bye, M. v.d.,
Design criteria for granular filters.
Delft Hydraulics, Publication No. 287, January 1983.

- 15 -
 APPENDIX II

PROBABILISTIC DESIGN
OP
WATERRETAINING STRUCTURES
by

J.K. Vrijling
Rijkswaterstaat, Locks and Weirs Division
ENGINEERING RBLIABILITY AND RISK

IN WATER RESOURCES

L. Ouckstein and E.J. Plate, Eds.

Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht,
The Netherlands
1986
 - 1-

PROBABILISTIC DESIGN OF WATBRRJ5TAINING STRÜCTORJBS

drs. ir. J.K. Vrijlinq

ABSTRACT

Water retaining structures are designed to keep the water in

the basin and out of habitated areas.
The rich tradition in the field of dikes in Holland as well
as the history of dam disasters shows that complete safety
is unattainable.
Realizing this, a method to assess the probability of
failure of a system of water retaining structures has to be
developed.
First all possible failure mechanisms of the structures and
all other possible causes (management, error, human error
etc.) have to be determined.
Then the relation between the failure mechanisms and the
other causes on one hand and the ultimate consequence a
flood or complete draw down has to be analyzed. The fault
tree is a very helpful tooi to solve this problem.
Thirdly the probability of failure of the various mechanisms
has to be calculated by means of probabilistic calculations
and the probability of occurence of the other causes has to
be estimated on the basis of historical data.
Now the probabilities of the base events (failure mechanisms
and other causes) may be combined in the fault tree to
derive the probability of the failure of the water retaining
system
And in the end the question arises if this probability is
acceptable from social economie point of view.
 2

INTRODUCTION

In this paper the developments in the field of the

probabilistic design of water retaining atructures in
Holland, are outlined.
Although the theoretical methode were already known, the
practical application of probabiliatic methods was
stimulated by the design of the storm surge barrier
Oosterschelde. The good experience with these methods, that
enabled the designers to unify the design of structures,
mechanical eguipment and management in one approach, sparked
off developments in the field of dike design. At this stage
the methods are well known but the application is limited to
difficult cases. Thus the new dune design regulation is
based on probabilistic reaaoning. And a purap-storage scheme
with 50 m. high dams currently under design will be
evaluated along probabilistic linea.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

A probabilistic analysis aims at identifiing all possible

causes of failure of the water retaining system. Every case
may eventually lead to inundation of the hinterland or to
the loss of precious water. The depth of the analysis
depends on the description of the water retaining in detail.
A complete analysis is only possible if a very detailed des-
cription (e.q. as built files and on site measurements) is
avaible. In the design stage the analysis is necessarily
siroplified.
In this paper we will confine ourselves to the very
schematic description of the flood defence system of
Holland. Holland is in principle lying at or below the low
tide level of the sea. It is protected from sea floods by a
system of defences that consists of dikes and dunes. The
dikes are partly shielded from severe wave attack by shoals
(see fig. 1 ) .
 - 3 -

HILLS

'seadike

/ 'XkT
/
/ / shool /SYdune otd

<&>_ seodike H H, sluice

fig 1 Schematic sifuafion

 - 4 -

The system is continued along the river. Here the dike

changes gradually from sea dike into a river levee as the
tidal movement dampens upstream. In the dike along the river
a sluice gives access to an old harbour. The sluice has to
be closed by hand at waterlevels exceeding mean high water.
The main harbours are situated outside the dikes at a high
level and are thus of no concern.for this study.
The typical cross-section of a modern sea dike consists of a
body of sand covered with mattresses and asphalt
constructions in the zone attacked by waves and current.
The crest and the inside slope are covered by a layer of
clay with grass on top (see fig. 2 ) .
A dune is a natuarally deposited mass of sand (see fig. 3),
which is in a state of dynamic equilibrium. During heavy
weather sand is lost to the sea in a reshaping process that
enables the dune to withstand wave attack. Ouring thesummer
the loss is regained by accretion. The wave transport sand
to the beach and the wind takes it further inland.
A typical cross-section of a river levee is given in fig. 4.
The dike stands mostly on a layer of alluvial clay and is
also covered with clay. On the clay grows grass.

PAILÜRB MBCHAMISMS

Good engineering practice requires that attention should be

given to all possible modes of failure of the construction
under design.
This is a conunon approach in the design of concrete or
steel structures.
In the design of waterretaining structures as dams, dikes
and dunes the approach is gaining ground especially in
combination with probabilistic reasoning. This is the result
of the influence of the design of the storm surge barrier in
the Oosterschelde.
A non exhaustive overview of the failure mechanisms of dikes
or dams is given below.
 - 5 -

aipholhc
cone«tt

«torm hv^" 0 *
f lood

cbb

fig. 2 Seo dike

storm

fig. 3 Oune

high

low w; ;; ;; ;/ // S; 7/ //
V # // 6

tig. 4 River levee

 6 -

Overtopping ia a well known mechanism, which leads to

water entering the polder and to eoaking of the dike.
Wave overtopping ie also a mechanisn that gete a lot of
attention in dike design. In this case the aroount of
water entering the polder ie negligible, so the
dangeroue conaequencee, result frora the eoaking of the
body of the dike and eroeion of the inner slope.
A slip circle at inner slope may be caused amoung other
things by a high freatic plane in the dike*
This will be the case when the duration of the high
waterlevel is long or permanent.
Micro instability of the soil material at the inner
slope may result due to seepage and a high freatic
plane.
Erosion of the outer slope may be caused by wave
attack. The waves may be wind waves or displacement
wave8 from ships*
Erosion of the foreshore is caused by tidal or wave
induced currents.
Piping may occur i.e. the gradual formation of a
material entraining well. When the "pipe" eventually
reaches the high water side the process of internal
erosion will accelerate.
Sliding or tilt ing of the body of the dike may happen.
However this mechanism of failure is extremely unlikely
to occur for an earth dam. For rigid structures it is of
paramount importance.
Subsidence of the crest may occur due to settlement of
the dam and the subsoil.
Settlement may however also be caused by internal
erosion by oxidation of peat layers.
A slip circle in the outer slope may occur when a low
water follows an extreme high water (or sudden draw
down). The body of the dike is heavy with water and
slides down.
 overtopping settlement

wave overtopping slip eire Ie outer slope

slip circle innerslope

liquetaction

micro instability drifting ice

.pipmg ship collision

erosion outer slope

tilting erosion foreshore

fig 5 Overview of the tailure mechanisms of o dike

 8 -

A liquefaction may occur in the same situation. Rere

however also the presence of a loosely packed sand and a
steep foreshore is neceaaary.
During winter time the dike may be severely damaged by
drifting ice especially on rivers.
The evergrowing traffic on the waters and the increase
in the displacement of ships makes a collision a non
negligible risk.

The failure mechanisms of a dune are fairly similar to the

already mentioned mechanisms for dikes. Erosion of the outer
slope is however essentially different. The body of the dune
contains enough material to take a special shape during
storm surges: "the storm profiIe". During this reshaping
process material of the dune is deposited on the near
foreshore to flatten the profile. No material is lost.
Due to accretion and erosion the position of the beach and
the foot of the dune is changing continually. Different
phenomena occur if in this erratical process the underlying
trend is accretion, erosion or dynamic equilibrium.
In the design process one is most interested in the ultimate
limit state (ü.L.S.) of a failure mechanism. This state
describes the situation wherein the acting extreme loads S
are just balanced by the strength R of the construction. If
the ultimate limit state is exceeded the construction will
collapse or fail. The concept of the ultimate limit state is
given in fig. 7.
Beside the ultimate state there are situations where the
ever continuing presence of a load causes a deterioration of
constructional resistance over time without imminent danger
of failure.
In the case of the dike the mechanisms "erosion of the
foreshore" and "settlement" are examples.
This deterioration of constructional resistance may cause
unexpected failure in etreme conditions. However the
service-ability of the structure is often hampered before
failure (excessive leakage due to piping). The service-
ability limit state (S.L.S.) is treated in the same way as
the ultimate limit state.
 - 9 -

ef ö'S f óh"' óü'tèr* 'sïópë

wave overtopping

overtopping
y i

slip circle

„piping"

öynamic equilibrium

fig. 6 Failure mechanisms ot o dune

 - 10 -

A point of great practical imnportance is that a service-

ability limit state, i.e. deterioration of constructional
resistance over time, can be improved in two ways:
1. increasing the resistance to guarantee sufficiënt
strenght during the service life;
2. the deterioration of the resistance can be controlled by
inspection and maintenance procedures.

The second solution, although often economically feasible,

introduces a certain risk because the constructional safety
now depends partly on the care of other people.

The application of limit state analysis presupposes in a

certain way, that the transfer functions to transform
boundary conditions into loads and the theoretical models
defining the resAance (see fig. 7) are mathematically known
and manageable.
In the field of dike and dune design this is not generall/
true.
Especially for erosion and scour processes neither the
transfer function to transform waves and current into forces
nor the theoretical models for the stability of grains are
exactly known.
Here the simulation of the limit state in a scale model may
bring a solution (see fig. 8).
A scale model of the structure is exposed to combinations of
the natural boundary conditions. The amount of damage done
to the model is correlated to the boundary conditions to
develop a limit state eguation.
However model tests require utmost care in the
interpretation of the results for a number of reasons. First
the scaling is done on the basis of the assumed physical
laws of the limit state. If the assumption is not correct,
the results will be unreliable.
Secondly the scaling is only correct for one mechanism.
E.g. in breakwater tests the armour units are far stronger
than in prototype. So in reality the breakwater collapsed as
a consequence of armour unit breakage.
 - 11 -

FAILURE
PROBABILITY

CONVOLUTION

P D. F. P.D.F.
LOAD STRENQTH

TRANSFER THEORETICAL
FUNCTION MODEL

BOUNDARY
STRENGTH
CONDITIONS
NATURE PARAMETERS

fig.7 The concept of the ultimate limit state (U.L.SJ

FAILURE
PROBABILITY

J 1
r- —:
1—
1 J 1
1
r ...L... L.._.,
i
i SCALE TEST 1 j
i
' OR L !
1 FIELD DATA j
f- - — - . _ . _ - - .
1
i
1
1
L ........... ._J
1

1 |
BOUNDARY STRENGTH
CONDITIONS
PARAMETERS
NATURE

tig.8 BLACK BOX APPROACH of a limit state

 - 12 -

Thirdly limit state equations concentrate on equilibrium

bet ween load and resistance. In scale tests only daniage is
observable. Thus in the test, loads have to exceed
resistance by a margin.
In some cases, where the physical laws governing the
phenomena are not exactly known, field data of boundary
conditions, resistance parameters and damage are prefered as
a base for correlation.
Difficulties may however arise in extrapolating the limit
state equation to extreme loads (ü.S.L.) where field data
are missing.
For the dune erosion the field data where extrepolated by
extensive scale model (Vellinga 1983).

RISK ANALYSIS OFTHE SYSTBM BY. MEANS OF THB FAOLT TREE

APPRCACH

The goal of designing a flood defence system is to provide'

a certain safe protection against inundation for the people
and their property.
In the foregoing paragraph the modes of failure of dikes and
dunes were listed. Now the total probability of inundation
of the polder (see fig. 1) has to be assessed taking into
account the mentioned mechanisms and the sluice.
Looking at the defense system it is clear that it is a
series-system. If during a storm surge one of the elements
fails, the seadike, the dune, the sluice or the dikes along
the river, then the polder will inundate. For this simple
case the main fault tree is given in fig. 9. The link
between failure of a dike section and the limit states of
the failure mechanisms is analysed in a more detailed tree
(see fig. 10). The same fault tree is also suited to
desprible the failure of a dune. The main difference is that
erosion of the outer slope immediately under wave attack as
a protecting revetment is generally not present.
 - 13 -

FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE

SEADIKE SEAOIKE DUNE SEAOIKE SLUICE LEVEE
(deep water) (shoal) (river)

fig. 9 The mam faulttree of the f lood defence system

Further the actual position of the beach and the dune at the
moment of the storm surge is uncertairi due to the dynamic
equilibrium of accretion and erosion under normal
conditions. However if the beach and the dune recede too far
as a result of gradual erosion, the original profile will be
re-established by beach nourishment (maintenance; see fig.

The influence of human action is evident in the case of the

sluice. On one hand the sluice may fail due to technical
failure mechanism, such as loss of stability, collapse of
the doors, or piping or on the other hand due to human error
the sluice may stay open during a storm (see fig. 12).
It will be clear that the analysis of the sluice is very
schematic because no detailed description of the structure
is available.
 - 14 -

failgr»
(»«tH»OHfl

ov»r- brroch
toppmg

trosion
out*r
ï
int»rnol
«rosion
trotion
inntr
slop* tlop*
i>»

WQV« r«v*tm»nt ov»r- rtvt Hip

..ptpirig '
ottock jtr*ngtti foppmg ov*r topping cirtl»

foHur*
r«v»tm»nt
I
si*
tifti*
liqu»
fottion
es
h*od
SMpflgt
l*nght
cETEn
f lood
l*v»l
dik*
hught
wovt
EH^
run up
dik* htight,
tl op*
J^EL
fleee t*v»l
durgtion
fntficn
frtatir MQ

ars
g/oinin»
J. 2TB
-U&

roboit bar» constructen conttruihon

t*tti*m*nr *»ttl»rti»nt
hol*i hol*» htight g*cm»lry

WO»* thickn»n frieten loet» isnd

tov tidt frtatit plan» low tid» frcotic pion»
Ottock nifolt slop» o»oirntry gtom»try

tronon •rosion
'or« snort tor» thor»
JU.

prottction
curr»nfs sfr*njtft
• tg 10 Th» fautttr*» ol o dik» s»ction
 - 15 -

DUNE
BREACH

mathematical model
based on scale tests
and field data
U.L.S.
TRANSFER THEORETICAL
FUNCTlON MODEL

storm surge gram si ze

waves geometry

change ot
geometry

stochastic
model based
on field data
S.L.S.

tide, wind groinsize

geometry
waves,currenrs maintemonce

11 The process ot dun e erosion during storm surge modelled

by two limit states
 - 16

EVALOATION OP TBB PROBABILITY OP PAILORB

To evaluate the probability of inundation the probabilities

of failure of all theroechanismsmust be known. Every
possible limit state contributes in principle to the total
probability of a disaster.
The probability of failure of a mechanism may be found along
two ways.
1. assessment of historical data
2. probabilistic calculations.
In the field of large dams a lot of work has been done
(Middlebrooks 1953) to derive average probabilities of
failure from historical failure cases. The table below gives
some results.

cause % of cases

overtopping 30%
internal erosion 38%
slipcircles 15%
other 17%

Table I Causes of dam failure

The average probability of failure is 10~4 per dam per year.

These data are not useful in the design of dikes because

they do not reflect constructional improvements or simply
other circumstances. Por electrical and mechanical
components historical failure frequencies are very
important.
For constructional design the use of probabilistic
calculations is preferred. There are.three internationally
agreed levels on which the limit state eguations may be
solved.
 - 17 -

The limit state equation is mostly written as

Z - R(Xi . ...X^) - S(X n+1 Xm) « 0 1)

where R • resistance
S • load
Xi« basic variable

A level III calculation takes the probability density

function (p.d.f.) of all basic varibales into account and
calculates the exact probability of failure in case of
independent variables.
d3
Pr ( Z ^ O ) - fff fXi(Xi) ... fXw(Xm),dxi L. 2)
*M

Z < 0

where f (XJ[) • p.d.f. of Xj,

At level II the p.d.f.'s of the basic varibales are if

necessary approximated by a normal distribution in a more or
less refined manner.
Thereafter the expectation and Standard deviation of Z
are calculated by means of the equation
y~(z) -z (yi(xi) |^(xn)) 3)
m

*» »* 4)

and if Z is normally distributed

Pr (Z <: 0) - 1-$ | £~1~ 1 - $(f) 5)

where ^>( ) • Standard normal distribution

(3 « reliability index
 - 18 -

Iterative computer programs are available that give good

approximations of the exact failure probability for
non-normal basic variables and non-linear Z-functions
(advanced first order second moment approach, approximate
full distribution approach).

The normal design calculations which use characteristic

values for the basic variables and partial safety
coefficients according to some format are indicated with
level I.

where Rkar» skar " characteristic strength, load

The analyses of dikes is performed on level II and III.

The joint probability density function of wave sprectra and
storm surge levels is evaluated at level III. A physical
model (see fig. 13) is used to extrapolate the historical
data set of storm surges to the mentioned j.p.d.f. (Vrijling
and Bruinsma 1980).
The distribution of the storm surge level HW is of the
Gumbel type

F (h) • e" e " ^

HW 7)

wtiere oi - 1.96 8)
£ « 0.33

The conditional p.d.f. of significant wave heights is

modelled by
f (Hs) * N (>c, 0,692)
HS|HW
 - 19 -

where - V 3.45 HW - 7.67 + 4.50

for HW > 2.50 m

The wave steepness is normally diatributed.

f(üf) - N(0.0375, 0.0062) 9)

L

With this 8et of natural boundary conditons the limit state

of wave overtopping for the sea dike on deep water is
calculated as follows.

Z * h c - HW - Z 2 % - s - o - 1 10)

where h c * construction height

HW » storm surge level
1 75 H
Z2* * firjV 8 • t9«;wave runup
Hs * significant wave height
s » settlement
0 * oscillation
1 » sea level rise
 - 20

astro
nomica windfields
tide
£ north
£ 1
wave-
seo

windset-up generation
oeep woter
.J
£ £
storm shools local
surgelevel windfields

I
dike woves
ri locai
wave-
eastern
scheldt

generation

fig. 13 Model to predict wave spectra in conjunction

with storm surge levels

=l£

é
HW

fig. H The conditional probability density function of

wave energie on storm surge level
 21

The result of the level II calculation is summarized in

Table II
*
j-c er Xi %
*c 15.8 0.10 15.80 0.00
HW Gumbel 3.14 0.60

H8 0 0.69 0.753 0.20

Hs/I* 0.0375 0.006 0.031 0.19

8 0.50 0.10 0.51 0.00
b 0.40 0.10 0.41 0.00
1 0.10 0.03 0.101 0.00

P = 2.43 pf * 7.35 10 _3 Table II The result of the level II

calculation of the mechanism wave overtopping

The dune erosion may be calculated along the same lines. The
fact that the erosion is only known as a computer program is
no problem.
Z - B - M * E (HW, H s , o, 1, D 5 0 , prof) 11)

where B * dune breadth (m)

E( ) * erosion (computer program) (m)
prof « beach level (m 3 )
D50 • grain size of the sand (ym)
M •» model factor
 - I*. -

The level II result is given in table III

r G
*i
*
%

b 60.28 2.0 59.72 0.01

RW Gumbel 4.51 0.86
Hs 0 0.69 0.32 0.02
0 0.40 0.10 0.42 0.00
1 0.10 0.03 0.10 0.00
D50 225 2 200 0.06
Prof 0.0 60 -30 0.02
M 1.0 0.15 0.91 0.03

(i- 3.57 p f - 1.78 10"4

Table III The result of the level II calculation of the
mechanism dune erosion.

Por a typical river levee the probability of failure for the

relevant limit states may also be calculated on level II
(see Table IV).

mechanism
"i
overtopping 4.3 10-3
slipcircle 0.04 10-3
piping 21.0 10-3
micro instability 0.007 10-3

Table IV
An overview of the probabilities of failure of the
most important mechanisms of a river levee.
 - 23 -

The total probability of failure of the levee aection lies

between the following boundaries

4
max Pf < ^ Pf
j-l **3
sect j-l j 12)

21.0 • 10-3 ^ Pf 4 25.3 . 10~3

secL

For practical purposes these boundaries are sufficiently

narrow. Zf the correlations between the mechanisme caused by
the storm surge Ievel HW are taken into account one finds a
total probability of failure that equals the upper boundary.

The problem of the length of the total system is not so

easily solved. The summing up of the probabilities of
failure of the dike stretches, the dune and the river levee
leads to an unacceptable high probability of failure.
Therefore at this moment sections are checked on their own.

ACCEPTABLE RISK LEVELS FRON SOCIO-BCONOMIC POINT OF VIEW

The last question, but not the least important,ist which

probability of inundation is acceptable for society.
In Dutch dike design the Standard is a storm surge level
with a return period of 10.000 years, which must be fully
withstood by the sea defense system.
To accommodate the probabilistic calculations as shown in
this paper an acceptable probability of failure 10-times
smaller than the design frequency is advised (i.e. 10~ 5 ).
Studies are performed to find a more objective basis for the
acceptable probabilities of inundation. In these studies tw0
approaches are foliowed.
 - 24

One approach translates all daroage done by the inundation in

monatary units. Then the total coat formed by the investment
in a safer dike and the present value of the risk is
minimised.
The other approach looks only to the number of people that
will drovm in the case of inundation. This number may be
looked at from two points of view.
The first is the point of view of the indivudual, who
equates the probability to drown with the normal risk to die
in an accident (10~ 4 ). An acceptable probability by
inundation is from this viewpointi

PIf < B* . 10-4

acc^ — — (13)
Pdlf
where 0.1 « B * « 10 « policy factor
p
óiïf " probability to drown given
inundation

The second point of view is that of society. The assumption

is that society finds a risk acceptable if the expected
number of deaths is with some certainy below B*. 100 (for
the Dutch situation; in general 10~ 5 . population).
Mathematically this is expressed as

E (Nd) • k. CT(Nd) « B* .100 (14)

where k * confidence limit (»3)

For one large polder this leads to:

2 2
Pf ^ B* .100 (15)
ACC
k2Nd2
If B* • 0.1 and k * 3 the expression is
 - 25 -

Although this last criterium is more strict for central

Holland than the already mentioned 10~ 5 , the criteria
advised for environmental risks are generally far lower and
of the order

Pf
r <r 10-4
acc* —-
Nd*

This would lead howeyer to somewhat unrealistic dike design

which underscores the difficulties in this field.
A lot more thought and discussion is needed before a clear
view of the acceptable risk level is reached.

REFERENCES

Vellinga, P. Predictive computational model for beach and

dune erosion during storm surges, Coastal Structures Conf.,
1983.

V.d. Graaff, J. Probabilistic design of dunes, Coastal

Structures Conf., 1983.

Bakker, W.T. and Vrijling, J.K. Probabilistic design of

seadefences, Coastal Engin. Conf., Sydney, 1980.

Middelbrooks, T.A. dam practice in the United States.

Transactions Am. Soc. of Civ. Engin., Centennial Volume,
1953, pp. 697-722.

Vrijling, J.K. and Bruinsma, J. Hydraulic Boundary

Conditions, Symp. on Hydraulic Aspects of Coastal Structures
Delft, 1980.