Lab Man Module 2 Midterms

MLS 324
Laboratory Management
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MLS 324
Second Sem A.Y. 2020-2021
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the term, the Medical Laboratory Scientist pupils are expected to:
1. Integrate knowledge of physical, social, natural, chemical, humanities, and health

sciences in the practice of Medical Laboratory Science.
2. Communicate effectively orally and in writing using English and Filipino with cultural
sensitivity when interacting with peers, students, patients and other health care
professionals.
3. Demonstrate technical competence (safe, appropriate, and accurate testing) in
the performance of laboratory tests to aid in the diagnosis, treatment, and
management of diseases. Engage in medical laboratory science related researches
and projects that would help the community.
4. Practice analytical and critical thinking skills in making sound judgment in dealing
with implausible laboratory results and take appropriate actions.
5. Manifest dedication and commitment as well as management skills in the laboratory
operation to deliver quality laboratory services.
6. Engage in lifelong learning for professional advancement to be globally and
technologically competent.
7. Work effectively and independently in multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural teams
while preserving and promoting Filipino historical cultural heritage.
8. Demonstrate professional, social and ethical responsibility for the protection and
preservation of the environment through the practice of proper biosafety and waste
management.
9. Practice the principles of social accountability (relevance, equity, quality, and cost
effectiveness) in the delivery of health care to patients, families, and communities.
10. Apply the latest developments in Medical Laboratory Science ethically to all
patients in general.
Laboratory Management
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electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
COURSE INTRODUCTION:
Dear future Medical Technologists,
Laboratory Management plays an important role in healthcare system. Achieving,

maintaining, and improving its day-to-day operational language requires significant
understanding to its purpose and its services provided. It is very important that
laboratory staff working within the laboratory should learn its language of healthcare in
general.
To successfully achieve its goal, one should be expected to understand and perform
numerous mandates from various regulatory agencies, managing human resources,
patient care testing, addressing quality performance issues, and overall accountability
to the facility administration.
We must not forget the purpose of the laboratory, these include improving accuracy,
timeliness, and reliability of all all its operations that sometimes these determinants
serves as a major challenge in its operations.
This module is intended to provide an avenue for students to be introduced to the basic
functions of management, and its essential quality-based services. Each topic is
discussed in a separate units.
By the end of the course, the student should be able to describe the basic concepts of
management as applied in administrative aspects of laboratory operations.
Specifically, it deals with planning, organizing, leading/directing, controlling/evaluating
the human, physical and financial resources of the clinical laboratory. Emphasis is also
given on quality systems and safety.
***
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MODULE 2 - INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AND PERSONNEL
MANAGEMENT
This module shall focus on how people prefer to communicate and suggests ways to
adapt his or her own communication style to enhance understanding and build rapport
with others. It also discusses the types of policy and procedure manuals needed to
operate a laboratory.
Furthermore, it shall also emphasize on the various approaches to the interview

process, the differences in attitudes attributable to generational groups, and the
desirable elements of a criterion-based job description.
MODULE SELF MONITORING FORM
To help you keep track of your tasks for this module, you are provided in the below with
a self-monitoring form. Take the time to tick on the “Yes” box for each activity that you
finish and be reminded about pending activities that you are yet to do. Remember that
your success in achieving the module objectives depends entirely on how
conscientious you are of your own progress.
Completed
Schedule Activities Remarks
Yes No
Unit 1 : Information Management
- Engage
Week 1 - Explore
- Explain
- Elaborate 📑⇤
Unit 2 : Personnel Assurance
- Explore
Week 2 - Explain
- Elaborate
- Evaluate 📄⇥
📑 ⇤ : For Submission
📄 ⇥ : Quiz
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MODULE CONTENTS
Contents
Course Introduction 03
Module Self Monitoring Form 04
Module Contents 05
Module and Unit Objectives 06
UNIT 1 : Information Management

Engage: Concept of Communication 07
Explore: Types of Communication 08
Explain: Barriers in Interpersonal Communication 15
Elaborate: Computerization in the Laboratory 20
UNIT 2 : Personnel Management

Explore: Overview of Human Resource Management 21
Explain: Theories of Motivation 26
Elaborate: Personnel Selection Process 31
Evaluate: Module 2—Unit 1 and 2 Quiz 36
References 37
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MODULE OBJECTIVES
After you are done reading and doing the tasks in this module, you are expected to be
able to:
1. Describe the process of effective communication.

2. Help the reader to select the communication technique appropriate for a situation
based on the advantages and disadvantages.
3. Explain the needs and purpose of laboratory policies and procedures.
4. Explain the role of human resource management in the successful operation of a
laboratory and the functions of the management process.
5. Develop and implement a laboratory orientation program.
This module is divided into two (2) lecture units including:

Lecture Unit 1 — Information Management
Unit Objectives:
1. Develop proper communication skills that sustain peace and work ethics
that promote justice.
2. Correlate efficient work flow and laboratory operations through organized
communication system.
3. Identify the basic contents of policy and procedure manuals.
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of computerization in the
laboratory.
Recognize the features of laboratory information system
Lecture Unit 2 — Personnel Management

1. Acquire basic knowledge on just human resource management.
2. Relate motivational theories to workplace situations in the clinical
laboratory.
3. Explain the nature of effective work group interaction that maintains
organization’s peace.
4. Discuss the ideal flow of employment procedure
5. Practice harmony in personal relations.
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UNIT 1: INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
ENGAGE Concept of Communication
LECTURE ACTIVITY 1.1 Definition and Process of Communication
Communication is basically a process of sending and receiving information between

two or more people. It is a systematic effort/ attempt to share human experiences,
thoughts, ideas, information and knowledge with other people. It includes activities
such as listening, reading, writing, understanding, chatting, reporting, narrating, telling
etc. The term “communication” is derived from the Latin word “communis” which
means “common”. In this way communication refers to “make something common” or
“share information and knowledge”.
Other Definition of Communication:
• “Communication can be defined as the exchange of information, ideas and

knowledge between sender and receiver through an accepted code of language.”
• "Communication is the activity or process of expressing ideas and feeling or giving

people information.
• "Communication is a two-way process wherein the message in the form of ideas,

thoughts, feelings, opinions are transmitted between two or more persons with the
intent of creating a shared understanding.
These definitions of communications mainly reveal following characteristics of

communication process.
• Communication takes place between sender and receiver.

• There is an exchange of information between them through medium.
• This exchange is only possible through accepted codes of language.
• Communication is a two-way process.
Sender: Sender is considered as the origin of communication. The sender has ideas,
knowledge, information and thoughts to share with the receiver. These ideas are in
abstract form in the minds of the sender. In order to share these ideas, the sender has to
give a physical or concrete shape in the form of commonly accepted codes i.e
language.
Encoding: Sender, before sending the message, convert the message (ideas) into
commonly accepted language. This conversion is called encoding. Through this
process sender gives a concrete shape to his/her abstract ideas. This encoded idea is
called message.
Message Sending: Once sender`s idea is encoded, it is ready to move toward the
receiver. In order to transmit the message to the sender select an appropriate way.
Medium/Channel: Sender In communication process selects an appropriate medium or

channel in order to transmit the message. The medium can be anything that carries
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message. The process of communication is largely affected when the medium or
channel is disturbed by several factors like noise and barrier
Receiver: The recipient of the message is called Receiver. When message is sent using
an appropriate medium, it is received by the receiver. Receiving of the message
involves sensory and cognitive process which finally leads to understanding.
Decoding: Decoding plays a significant role in the process of communication. In this

stage the message gets its original form i.e. ideas. Our human mind holds only abstract
thoughts and ideas that is why encoded message is converted again into ideas. This
process also involves cognitive aspect which finally leads to the understanding of the
Sender`s message.
Feedback: Feedback is the last stage in which the receiver responds to the Sender`s
message. This response by the receiver makes the whole process complete. Through
feedback the Sender can judge whether the receiver has understood the message
correctly. In the absence of feedback communication eventually withers.
Thus, for successful communication all these components are very essential and should
work in coordination. Any defect or disturbance (noise) in these components may result
in miscommunication.
EXPLORE
LECTURE ACTIVITY 1.2 Types Of Communication
The communication is the important factor for the commercial success of any business.
The organizational Hierarchy also decides the type of channel through which the
communication passes. On the basis of the status of individuals involved in the
communication process and the urgency of the message to be sent, the
communication channels can be categorized as:
Formal Communication
The formal communication is the exchange of official information that flows along the
different levels of the organizational hierarchy and conforms to the prescribed
professional rules, policy, standards, processes and regulations of the organization.
The formal communication follows a proper predefined channel of communication

and is deliberately controlled. It is governed by the chain of command and complies
with all the organizational conventional rules. In the organizational set up the formal
communication can observe any of the following forms:
1. Downward Communication
The downward communication is when the information passes from the management
level to the subordinate level. This is the most common form of formal communication
wherein communication flows downwards, i.e. from the people occupying top positions
in the organization to the people at lower levels.
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It mainly includes orders and instructions and can either be written or oral depending
on the importance of the message and also the status of individuals involved in the
communication process. Reports, emails, letters, manuals, etc. are the commonly used
communication tools.
2. Upward Communication
The upward communication is when the message passes from the subordinate level to
the management level. Here, the communication flows upwards i.e. from the
subordinates to the managers in the form of request, reports, suggestions, complaints,
and instructions.
3. Horizontal or Lateral Communication
Horizontal communication means when the Co-workers with different areas of

responsibilities, but at the same level in the organization communicate with each other.
The communication between the managers of a different department, such as
marketing, finance, production, HR, is the best example of horizontal communication.
4. Diagonal or Crosswise Communication
When the employees of different departments at different levels communicate with

each other irrespective of the chain of command, then the communication is said to
be a diagonal or a cross-wise communication. The communication between the floor
manager and the sales team is the example of diagonal communication.
The way in which the formal communication can be facilitated is called as the formal
communication network. There are several forms of Formal Communication
Network that individuals use to get their message transmitted to others:
1. Wheel Network
This is the most centralized forms of a communication network wherein all the
information flows from one central person, typically the leader. The other members
have little or no communication link with each other. Here, the leader deliberately
controls the line of communication and make sure that the information reaches all in
the group.
2. Chain Network
Under the chain pattern, the information flows either up or down the line. Here each
person gets the information from his immediate superior and then passes it to their
immediate subordinates. Likewise, the chain gets created, and all members get
connected to a single person, typically the leader. This network is suitable when the
information to be passed is legally correct.
3. Circle Network
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The circle network is one of the decentralized forms of a communication network
wherein the information is shared equally among all the members. Here each person
gives and receives information from two or more persons in the network. Under this
pattern, each member has the equal chance to participate
4. Free Flow Network
Under this pattern, everyone is connected to each other, and the information can flow
freely from anywhere in the organization. It is the most decentralized form of formal
communication. The distinct feature of this communication pattern is that all the
persons in the group are linked to each other and can freely communicate with
anyone they want.
5. Inverted “V” Communication
The inverted “V” communication is a formal network wherein the subordinate is allowed
to communicate with his immediate superior as well as with the superior’s superior, i.e.
the boss of the immediate boss. But, however, the communication between the
subordinate and the superior’s superior is limited.
Informal Communication Network

The Informal Channel Network or Grapevine Network shows the pattern of the
communication, i.e. how the informal communication passes from person to person.
1. Single Strand Network
Under this communication pattern, the information flows from one person to the next
person in the network. Such as, one person will give information to another person who
will communicate it to the next person and similarly the third person will also
communicate the same message to the next person in the network and so on. This type
of chain is less reliable and accurate to pass on the message.
2. Gossip Chain Network
In the gossip chain network, there is an individual who tells the message to all other
members in the network directly. He is generally the central person who seeks out and
transmit information to all that he has obtained. Here, every person in the network
communicates with each other informally. This network is often used when the subject
matter is unrelated to the nature of the job.
3. Probability Chain Network
Under this communication pattern the information passes randomly from persons to
persons. Such as, there is an individual who acts as a source of message selects any
person randomly in his network to communicate the message. That second person will
again, select another person randomly and passes on the message to him, likewise the
communication flows to different people chosen randomly. Here, the source of
information for each member of the network is different. This communication pattern is
used when the information is interesting, but not significant.
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4. Cluster Chain Network
In the cluster chain network, there is an individual who, acts as a source of a message,
transmits information to the pre-selected group of individuals out of whom few
individuals again tell the same message to other selected group of individuals. Likewise,
the chain continues, and the message reaches to all in the network. This pattern is
similar to the telephone tree, wherein one person calls other two persons, then these
two persons call other three persons and again these three persons are expected to
call other three persons. Likewise, the information gets transmitted to all persons
connected to the telephone network. This is the most common form of informal
communication network.
Further, there are several forms of communication that the individuals use to give some
pattern or expression to their messages such that it is easily understood by all. The most
common types of communication are:
Verbal Communication
The verbal communication is a type of oral communication wherein the message is

transmitted through the spoken words. Here the sender gives words to his feelings,
thoughts, ideas and opinions and expresses them in the form of speeches, discussions,
presentations, and conversations.
The effectiveness of the verbal communication depends on the tone of the speaker,
clarity of speech, volume, speed, body language and the quality of words used in the
conversation. In the case of the verbal communication, the feedback is immediate
since there are a simultaneous transmission and receipt of the message by the sender
and receiver respectively.
The sender must keep his speech tone high and clearly audible to all and must design
the subject matter keeping the target audience in mind. The sender should always
cross check with the receiver to ensure that the message is understood in absolutely the
same way as it was intended. Such communication is more prone to errors as
sometimes the words are not sufficient to express the feelings and emotions of a person.
The success of the verbal communication depends not only on the speaking ability of
an individual but also on the listening skills. How effectively an individual listens to the
subject matter decides the effectiveness of the communication. The verbal
communication is applicable in both the formal and informal kind of situations.
Non-Verbal Communication
The non-verbal communication is the process of conveying meaning without the use of
words either written or spoken. In other words, any communication made between two
or more persons through the use of facial expressions, hand movements, body
language, postures, and gestures are called as non-verbal communication.The non-
verbal communication, unlike the verbal communication, helps in establishing and
maintaining the interpersonal relationships while the verbal only helps in communicating
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the external events. People use non-verbal to express emotions and interpersonal
attitudes, conduct rituals such as greetings and bring forward one’s personality.
The non-verbal communication in the form of signals, expressions add meaning over
the verbal and help people to communicate more efficiently. It supplements whatever
is said in words, such as people nod to acknowledge and move their hands to give
directions.
The non-verbal communication defines the distance between the communicators and
helps them to exchange their emotional state of mind. Also, it regulates the flow of
communication, for example, an individual can give signals to convey that he had
finished speaking or else he wants to speak.
Sometimes, the non-verbal acts as a barrier to communicating effectively as the

recipient could not understand what the sender is trying to say and may interpret it
wrongly.
Non-verbal communication does not use speech or words. Instead, it simply uses the
language which has no speech and words. This is why it is considered as ‘unspoken
communication’. In day-to-day communication human body plays a vital role. Through
our body we express our thoughts without using word. This way of communication is
known as Non-verbal communication. There are several types of non-verbal
communication which are as under.
1. Kinesics
2. Paralanguage
3. Proxemics
4. Chronemics
5. Haptics
Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of the body movements. In other words, it can be said that it is the
way human body communicate without words. Kinesics includes following body
movements:
• Personal appearance — Personal appearance plays a key role in non-verbal

communication. We can express many things through our appearance or outlook.
Appearance includes clothes, hair style, jewelry, cosmetics, and so on.
• Posture — Posture generally refers to the way we hold ourselves when we stand, sit
and walk. A person`s posture tells many things.
• Gesture — Gesture includes the movements of hands, arms, shoulder, head, torso and
fingers. Our gesture clarifies our ideas. During communication a person’s gesture tells
what is going on in his /her mind. We should avoid irritating gesture like playing with a
ring, twisting keychain, clasping hands tightly and cracking knuckles etc. at the time
of communication.
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• Facial expression — Human face is considered as the best communicator. It is the
most expressive part of human body. Facial expression includes raised eyebrows,
forehead lines, smiles, movements of eye lid etc.
• Eye contact — In our day-to-day life we express our emotions and feeling through our
eyes. Our eyes reflect our sincerity, integrity, love and comfort when communicating
with another person. It determines how we present ourselves and communicate with
others. When we are confident, we firmly maintain eye contact but when we have to
hide something we cannot look into person`s eyes.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to modify

meaning and convey emotion. Paralanguage may be expressed consciously or
unconsciously, and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some cases, intonation of
speech. Sometimes the definition is restricted to vocally-produced sounds.
Proxemics
Proxemics describes an individual’s perception of and use of space, both personal

(how much space do they take up) and social (distance from another).
Interpersonal distance:
1. Intimate distance (for embracing, touching or whispering)

• Close phase – less than one inch (one to two cm)
• Far phase – 6 to 18 inches (15 to 46 cm)
2. Personal distance (for interactions among good friends or family)

• Close phase – 1.5 to 2.5 feet (46 to 76 cm)
• Far phase – 2.5 to 4 feet (76 to 122 cm)
3. Social distance (for interactions among acquaintances)

• Close phase – 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m)
• Far phase – 7 to 12 feet (2.1 to 3.7 m)
4. Public distance (used for public speaking)

• Close phase – 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 m)
• Far phase – 25 feet (7.6 m) or more
Chronemics
Chronemics can be briefly and generally defined as the study of human tempo as it
related to human communication. More specifically, chronemics involves the study of
both subjective and objective human tempos as they influence and are
interdependent with human behavior. Further, chronemics involves the study of human
communication as it relates to interdependent and integrated levels of time-
experiencing. Previously, these interdependent and integrated levels have been
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outlined and discussed as: biological time; psychological time; social time; and cultural
time. A number of classification systems exist in the literature of time. However, such
systems are not applied to human interaction directly.
Haptics
Haptics is the science of applying touch (tactile) sensation and control to interaction
with computer applications. The word derives from the Greek haptein meaning "to
fasten." Haptics offers an additional dimension to a virtual reality or 3-D environment
and is essential to the immersiveness of those environments.
Written Communication
The written communication refers to the process of conveying a message through the
written symbols. In other words, any message exchanged between two or more persons
that make use of written words is called as written communication.
The written communication is the most common and effective mode of business
communication. In any organization, the electronic mails, memos, reports, documents,
letters, journals, job descriptions, employee manuals, etc. are some of the commonly
used forms of written communication.
Such communication is used when the information to be transmitted is lengthy and

includes some complex terms that cannot be explained verbally. Also, the
organizations maintain their documents in writings such that these can be used as a
reference and evidence of any transaction anytime in the future. Thus, it is essential for
every business organization to develop effective writing skills and inculcate this in all its
employees.
The effectiveness of written content depends on the correct choice of words, their
organization into correct sentence sequence and the cohesiveness in the sentences.
The information in writing is considered more legal and valid than the spoken words.
Also, people rely more on the written content than what has been said orally. But,
however, unlike verbal communication the feedback of written communication is not
immediate since it is not spontaneous and requires time to get into the understandable
form.
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EXPLAIN
LECTURE ACTIVITY 1.3 Barriers in Interpersonal Communication
Barrier refers to anything that disturbs the communication process. Here barrier does not
mean any physical sounds but any factor that causes a break in communication
process. In interpersonal communication either sender or receiver or both can be
responsible for barriers. Interpersonal barriers in communication are categorized as:
1. Semantic Barriers
2. Psychological Barriers
3. Organizational Barriers
Semantic Barriers
Semantic barrier refers to any misunderstanding that is caused by words and their
meaning. Semantic barriers include words with different meaning, faulty translation,
unclarified assumption, denotation and connotation, technical jargons and bad
expression.
In verbal communication, we use words with same pronunciation but different

meanings such as: by; bye; buy, principle; principal, right; wright, weak; weak etc. Use
of such words may change the meaning of the message if it is not properly clarified.
Sometimes literal and poor translation also distorts the message in communication.
Connotative meanings are good in literary language but in technical
communication connotative language can mislead the whole communication. For
technical communication the use of denotative language and technical jargons
makes communication clear and unambiguous. Sometime we use wrong words to
convey our message which badly express our message and creates confusions in
communication process.
Psychological Barriers
Psychological barriers are the barriers which arises due to person`s psychological state.
Our psychological state forms our opinion, consciousness, attitude and our emotions
which directly influence our communication.
• Lack of attention is a psychological state which does not allow us to grasp

information. For an effective communication we should attentively receive
information. Many people have a habit to form an immediate judgment without
considering all the aspects of information. This is generally done by the people who
are impatient and resort to a selective listening. This premature evaluation of the
information acts as a barrier to the effective communication and lowers the morale of
the sender.
• Poor Retention is a psychological barrier which refers to the capacity of a brain to

retain or store things in the memory. The brain does not store all the information came
across but in fact, retain only those which deems to be helpful in the future. Therefore,
much of the information gets lost during the retention process, and this acts as a
barrier to the effective communication.
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While communication some information is lost during transmission. It is most observed in
oral communication that message gets distorted when it is transmitted from person to
person. This loss by transmission acts as a hinderence in communication process. To
have an effective communication, it is must that both the communicators (sender and
receiver) trust each other.
In case there is a lack of trust between both the parties, then they will tend to derive
negative meaning out of the message and often ignore what has been
communicated. If the receiver has no trust, then he will not listen to whatever is being
said by the sender and this will result in a meaningless communication.
The communication is greatly influenced by the emotions of a person. If a person is not

in a good temperament, then he would not listen properly to whatever is said and
might say things offending the sender. Several other emotions such as anger,
nervousness, confusion, restlessness, etc. affects the communication process.
Thus, every human being has a unique mind which is composed of varied emotions,
beliefs, perceptions, opinions, and thoughts that facilitate different forms of
communication.
Organizational communication
Organizational communication simply refers to communication that takes place in

business environments. Organizational communication encompasses everything from
individual to mass communication, it is an extensive field. In any organization the
positions of the people are fixed in certain hierarchal structure. In an organization
people communicate at various levels and because of this there are greater chances
of message being distorted. As there many levels of communication in an organization,
message has to be sent using an appropriate channels or links. But these channels or
links should be limited because in using too many links, there is a threat of message
being distorted. In an organization we find that because of the fear superior, the
employees are not able to communicate properly or articulate their problems. And due
to this the functioning of an organization is affected. An open or friendly environment is
required for better communication among the people in an organization.
In organization people have their different attitudes or tendencies as they are coming
from different social backgrounds. Their nature, beliefs and opinions are different and
because of this there are conflicts among the people in the group. This occurs because
of negative tendencies of the people. People have the negative tendency of
unnecessarily opposing the views of the other people. This can create a big
communication gap among the people in an organization. Use of inappropriate media
to send the message also affects communication. The media which we choose for
communication in an organization has to be according to the demands of the time,
cost, type of message and intended audience.
In an organization communication is done with the help of some effective media such
as charts, telephone, graphs, e-mail, slides, computer presentations etc. In the present
time one of the major problems that the organizations are facing is that of information
overload. The availability of the information is so much that the receiver is not able to
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handle it effectively. This can create disinterest, fatigue and boredom which makes
further communication impossible. Due to this, vital information gets mixed up with
irrelevant one. Here one should remember the fact that the quality of the information is
more important than its quantity.
LECTURE ACTIVITY 1.4 Policy and Procedure Manuals

The primary objective of policy and procedure manual is to ensure effective
communication between the members of the organization. The manuals must attempt
to remove any ambiguities and allow uniform and consistent application of the
laboratory’s policies and procedures. To accomplish this goal, they must be living
documents continually adjusting to the rapidly changing circumstances generated by
the social, technological, and legal environment in which the laboratory operates.
Policy and procedure manuals can be divided into two broad groups: those that are
designed for the internal use of the laboratory and those directed at the users
laboratory services, including nurses, physicians, and patients. Internal manuals include
safety, quality monitoring, technical procedures, and administrative matters (Table
1.4.1).
The best examples of external manuals (Table 1.4.2) are the laboratory service manual
for nurses and the instructional booklets or sheets given to patients about preparation
for testing.
Table 1.4.1 Internal Manuals

Internal Manuals Descriptions
• Addresses the policies that apply to the entire laboratory

• Work schedules, vacation and holiday staffing, dress codes,
Administrative telephone use, call-ins and other requests for changes in the
Manuals schedule, and supervisory delegation responsibility
• Disaster plans and procedures for purchasing and ordering
supplies
• Contain information and step-by-step instructions for
operating instruments and performing individual tests, tasks,
and duties
• Organized according to discipline, with sections like
Hematology, Microbiology and Phlebotomy having their
Technical Manuals
own individualized manual
• Instructions should be comprehensive
• Includes procedures for: calibration, specimen collection,
quality control, safety, actual test performance,
troubleshooting, reporting results
• Contain vital information to maintain the health and safety
Safety Manuals of those working with potentially hazardous materials or
equipment
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• Contain the overall procedures, policies and rules for
ensuring the quality of laboratory services
• Addresses issues of specimen acceptability, administrative
Quality Management
and technical review of quality data, coordination and
Manuals
integration with the institutional quality plan and the
assignment of authority and responsibility for ensuring that
quality standards and goals are achieved
Table 1.4.2 External Manuals

External Manuals Descriptions
• Required by inspection agencies to be distributed to all

Specimen Collection areas in which specimens are collected for submission to the
Manuals laboratory (nursing units, physician’s offices, satellite
collection sites)
Talks about factors that affect users of the laboratory services
Includes:
• Policy statements concerning the hours of operation for
outpatients
• Collection and courier pickup schedules
• Insurance and other billing practices
• Who may order tests and receive reports and general
business items (telephone numbers and location of facilities)
Laboratory Service
Manuals Contains information on:
• The general policies of the laboratory
• How to fill out request forms or order tests through the
computer system
• Detailed instructions to both nurse and patient for
collecting, labeling, storing, transporting, and delivering
specimens
• Specimen rejection criteria
• Tests and services offered by the laboratory
LECTURE ACTIVITY 1.5 Laboratory Information System
Laboratory Information System (LIS) is an inclusive informative system developed and

structured to a process for storing and managing the informative data of industrial and
medical related information of clinical and analytical laboratories. LIS have been
developed and deployed to support all aspects of the contemporary clinical and
specialty laboratory, helping technologists manage: the quality and integrity of test
samples (Pre-Analytical Phase); all aspects of the testing and result review process
(Analytical Phase); and the reporting of finalized results, interpretations, and diagnosis
(Post-Analytical Phase). It is a critical piece of information of patient’s health and it
helps to improve the care given to patients. When a patient is tested in a hospital or
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clinic laboratory information systems enables the technicians enter the patients results in
database which is easy and accessible to users. This will help the technicians to access
the reports very quickly and it will help to faster diagnosis and treatments. This system
also helps to lower cost by reducing duplicate and unwanted testing.
Collecting the samples of recipients, and labelling them and preserving as well as
destruction is a crucial part of laboratories. In order to complete all these tasks
laboratories should opt for laboratory management system software. Laboratory
management system is a software used to deal with the modern-day laboratory
operations. This system enables the features of hospital management system such as
specialists for entering results into database that is opened to the approved client when
a patient is tested at the clinic or hospitals. The main reason for using the laboratory
management system is improvising the efficiency of management and sample
processing. By using this system, it would reduce the manual process and there by
increases the accuracy. This will be automatically captured statics, gets processed and
it will be saved for future references. This software is constructed in the way to keep up
any upcoming developments while working effectively on a particular functionality like
records, sample monitoring, processing, storage and reports generation. Observing
each and every feature of care is essential to survive in today’s heath care. This
software will facilitate great practices to reduce errors and improves the patients caring
quality.
Features of Laboratory Management System
• Extremely Good Management Facilities

• Invoice and Billing Reports
• Easy to handle Patient Visitors Details
• Less Usage of Paperwork
Benefits of Laboratory Management System
• Rapid response
• Saving time
• Low cost and best results
• Satisfaction of clients
• Well planned and accurate
• Increases the productivity
Benefits of Medical Laboratory Information Management Software (LIMS)
Medical LIMS is available as an on-premise or cloud-based deployment. So, you can

choose the option that’s best for you. Along with the functions available in traditional
lab management and sample tracking software, Medical LIMS’ key features also
include: donor management (including consent management)
• Disease profiling
• Sample management and tracking
• Sample profiling including storing test results
• Diagnosis and treatment tracking
• Customer relationship management
• Clinical trials planning and management
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• Integrated, real-time, graphical dashboards that enable you to generate reports
• Training and qualifications tracking
• Internal auditing and quality control and assurance
ELABORATE
LECTURE ACTIVITY 1.6 Computerization in the Laboratory (10 points)
Many computer systems are presently available to support clinical laboratories.
However, no two laboratories are alike, and requirements for computerization of a
particular laboratory must be well thought out. Selection criteria for clinical laboratory
computer systems are covered as they relate to the following areas: Why do you want
a laboratory system, communications vs information processing, report formats, result
entry, order entry, work aids and quality control, and data base.
From the table below, give and discuss five advantages and disadvantages of
computerization in the laboratory.
Computerization in the Laboratory
Advantages Disadvantages
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
++ End of Unit 1 ++
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UNIT 2: PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT
EXPLORE
LECTURE ACTIVITY 2.1 Overview of Human Resource Management
Laboratory personnel have experienced significant changes over the past few
decades in how they are managed. Management styles have evolved over the years
based on existing environmental, governmental, and cultural trends. The function of the
clinical laboratory is to ensure good patient care by providing quality laboratory
services in an efficient and cost-effective way. The need for an adequate number of
trained laboratory personnel has been, and continues to be, a concern. Over the past
several decades, many training programs have closed, with a concomitant reduction
in the number of graduates. Through a concerted effort by numerous professional
organizations and participating laboratories, this issue has been actively addressed and
partially resolved.
Related to issues dealing with retirement-age individuals, the number of individuals over
the age of 65 will double over the next few decades. As the largest segment of the
population, they will place a greater demand on the healthcare system, ultimately
requiring a greater number of healthcare employees. For many of the upcoming new
graduates, data gathering, analysis, test result monitoring, and information dispersal will
be their main focus. Further, as molecular-based testing increases, it is clear that
managers will need the best and brightest to meet the challenges of these advanced
technologies. To attract and keep these key people, a collective effort between
employer and employee will be required, so both reap the benefits of this relationship.
Diversity in the Workplace
If human nature were predictable, there would be no need for human resource
management. However, with today’s globalized world and the confluence of diversity
within the workforce, leaders, through learned or innate skills, must take charge in
identifying and selecting those individuals who can best accomplish these complex
tasks. For today’s manager, understanding diversity based on race, gender, ethnicity,
language, culture, age, and social, psychological, or personal attributes is critical when
hiring and managing new employees. Stereotyping, based on the “not like me
syndrome,” can lead to a stifled and cloned workforce. Judging a potential new
employee without considering other personal characteristics (in addition to technical
and/or knowledge-based skills) can result in not selecting the right person for the job.
For most of the 20th century, and now in the 21st century, various cultural attitudes have
influenced the management of the workforce and have in part been identified by
generational differences. There are five commonly recognized age-based groups of
workers that have been identified loosely based on their birth year, each with
characteristics that appear to be common to that group. They are the Traditionalists
(1934 to 1945), the Baby Boomers (1946 to 1960), Generation X (1961 to 1980),
Generation Y (1981 to 2000), and the Millennials (born after 2000). While the Millennials’
work ethic and characteristics are still in development, specific identities for each stage
are reflected through each group’s lifestyle, social activities, and motivational
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characteristics. Managers must be aware of these differences to ensure that they are
not unduly influenced in the selection process. Listed in Table 2.1.1 are some
characteristics that have been identified for each generational work group. While
many are unique to an age group, some overlap and are not an absolute in describing
each group.
Table 2.1.1 Age Related Differences

Age group Characteristics
Work first, loyal to employer, work hard, save money, like
Traditionalists chain-of-command, exercise if forced to, community service,
quality first, must vote, motivated by money and responsibility.
Work first, care about what others think, work hard, play hard,
spend hard, family and friends first, some exercise is good,
Boomers
community service and vote if convenient, want even more
money and recognition, loyal to self.
Driven somewhat by money but also by principle, work hard,
Generation X play hard, worry about money, exercise is a duty, the “Gap”
generation, look for bonuses and stock options.
Principled/satisfaction, don’t care what others think, prefer to
work alone, individual first, exercise for mental health, will vote
Generation Y
but privately, friends are like family, wants time off, concerned
about own goals.
Lifestyle first, like small groups, state-of-the-art, individual first,
live with parents, community service is punishment,
Millennials
Abercrombie’s generation, want time off, portable skills,
company loyalty is minimal, self-employment is best.
There is a considerable range of other cultural and ethnic differences that managers
must also consider when hiring new employees. Modern technologies have enhanced
opportunities to identify a wider pool of potential applicants, thus requiring a process
that allows for the selection of the best-qualified individual in a fair and consistent
manner. Lost opportunities for both employer and employee may occur if cultural,
ethnic, and gender-related traits are not appreciated or are misunderstood. A
manager may inadvertently miss an opportunity that would otherwise capture an
excellent employee by not taking the time to learn about and understand some of the
fundamental differences encountered when interviewing candidates that present as
“different.” This does not mean that managers should “profile” individuals based on
specific characteristics, but they should raise their level of sensitivity in recognizing the
uniqueness of those individuals. Hiring decisions must be based on education, skills,
experience, and personal traits that would seem most compatible with the existing
laboratory environment—a person that would be a “good fit.”
Criterion-Based Job Description Requirements
A criterion-based job description offers a clear and complete format that addresses the
expectations for both the employer and the employee. A typical format for a criterion-
based job description might include the information presented in Table 2.1.2. It should
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be based on legal regulations, certification needs, educational essentials, critical tasks
related to the job, and work environment needs. Within the job description, each job
duty may be classified as a basic core task, an advanced technical skill, or a
supervisory responsibility. Certain criteria useful in establishing these tasks are found in
Table 2.1.3.
There are five key sections common to most job descriptions:

1. Job title
2. Minimum qualifications and desired worker skills
3. Job duties
4. Responsibilities and accountability
5. Job relationships
Table 2.1.2 Criterion-based job description

Element of description Information to include
Departmental job title Official payroll title of job offered
Minimum Education, license or certification, skills/ training, minimum
requirements number of years of experience
May include safety, confidentiality, customer service, and/or
General duties
time and attendance responsibilities
Technical duties Technical duties specific to the job title
Accountability: Does this position require direct supervision,
work under general supervision, or provide direct
Administrative duties supervision? Fiduciary: Does this position require an individual
to interpret existing policies, implement policies, or develop
policies?
Does this position require teaching of staff, students, or the
Teaching duties
public?
Does this job require research activities such as research and
Research duties development of new techniques, instrumentation, etc.? Will
the incumbent have to provide on-the-job training of staff?
Professional What are the regulatory requirements for professional
development development and continuing education?
How does this position fit into the departmental or
institutional table of organization? Direct reports: To whom or
Organizational
to which position(s) does the incumbent report? Which
positions report to the incumbent?
Table 2.1.3 Job Description Criteria

Criteria Attributes
State or federal laws mandate qualifications and may require
Regulatory licensure of some laboratory personnel. Often denotes
specific scope of practice
Voluntary action that declares that the individual has passed
Certification an accredited examination indicating that they possess at
least entry-level knowledge of the job
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Educational requirements related to academic degrees and/
Education
or specific course work
Training On-the-job training that is directly related to the position
The number of years of experience that is preferred and/or
Experience
required
Any specific physical requirements (such as color recognition,
Physical demands
standing, walking, etc.) related to the job
Skills, abilities, Special individual skills such as speaking a second language,
knowledge base writing skills, communication or presentation skills
Where the major amount of work is to be performed (clinical
Work environment
lab, nursing home, satellite labs, home draws, etc.)
Job Description Review
As part of the needs assessment, a criterion-based job description should be reviewed

for accuracy to ensure that job duties listed are based on established policies and
procedures (criteria) and are still relevant to laboratory operations. This is a critical step
because this document serves as an informal “contract” between the employee and
management by setting the job expectations for both employee and employer.
Criterion-based job descriptions need to include balanced detail. Those that are too
brief in definition may invite applicants who are not qualified, thus unnecessarily adding
to recruitment efforts. Conversely, requirements that are too detailed or restrictive may
discourage good candidates from submitting their applications. Whether creating a
new or revamping an existing criterion-based job description, consider recent changes
to the laboratory environment. Financial constraints have forced some laboratories to
downsize, combine sections into core facilities, merge multiple hospital laboratories into
one, and outsource a greater number of laboratory tests. These changes have resulted
in adding or eliminating certain duties, creating the need to adjust staffing accordingly.
Minimal Personnel Requirements
For the laboratory, minimum personnel requirements are addressed in the Clinical
Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988 (CLIA ’88) (8). These requirements have
reduced numerous laboratory titles to the following, which are described in detail
elsewhere: director, technical consultant, clinical consultant, technical or general
supervisor, testing personnel, and cytotechnologist. In addition, a number of states
mandate licensure of laboratory personnel, adding another level of personnel
requirements. In states without licensure, many laboratories require certification through
a professional agency such as the Board of Certification, American Society for Clinical
Pathology (ASCP). By definition, individuals that are certified have demonstrated that
they have met the educational requirements and possess the minimum level of
knowledge in their specified area of laboratory science. Specific job duties must be
identified to ensure that the incumbent understands what he or she is to do. Overly
detailed descriptions can lock a manager into an unwanted position when staffing
needs have to be flexible. An employee claiming, “That’s not in my job description” is
something a manager does not want to hear. However, incorporating a general
statement covering “other duties as assigned” is often discouraged by human
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resources professionals. For example, assigning nontechnical duties to a clinical
laboratory scientist as punishment for poor job performance (such as washing
glassware, mopping floors, or trash removal) may be considered working out of title and
possibly discriminatory. Similarly, informing secretaries that their job now includes
performing phlebotomies can also lead to formal complaints.
If the disgruntled employee tenders his or her resignation as a result of this type of
practice, legal action could be taken. Therefore, a balance in detail and flexibility must
be considered when revamping or creating a new criterion-based job description.
Other attributes to be noted include levels of responsibility and accountability, thus
letting incumbents know where they stand in the decision-making process. It is useful to
list job relationships so the incumbents clearly know the laboratory’s hierarchy and what
other internal/external relationships must be established. With each new hire, the
experience gained by a manager in an employee selection process is cumulative and
can be applied to future hiring practices.
Personnel Program
Personnel management can be defined as obtaining, using and maintaining a satisfied

workforce. It is a significant part of management concerned with employees at work
and with their relationship within the organization.
According to Flippo, “Personnel management is the planning, organizing,

compensation, integration and maintainance of people for the purpose of contributing
to organizational, individual and societal goals.”
According to Brech, “Personnel Management is that part which is primarily concerned

with human resource of organization.”
Nature of Personnel Management
1. Personnel management includes the function of employment, development and

compensation- These functions are performed primarily by the personnel
management in consultation with other departments.
2. Personnel management is an extension to general management. It is concerned
with promoting and stimulating competent work force to make their fullest
contribution to the concern.
3. Personnel management exist to advice and assist the line managers in personnel
matters. Therefore, personnel department is a staff department of an organization.
4. Personnel management lays emphasize on action rather than making lengthy
schedules, plans, work methods. The problems and grievances of people at work
can be solved more effectively through rationale personnel policies.
5. It is based on human orientation. It tries to help the workers to develop their
potential fully to the concern.
6. It also motivates the employees through it’s effective incentive plans so that the
employees provide fullest co-operation.
7. Personnel management deals with human resources of a concern. In context to
human resources, it manages both individual as well as blue- collar workers.
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Personnel Policy
Personnel policies refer to principles and rules of conduct which “formulate, redefine,
break into details and decide a number of actions” that govern the relationship with
employees in the attainment of the organization objectives.
Personnel policies lay down the criteria for decision making in accordance with the
overall purpose of the organization. The policies for human resources are formulated by
the top management for assisting the executives to deal with the personnel at work.
Therefore, the personnel policies are the interpretations of the recognized intentions of
the top management in relation to the personnel of the organization. The principles and
rules of conduct governing the dealings of the organization with its employees are
covered under the personnel policies.
EXPLAIN
LECTURE ACTIVITY 2.2 Theories of Motivation
Motivation is a state-of-mind, filled with energy and enthusiasm, which drives a person
to work in a certain way to achieve desired goals. Motivation is a force which pushes a
person to work with high level of commitment and focus even if things are against him.
Motivation translates into a certain kind of human behaviour.
It is important to ensure that every team member in an organization is motivated.

Various psychologists have studied human behaviour and have formalized their findings
in the form various motivation theories. These motivation theories provide great
understanding on how people behave and what motivates them.
Motivation is a huge field of study. There are many theories of motivation. Some of the
famous motivation theories include the following:
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow postulated that a person will be motivated when his needs are
fulfilled. The need starts from the lowest level basic needs and keeps moving up as a
lower-level need is fulfilled. Below is the hierarchy of needs:
• Physiological: Physical survival necessities such as

food, water, and shelter.
• Safety: Protection from threats, deprivation, and
other dangers.
• Social (belongingness and love): The need for
association, affiliation, friendship, and so on.
• Self-esteem: The need for respect and
recognition.
• Self-actualization: The opportunity for personal
development, learning, and fun/creative/
challenging work. Self-actualization is the
highest-level need to which a human being
can aspire.
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The leader will have to understand the specific need of every individual in the team
and accordingly work to help fulfil their needs.
Hertzberg’s two factor theory
Hertzberg classified the needs into two broad categories namely hygiene factors and
motivating factors.
Hygiene factors are needed to make sure that an employee is not dissatisfied.
Motivation factors are needed for ensuring employee's satisfaction and employee’s
motivation for higher performance. Mere presence of hygiene factors does not
guarantee motivation, and presence of motivation factors in the absence of hygiene
factors also does not work.
McClelland’s theory of needs
McClelland affirms that we all have three motivating drivers, and it does not depend on
our gender or age. One of these drives will be dominant in our behaviour. The dominant
drive depends on our life experiences.
The three motivators are:
• Achievement: a need to accomplish and demonstrate own competence

People with a high need for achievement prefer tasks that provide for
personal responsibility and results based on their own efforts. They also prefer
quick acknowledgement of their progress.
• Affiliation: a need for love, belonging and social acceptance People with a high
need for affiliation are motivated by being liked and accepted by others.
They tend to participate in social gatherings and may be uncomfortable
with conflict.
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• Power: a need for control own work or the work of others People with a high
need for power desire situations in which they exercise power and influence
over others. They aspire for positions with status and authority and tend to be
more concerned about their level of influence than about effective work
performance.
Vroom’s theory of expectancy

Victor Vroom stated that people will be highly productive and motivated if two
conditions are met:
a. people believe it is likely that their efforts will lead to successful results
b. those people also believe they will be rewarded for their success
People will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe there are
relationships between the efforts they put forth, the performance they achieve, and the
outcomes/ rewards they receive.
McGregor’s theory X and theory Y

Douglas McGregor formulated two distinct views of human being based on
participation of workers. The first is basically negative, labelled as Theory X, and the
other is basically positive, labelled as Theory Y. Both kinds of people exist. Based on their
nature they need to be managed accordingly.
• Theory X: The traditional view of the work force holds that workers are inherently
lazy, self-centered, and lacking ambition. Therefore, an appropriate
management style is strong, top-down control.
• Theory Y: This view postulates that workers are inherently motivated and eager
to accept responsibility. An appropriate management style is to focus on
creating a productive work environment coupled with positive rewards and
reinforcement.
LECTURE ACTIVITY 2.3 Management of Work Groups

Definition of Work Group
A work group, by definition, shares the characteristics of all groups. It is a collection of

individual persons gathered together to perform specific functions for the benefit of the
whole organization. Its management justification lies in the principle of specialization of
work, in which the total output of the organization is greatly enhanced by allowing
individual persons or groups to become highly proficient in a special part of the
production process.
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Individual — Group Interface
Groups and individuals maintain a push-pull relationship. Each puts pressure on the
other to change and adapt. The character and performance of each is molded by this
dynamic interaction. Individuals are the substance of a group and provide the source
of its energy. In return, the group enables individuals to achieve goals far beyond what
they could accomplish by themselves.
1. Interpersonal relationships
People have definite goals and expectations for their interactions with other individuals.
How they respond to fellow members of the group is guided by several factors,
including how they view themselves (personal image), how they believe others will
behave (behavior expectations), and what they expect to receive from the relationship
(personal benefits).
a. Personal image
The importance of this self-image to our well-being and success in social
intercourse is demonstrated by the attention psychologists give to identifying its
parameters and developing techniques for improving and healing this fragile
entity.
b. Behavior Expectations
If personal image matches our expectations of how fellow humans are
supposed to behave, harmony is achieved. If it does not, the conflict must be
resolved. Behavior expectations are derived from the experiences and feedback
we have received from our daily encounters.
c. Personal Benefits
The final factor in the interpersonal relationship is the attractiveness of
membership in the group. The needs of the group must be weighed against the
needs of each member. Each gives up something in exchange for something
else.
2. Role Expectations
Individuals bring to a group their personal abilities and talents; they also look to the
group for satisfaction of their motivational needs and ambitions. These two factors,
group and individual expectations, are encompassed in the role that individuals play in
a group. Roles are acquired and assigned by forces in both the formal and the informal
group networks that exist in an organization.
Work group roles are determined by the job assignments, duties, and tasks that the
employee performs. Roles in informal groups are derived from the peer relationships
between fellow members. Because of this formulation, “personal roles” have many
facets that frequently result in conflicts from these competing factions.
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Work Group Behavior
1. Work Group Functional Factors
The following list contains factors that contribute to and enhance work group
performance, synergism, and effectiveness by nurturing positive emergent behavior:
•Shared values of the members and their commitment to the goals and objectives
of the work group.
•The success of the group in achieving its mission. This can be a self-driven force in
that success breeds success: the more successful the group, and the more this
success is recognized, the more this factor influences and encourages positive
emergent behaviour.
•The status of the group within the organization, as viewed by its members and
peers.
•The amount and quality of participation in the decision-making process. This

includes the level of creativity encouraged, as well as the degree of conformity
enforced.
2. Work Group Dysfunctional Factors
Most of the conditions that can bring about an effective work environment and
enhanced worker commitment can also wreak havoc if not properly managed.
Matched with the mismanagement of positive forces, the factors listed next can disrupt
the effective functioning of a work group, with breakdowns in emergent behavior:
•Lack of self-esteem and group esteem or low status of the group within
organization.
•Failure in reaching goals.
•Poor physical working conditions.
•Dictatorial management styles that discourage creativity and participation.
•Members with divergent and conflicting social and personal norms.
•Personal inequalities in social and organizational status.
•Friendship and informal group clashes.
•Disagreement with or opposition to the goals of the group.
•Disagreement with how things are done.
•Difficulty in relationships with other groups and organizational competition for
limited resources.
Group Interaction
Ownership involves issues of identity and possession. This mentality is contained in the
concepts of image.
Factors that may influence intergroup relationships include:
•The status or prestige of one group in the organization relationship. This includes the
professional qualifications of each group’s membership and their place in the
bureaucracy.
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•The amount of dependency or power one group has in relation to the other.
•Any conflict-of-interest issues, including the competition for budget priority, space,
and credit or blame for success or failure of a project.
•The ability to communicate and deliver goods and services to each other.
•The personal relationships between the interfacing members of each group.
ELABORATE
LECTURE ACTIVITY 2.4 Personnel Selection Process
The employee selection process is a series of steps that companies use to hire the best
workers. Matching the right skills to the open roles is key, and effective selection can
result in hiring the kind of employees that will boost company morale, add to your
corporate culture, and keep turnover low.
It’s important to note that employee selection is different from recruitment. Each is a
distinctly separate phase. Recruitment happens first, and selection takes place after
you have a suitable pool of applicants. Think of selection as the part of hiring where the
funnel narrows significantly, and the most promising hires are found.
Not every company will approach the employee selection process in quite the same
way. However, every company should try to document their process before hiring. By
writing down the necessary steps and providing a consistent and pleasant hiring
experience for your candidates, you get better employees and you also bolster your
brand within the community.
A solid employee selection process is a component of earning a sterling reputation as a

fair employer. Having a no-nonsense, professional selection process may make job
seekers come to you first over other businesses in the same industry.
1. Search Committee
The search process can be simple or complex depending on the level of the position.
For entry-level positions, the interview process need only involve the supervisor and
manager. When hiring at the supervisory level or above, it is advisable to assemble a
formal search committee consisting of an appropriate mix of individuals.
While the committee should remain small (five to seven people), the mix should reflect
the desired diversity of the department. Consider including a pathologist, a supervisor
from another section, and/or a staff person. By adding a frontline staff member to the
group, subtle nuances of the job may be made evident. This also creates a sense of
contributing to the workforce and offers training opportunities for individuals who want
to learn interviewing skills. Also consider an appropriate gender, ethnic, race, and age
mix of the committee to eliminate any perceived bias in selecting the candidate. It is
important to have a written policy that prevents discrimination in the workplace and
provides guidance in appropriate hiring practices.
2. Advertising
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An employer must make a reasonable effort to ensure that there are equal
opportunities for all qualified candidates to become aware of the open position. The
advertisement should be concise, stating the job title, the minimum educational
requirements, any applicable licensure or certification requirements, and a brief
summary of the main job responsibilities.
The advertisement should contain only the minimum qualifications. Avoid using
“preferred” qualifications as requirements, as that may eliminate some good
candidates. The salary range should not be stated, as it might deter good candidates
from applying or encourage less qualified candidates. Consider also where to
advertise. Seeking both internal and external candidates provides the largest pool from
which to select and should be used whenever possible.
3. Interview Process
a. Screening Résumés
Depending on the number of résumés received, screening for the
appropriate qualifications can be very time consuming and should not be taken
lightly. While there is no one great technique for screening résumés, a common
one is to divide them into three groups.
Group 1 consists of those individuals who have outstanding qualifications

and are strong candidates for the job.
Group 2 includes those who meet just the minimum qualifications. If none
of the group 1 candidates are viable, those in group 2 move up the list.
Group 3 includes those individuals who do not meet one or more of the
qualifications. Key points to consider when reviewing résumés are spelling,
grammar, and syntax.
b. Interview Formats
Once several viable candidates are identified, decide which interview
formats will be used. A structured, one-on-one interview involves preparing
questions and follows a consistent format process. This preferred style keeps the
interviews focused and serves as a guide in asking appropriate questions.
Unstructured interviews (no prepared questions) may be more free-flowing but
also can lead to a confused and rambling interview. Prewritten questions serve
as a guide during the interview process, offering consistency in questioning and
avoiding inappropriate queries.
4. Hiring Process
Candidates interviewed should be evaluated based on their qualifications: education,

abilities, experience, and responses to the interview questions. A fixed ranking system
can be developed to assist each member of the search committee in presenting an
objective evaluation of the candidates.
Before any job offer is made, it is essential that each of the candidate’s references is
checked. References that do not include an immediate supervisor or some other
higher-level individual should be scrutinized carefully unless the candidate has
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specifically addressed this issue during the interview. Doing background checks and
obtaining financial credit reports has become a common practice and is often one of
the final steps of the hiring process. This has become necessary to ensure the safety of
patients and staff as well as to provide protection for the employer.
5. Orientation
Proper and prompt orientation is critical to initial success once a candidate is hired.
Implementing an organized orientation program provides needed guidance that will
minimize confusion and frustration for the new employee yet maximize the feeling of
being part of the team. This protects the employer from any future problems that may
arise with a new employee.
The more a new employee knows about operations, expectations, and the general
atmosphere of the workplace, the better the assimilation into the team. Orientation
must be completed on the first day of employment to ensure employee and patient
safety.
6. Documentation
It is important to document the search, hiring, and orientation processes. This ensures
consistency, addresses any legal requirements, and demonstrates fairness in hiring
practices. Records must be retained for a minimum of one year, but in practice, most
employers keep these documents for considerably longer. This documentation provides
protection for the employer if ever questioned about hiring practices.
7. Retention
The cost of losing an employee, hiring, and then training a new one can be very
expensive. These costs include the loss of productivity, potential loss of customers,
advertising, interview process, overtime, training, personnel processing, and/ or other
recruitment or start-up expenses.
A good manager will also attempt to be proactive by recognizing excellent employees

by rewarding them in a timely fashion before such a situation occurs. Good managers
must also work within their budgets. If negotiations have broken down, consider
alternatives to monetary compensation. Promotion, end-of-year bonuses (if possible),
an improved benefits’ package, additional time off, or any other form of recognition
may meet the employee’s needs, but again, may be limited to funding availability and
institutional guidelines.
People leave their jobs for many reasons. Some are personal (marriage, spousal job
change, pregnancy, illness), others are work related (burnout, dislike of boss, desire for
more money, poor work conditions, poor work hours, no recognition), and still others
involve a search for professional development opportunities (returning to school, joining
the military, promotional opportunity). Whatever the reason, a good leader will listen to
his or her employees and establish avenues of bidirectional communication. Employers
need to be sensitive to employee needs, stress levels, multicultural differences, and the
general morale of the work environment. Some options, such as implementing pay
raises, enhancing benefits, offering continuing education opportunities, or providing
opportunities for promotion, may be beyond the control of the immediate supervisor.
Table 2.4.1 summarizes some practical retention options.
Page 33 of 37
Table 2.4.1 Suggested Retention Options
Practice Option
Hire the right people
Have realistic goals and expectations
Good hiring practices
Perform a thorough job search
Check references
Bidirectional communication
Communication Have frequent meetings
Manage by walking around
Develop an orientation process
Adequately train staff and supervisors in job duties,
Training interpersonal skills, communication, etc.
Encourage teamwork
Encourage continuing education
Find people doing something right
Praise people often
Foster a positive work environment
Recognition
Encourage ideas, positive attitudes, and innovative thinking
Allow more employee participation in decision making
Celebrate successes
Maintain a safe work environment
Work environment Provide adequate tools to do the job
Establish a workable infrastructure
Measure outcomes as part of quality assurance
Monitor attitude
Be aware of workplace stress inducers
Survey/feedback
Know employee problems and how they relate to the
workplace
Communicate
8. Resignation and Termination
One goal of all good managers is to ensure that they make the best attempt in hiring
what they hope will be a long term and productive employee. Loss of an employee
may be due to voluntary or involuntary discharge. The former may be due to a number
of issues, as suggested above. In some cases, voluntary resignation may be averted
through better channels of communication or through other adjustments as already
noted.
Progressive Discipline
Even when a manager has completed due diligence in hiring an employee, there may
be situations when that employee will require corrective action. The process of
progressive discipline gives the employee ample opportunity to address the employer’s
concerns and take necessary corrective actions. Conversely, it also provides the
employer with an opportunity to review and adjust any unreasonable expectations that
set the employee up for failure. How far the counseling is taken depends on the severity
of the problem and the employee’s history and status.
Page 34 of 37
The main steps in progressive counseling are:
1. Verbal counseling
2. Written counseling
3. Penalty stage
4. Discharge
Verbal counseling — This initial communication between the employer and employee
specifically addresses the concerns. This is the first recognition of the problem and is
documented. Depending on the degree of severity and the length of time between
the undesired actions, several episodes of verbal counseling may be appropriate.
Counseling should take place as soon as possible after the incident to avoid any
additional complications of the issue. For most employees, no further action is needed
once the concerns are pointed out to them.
Written counseling — If there is no performance improvement after verbal counseling,

additional counseling occurs with preparation of a formal, written memorandum. The
memorandum must be specific, noting the circumstances, times, dates, individuals
involved, and proposed corrective actions. This often involves an official investigation
with extensive documentation that becomes part of the employee’s personnel record.
Penalty stage — If unacceptable employee actions continue after the written

counseling, penalties may be imposed, such as a fine, leave without pay, a decrease in
pay, or demotion. Documentation of the additional improprieties is put in a written
memorandum to the employee. When discipline reaches this level, the relationship
between employee and employer is very strained, creating additional problems and
spiraling into a very unpleasant work environment. Poor attitudes, a loss of productivity,
and inefficiencies may be evident. Coworkers may also be directly or indirectly
affected when working in a tense environment. Termination may be the only option at
this point.
Discharge — When no other options or corrective actions are apparent, termination of

employment is the final stage.
Regardless of the stage of discipline, guidance from the human resource department is
recommended to ensure that all legal procedures are followed, thus minimizing any
basis for legal recourse by the dismissed employee. A good manager creates the kind
of work environment that offers opportunities for employees to be their most productive
and efficient in their jobs.
The goal is to maximize use of available resources, whether human, financial, physical,
or other, to ensure that the workforce is fruitful, content, loyal, and proud of what they
do. Employees who know what is expected from them and what support they can
expect from their employer, work in a clean and safe environment, and have the right
materials and tools to do the job are satisfied employees who will be loyal and provide
long-term service to the institution.
Page 35 of 37
EVALUATE MODULE 2 UNIT 1 and UNIT 2 — QUIZ
For OBL Students: Wait for the instructions of the class instructor.
For CBL Students: Refer to the set of questions below:
— End of Unit 2 —
Page 36 of 37
REFERENCES:
1. McPherson, R.A. & Pincus, M. R. (2011). Henry’s Clinical Diagnosis and Management
by laboratory methods, 22nd edition. P.A. United States: Saunders Elsevier
2. Garcia, L.S. (2014). Clinical Laboratory Management, second edition. Washington

DC, United States: American Society for Microbiology
3. World Health Organization (2011). Laboratory Quality Management System. France.

(WHO)
4. CLSI. Quality Management System: A model for Laboratory Services; Approved

Guideline— Fourth Edition. CLSI document QMS01-A4. Wayne, PA: Clinical
Laboratory Standards Institute; 2011
Page 37 of 37

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MLS 324

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Integrate knowledge of physical, social, natural, chemical, humanities, and health

Dear future Medical Technologists,

Laboratory Management plays an important role in healthcare system. Achieving,

Furthermore, it shall also emphasize on the various approaches to the interview

MODULE SELF MONITORING FORM

Unit 2 : Personnel Assurance

UNIT 1 : Information Management

UNIT 2 : Personnel Management

1. Describe the process of effective communication.

This module is divided into two (2) lecture units including:

Lecture Unit 2 — Personnel Management

LECTURE ACTIVITY 1.1 Definition and Process of Communication

Communication is basically a process of sending and receiving information between

Other Definition of Communication:

• “Communication can be defined as the exchange of information, ideas and

• "Communication is the activity or process of expressing ideas and feeling or giving

• "Communication is a two-way process wherein the message in the form of ideas,

These definitions of communications mainly reveal following characteristics of

• Communication takes place between sender and receiver.

Medium/Channel: Sender In communication process selects an appropriate medium or

Decoding: Decoding plays a significant role in the process of communication. In this

The formal communication follows a proper predefined channel of communication

3. Horizontal or Lateral Communication

Horizontal communication means when the Co-workers with different areas of

4. Diagonal or Crosswise Communication

When the employees of different departments at different levels communicate with

4. Free Flow Network

5. Inverted “V” Communication

Informal Communication Network

1. Single Strand Network

2. Gossip Chain Network

3. Probability Chain Network

The verbal communication is a type of oral communication wherein the message is

Sometimes, the non-verbal acts as a barrier to communicating effectively as the

• Personal appearance — Personal appearance plays a key role in non-verbal

Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to modify

Proxemics describes an individual’s perception of and use of space, both personal

1. Intimate distance (for embracing, touching or whispering)

2. Personal distance (for interactions among good friends or family)

3. Social distance (for interactions among acquaintances)

4. Public distance (used for public speaking)

Such communication is used when the information to be transmitted is lengthy and

In verbal communication, we use words with same pronunciation but different

• Lack of attention is a psychological state which does not allow us to grasp

• Poor Retention is a psychological barrier which refers to the capacity of a brain to

The communication is greatly influenced by the emotions of a person. If a person is not

Organizational communication simply refers to communication that takes place in

LECTURE ACTIVITY 1.4 Policy and Procedure Manuals

Table 1.4.1 Internal Manuals

• Addresses the policies that apply to the entire laboratory

Table 1.4.2 External Manuals

• Required by inspection agencies to be distributed to all

LECTURE ACTIVITY 1.5 Laboratory Information System

Laboratory Information System (LIS) is an inclusive informative system developed and

Features of Laboratory Management System

• Extremely Good Management Facilities

Benefits of Laboratory Management System

Benefits of Medical Laboratory Information Management Software (LIMS)

Medical LIMS is available as an on-premise or cloud-based deployment. So, you can

Computerization in the Laboratory

Diversity in the Workplace