Topographic Survey Solution 4th

COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY
SOLUTION
2nd year 2nd Semester
Lokendra Prashad Bhatta
2023
PREPARED BY:LOKENDRA PRASHAD BHATTA

Topographical Survey VVI Questions.
Prepared by: Lokendra Prashad Bhatta
1. Prepare a short report on history of topographical survey in Nepal.
2. Define topographical survey. Write term of Planimetric and altimetric details.
Explain method of relief representation.
3. Explain importance of topographical survey.
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of different methods of topographical
surveying.
5. Describe the use of topographical map in any engineering projects.
6. Define Natural and Artificial feature. Explain the methods of topographical
Surveying
7. Define horizontal equivalent. Explain types of contour.
8. Define contouring. Explain briefly factors deciding contour interval.
9. Define contour interval. Explain methods of contouring.
10. Explain characteristics of contour.
11. Define interpolation and horizontal equivalent
12. What is TS? What are the advantage and disadvantage of Total Station?
13. What type of Safety precautions should be applied during survey using total
station?
14. Explain the various types of error that may occur during plane table surveying.
15. List out and describe the accessories of plane table.
16. List out and explain the steps for setting up for plane table survey
17. Describe the advantage of intersection over radiation.
18. Explain Lehmann‟s method of resection with the help of suitable Sketches.
19. What are the advantages and disadvantages of plane table surveying?
20. Explain briefly different methods of plane table surveying.
21. Describe the procedure with well labeled diagram of tracing paper or mechanical
method of orientation for Resection.
22. Explain Bessel‟s or Graphical method of resection with the help of suitable
Sketches.
23. List and describe briefly errors in plane table surveying.
24. Define with diagram how PT traverse is adjusted graphically
25. Derive the expression for Horizontal distance and vertical distance when line of
sight is inclined and staff is held vertically and normally at a point using tacheometer.
26. Derive the expression for Horizontal distance and vertical distance using
tangential method.
27. What are the characteristics of tacheometer? Write the advantage and dis
advantages of tacheometry.
28. What is Tacheometric Constant? Describe the procedure for determination od
tacheometric constant in field.
29. Why numerical survey is preferred than traditional graphical survey? List the
instruments that can be used for numerical survey.
[2] Prepared by: Lokendra
30. What are the uses of Topographical map? Suppose you are hired as a surveyor for
Topographical surveying of new building. Describe the procedure how you will
conduct survey work for that project?
31. List and describe the steps of any Numerical Survey.
32. Explain about errors in GPS.
33. List the factors that affect accuracy of GPS.
34. List the application area of GPS.
35. How does GPS device find its position?
36. Write short note
(a) Danger circle
(b) Triangle of error
(c) Intersection point and Auxiliary points
(d) PT traversing
(e) Strength of fix
(f)Analytic lens
(g)Substance bar
(h)GPS segments
(i)Function of total Station
(j)EDM
(k)Numerical Survey
37. Numerical.
(a). In a tangential method of tacheometry, two vanes were fixed 2.3m apart, the lower
vane being 0.3 m above the foot of the staff held vertical at station P. The vertical
angle measured were +1°12‟ and -1°30‟. Find the horizontal distance of P from
instrument, if height of line of collimation is 100m. Also find R.L. of P.
(b)Determine the gradient form a point X to a point Y from following observation
made with a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic lens. The constant of the instrument
was 100 and staff was held vertically:
Station Staff point bearing Vertical angle Staff reading
A X 35° +12°45′ 1.260, 1.815, 2.370
Y 125° +7° 1.241, 2.393, 3.321
(c)A tacheometer has a multiplying constant of 99 and an additive constant of 0.3.
When set 1.43m above station P, the following readings were obtained:
Station Sight Horizontal angle Vertical Angle Staff Reading
P A 28°21′
82°03‟00”
C 20°30′ 1.44, 2.294, 3.424

1.Define topographical survey. Write term of Planimetric and altimetric details.
Explain method of relief representation.
Ans: Topographical survey is simply the recording of coordinates and height data for a
particular survey area. This data can be used to create spot height maps, contour maps,
or more complex terrain models of the surveyed area.
Planimetric detail
 Planimetric details in earth surface are those features that are independent of
elevation, such as roads, building footprints, and rivers and lakes.
 They are represented on two-dimensional maps as they are seen from the air, or in
aerial photography.
 These features are often digitized from ortho-rectified aerial photography in to
data layers that can be used in analysis is and cartographic outputs. Field survey
method is also used for small area.
 A planimetric map is one that does not include relief data.
Altimetric details:
 Altimetric details mean that which represents relief (height) of earth surface.
 Relief : Term relief indicate the continuous variation in the nature of the land
surface expressed as change in height and depth
Methods of relief representation

(a)Spot height:
 Spot heights are heights of places surveyed and they denote the actual height
above mean sea level.
 They are shown in maps as dots with their respective values written beside it.
 It is possible to estimate the nature of the terrain.
(b)Hachures:
 Hachures are small lines drawn to represent slopes.
 The lines are drawn thicker to represent steeper slopes and thinner for gentle
slope.
 The slopes are indicated by parallel lines drawn in the direction in which water
would flow on the surface.
 They do not represent exact elevations but are mainly used to give a good
impression of the shape and slope of the ground. Usually, hachures are applicable
only in large-scale maps.
 Hachuring gives the illusion of the shading.
(c)Contouring:
 Contouring is an act of using contour lines when representing the relief of an
area on the map.
 Contour lines are the lines drawn on the map connecting all points on the earth‟s
surface with equal elevations above a fixed datum line.
 Contouring is the most common method of showing relief on topographic maps.

 This is mainly because it has the ability to show all five aspects of relief (shape,
orientation, size, elevation, and slope) on the map.
(d)Hill shading:
 Hill shading also doesn‟t show the exact heights.
 Hill shading gives a very good idea of the general relief of a hilly country and is
effectively used in small scale mapping.
 It requires considerable skill to master shading techniques.
(e)Layer tinting:
 Layer ting also known as layer coloring or hypsometric coloring is a method of
representing relief by using different shades of a color.
 In this method, the different elevations above sea level are represented on a map
by a variety of colors.
 Usually, all areas on the map with relatively similar elevations will be represented
by the same shade of color.
(f)3D Models
 Reliefs generated from 3D objects have been considered a promising way to
create low-reliefs, and also allow for the reuse of existing 3D models.
 3D reliefs can be edited and modified before real machining.
 The challenge is to retain the fine details of a 3D object while greatly compressing
its depths to produce an almost planar result.

2. Define Natural and Artificial feature. Explain the methods of topographical
Surveying.
Ans: Natural features: Natural features means components and processes present in
or produced by nature, including, but not limited to, soil types, geology, slopes,
vegetation, surface water, drainage patterns, aquifers, recharge areas, climate, flood
plains, aquatic life, and wildlife.
Artificial features: Artificial objects, materials, or processes do not occur naturally
and are created by human beings, for example using science or technology, like road,
house, building, canal, etc.
Methods of topographic surveying:
(a)Ground surveying method:
 In ground survey method the topographical data are recorded, stores and analyzed
by the ground based instruments.
 Some of instrument used for ground based topographical survey are:
Tacheometer, Plane table, Total station, GPS etc.
(b)Ground surveying method (Tacheometer)
 Distance, elevation, and location measurements are taken in the field, recorded in
the field book, and then plotted on paper in the office.
 This method is used for topographical mapping by taking following 5 readings
 The method is quick and convenient for topographical mapping.
(c)Aerial surveying method:
 The science of using aerial photography and other remote sensing imagery to
obtain measurement of natural and man-made features on the earth. Instrument
used in Aerial Survey: UAV, plane, helicopter with camera, satellite, Lidar
3. Write the uses of topographical map

Ans: uses of topographic map area s follows
 Topographic maps are used by a variety of professions from engineers, architects,
foresters, geologists, Tourist Guide etc.
 The most common use of topographic maps is in the planning stages of projects to
help design the layout and location of buildings, roads, dams, pipelines,
landscapes, fire control routes, trails, etc.
 Planning of various project like: Building, industrial plant, rail way, highway,
irrigation, bridges, tunnels, hydroelectric etc
 Agriculture
 Military operation
 Tourism
 Forestry devolvement
 Making land use map
 Volume calculation for reservoir
 Navigation

Application of contour map:
 Determination of character of the terrain
 Selection of the suitable site for different projects
 Indivisibility between two points
 Location of route
 Determination of catchments area
4. Define horizontal equivalent. Explain types of contour.

Ans: Horizontal equivalent:
 The horizontal distance between any two consecutive contours is horizontal
equivalent.
 It is not constant value and varies from point to point depending upon the
steepness of the ground.
 Stepper the ground lesser the Horizontal equivalent.
Types of Contour:
(a) Index Contour
 To make topographic maps easier to read, every fifth contour line is an index
contour.
 Because it‟s impractical to mark the elevation of every contour line on the map,
the index contour lines are the only one labeled
 The index contour is a darker or wider brown line in comparison to the regular
contour lines.
 We can see the elevations marked on the index contour lines only.
(b)Intermediate Contour:
 Contour lines (thinner lines) between index contours are called intermediate
contour lines.
 The intermediate contour lines usually come in sets and each intermediate contour
line represents an equal amount of elevation change between each line.
(c)Supplementary Contour:
 In some situations, the elevation and terrain relief cannot be shown with enough
details using index and intermediate contours using the standard contour interval.
 This is more often seen in very flat areas with minimal change in elevation where
the spacing between contour lines becomes very wide.
 In such cases supplementary contour lines in the form of dashed lines are used to
provide more information about the topography and help detecting small changes
in elevation.
 The contour interval for supplementary contours is usually half the regular
contour interval.
(d) Depression Contour:
 Depression is a low point or sinkhole, surrounded in all direction by higher
ground. e.g.: volcanic craters, sinkholes, pit craters and impact craters.
 A depression is represented by a series of concentric closed contours with the
inner contours having lower elevation than their outer surrounding. There are

small tick marks or hachure on these contour lines pointing towards lower
elevation.
 Such contours are called hachured contour lines or depression contour lines.
5. Define contouring. Explain briefly factors deciding contour interval.

Ans: Contouring:
 The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of earth is called contouring.
 A contour map gives the idea of the altitude of the surface features as well as their
relative positions in a plan.
 It is a method which is equally suitable in flat as in mountainous country and for
large as well as small scale plotting.
Factors deciding for Contour Interval:
(a)The nature of the ground
 The contour interval depends upon whether the country is flat or highly undulated.
 The Contour Interval chooses for Undulation and hilly area is unsuitable for flat
area.
 For flat ground small contour interval is suitable, where for undulated ground
greater contour interval is adopted.
(b)Scale of the map:
 The contour interval normally varies inversely to the scale of the map i.e., if the
scale of map is large, the contour interval is considered to be small and vice versa
 on a small scale map, a large contour interval is adopted
(c)Time and Expense of Field and Office Work:
 If the contour interval is small, greater time and funds will be required in the field
survey, in reduction and in plotting the map.
 If the time and funds available are limited, the contour interval may be kept large.
(d)The purpose and extent of the survey:
 Accuracy need of surveying work also decide the contour interval.
 Surveying for detailed work or for earthwork calculation demands high accuracy
and thus a small contour interval is used.
 But in case of location surveys where desired accuracy is less, higher contour
interval should be used

6. Define contour interval. Explain methods of contouring.
Ans: Contour interval:
 The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called contour
interval.
 Generally contour interval is kept constant for a map.
 Smaller the contour interval, the more precisely the terrain relief is delineated on
the plan.
Method of Contouring
(1)Direct method:
 Points on a contour are found directly by locating the points of that elevation
 Instrument(level) is set up in a commanding position in the area and accurately
leveled
 H.I. is determined after taking B.S. on the bench mark
 From known height of instrument and the required elevation of contour, staff
reading to fix the points on the contour is determined.
 Using level and staff or using hand level
Advantage of direct method:
 Method is more accurate because points are directly located on the contour.
 Used for small area where greater accuracy is required
Disadvantage of the direct method
 Method is slow and tedious.
 Not suitable for contouring in large areas.
(2)Indirect method
(a)Grid method
 Used when the area to be mapped is not very large and ground is not much
undulating
 Are to be surveyed is divided in to number of square
 Size of grid depends of on the nature of ground and accuracy required
 Theodolite is used to layout grid lines at right angles to each other
(b)Cross-section method
 This method is used for determination of contours along a fixed route such as a
canal, road, rail way etc
 Cross section are located on the ground at right angles to the fixed line( center
line) of the route
 Spacing of cross section depends upon the nature of ground, the contour interval
and the purpose of contouring
 Spacing should be kept small where the direction of the contour is change
abruptly
 Guide points are taken using leveling instrument
 Staff reading should be taken at the points of break in the ground surface
(c)Radial lines method:
 Redial lines are run from the peak to cover the area
 The Guide points are taken on the radial lines and their elevation are determined

 Contours are drawn by interpolation
(d)Controlling point method
 Elevation are determined few selected key or controlling point.
 Contour lines are drawn by interpolation
 This is approximate and quick method
 It gives ground results if the slope of the ground between C.P. is fairly uniform
7. Explain characteristics of contour.

Ans: Characteristics of Contour
1. All the contours must form closed loops, not necessarily on the map as the area
surveyed may not be sufficient to form a loop for a particular contour. i.e. A
contour line cannot dead end.
2. Two contour line of different elevation cannot cross each other; however contour
line of different elevation can intersect only in case of overhanging cliff or cave.
3. Contour line close together indicate steep slope. They indicate gentle slope if they
are far apart. If they are spaced equally uniform slope is indicated.
4.A closed contour line with one or more higher contour inside it represents a hill.
5. Contour does not have branches i.e. single contour cannot split into two lines.
6. Contours are always perpendicular to the direction of the steepest slope
7. A watershed or ridge line and valley line cross the contour at right angle. The
contour line form U shaped curve.
8. Irregular contour represents uneven ground.
8. Define interpolation and horizontal equivalent

Ans: Interpolation
Interpolation is the process of locating the contour points between the plotted guide
points.
The following method of interpolation are generally used
1) By estimation
 Position of the contour points between the guide points is estimated by eye
judgment
 Used for small scale map
2) By calculation:
 In this method distance of contour points are calculated by linear interpolation
 Method is quite accurate and commonly used in practice
Horizontal equivalent:
 The horizontal distance between any two consecutive contour is horizontal
equivalent.
 It is not constant value and varies from point to point depending upon the
steepness of the ground.
 Stepper the ground lesser the Horizontal equivalent.
Contour interval:
 The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called contour
interval.
 Generally contour interval is kept constant for a map.
 Smaller the contour interval, the more precisely the terrain relief is delineated on
the plan.

9. Explain the steps for setting up for plane table survey.
Ans: Steps for setting up for plane table survey:
(a)Fixing
(b)Leveling
(c)Centering
(d)Orientation
(e)Sighting the points
(a)Fixing
 In this operation, first the top of the tripod stand is fixed in level by eye estimation
at convenient height with its legs uniformly spread and shoes fixed firmly into the
ground.
 The board is fixed to the tripod head by tightening the clamping screw.
 The working sheet should be carefully mounted with spring clips, thumb screws
or drafting tapes.
(b)Leveling
 The plane table should be leveled
 For small scale work, leveling is done by estimation
 For work of accuracy, an ordinary spirit level may be used.
 The table is levelled by placing the level on the board in two positions at right
angles and getting the bubble central in both directions.
 For more precise work, a Johnson Table or Coast Survey Table may be used.
(c)Centering
 The table should be so placed that plotted point on the sheet is exactly over the
ground point.
 The operation is known as centering the plane table.
 This is done through plumbing U-fork.
 Centering should be within the range of plotting error
(i.e. 1/4thof scale factor) in mm
(d)Orientation
 Orientation is the process of putting the plane table into some fixed direction so
that line representing a certain direction on the plan is parallel to that direction on
the ground
 This is essential condition to be fulfilled when more than one instrument station is
 to be used. If orientation is not done, the table will not be parallel to itself at
different position resulting in an overall distortion of the map.

Orientation of PT:
1. Magnetic Compass (Trough Compass or Tubular Compass)
 This is an approximate but quick method of orienting the plane table.
 The usual method is to place the trough compass on the plane table sheet and to
rotate the plane table till the needle floats centrally. This is the direction of
magnetic north and a fine pencil line is ruled against the long side of the box.
 At any other station, where the table is to be oriented, the compass is placed
against this line and the table is turned till the needle freely floats in the middle.
The table is then said to be oriented and clamped.
 This method of orientation is not very accurate and also may get affected by local
attraction and is generally used for small-scale survey.
The plane table can be oriented by compass under the following conditions:
 When speed is more important than accuracy.
 When there is no second point available for orientation.
 When the traverse is so long that accumulated errors in carrying the azimuth
forward might be greater than orientation by compass.
 For approximate orientation prior to final adjustment.
 In certain resection problems
2. Back Sighting
 This is a more accurate method
 In this method, the fiducially edge of alidade is laid along a ray drawn from
previous station to the present station and the plane table is then rotated till the
line of sight of alidade bisects exactly the ranging rod placed at previous station.
 The plane table is then clamped and said to be oriented.
 In this method, the level of the plane table has to be maintained identical in both
the stations.
Two cases may arise:
 When it is possible to set the plane table on the point already plotted on the sheet
by way of observation from previous station.
 When it is not possible to set the plane table on the point. (Resection)
Application of contour map:
 Determination of character of the terrain
 Selection of the suitable site for different projects
 Indivisibility between two points
 Location of route
 Determination of catchments area
 To find out the estimation of reservoir capacity

10. What are the errors in plane tabling/surveying?
Ans: Errors in plane tabling are as follows:
(a)Instrumental errors:
 Surface of the plans table is not perfectly plane
 Fiducially edge of the alidade is not straight
 Fitting of the plane table is loose
 If the magnetic compass is sluggish
 If the sight vane are not perpendicular to the base of the alidade, there would be an
error in sighting
 If the level tube is defective
 If the drawing paper is not of good quality.
(b)Personal error
 Leveling error
 Centering error
 Orientation error
 Error due to clamping
 Sighting error
 Plotting error
 Error due to instability
(c)Natural error
 Humidity
 Wind
 Temperature
 Rain
 Magnetic attraction

11. What is TS? What are the advantage and disadvantage of Total Station?
Ans: TS
 A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in
modern surveying and building construction that uses electronic transit theodolite
in conjunction with electronic distance meter (EDM).
 It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data collector and storage
system.
 The instrument is used to measure sloping distance of object to the instrument,
horizontal angles and vertical angles.
 Total stations are mainly used by land surveyors and civil engineers, either to
record features as in topographic surveying or to set oust features (such as roads,
houses or boundaries).
 They are also used by archaeologists to record excavations and by police, crime
scene investigators, private accident Re-constructionist and insurance companies
to take measurements of scenes.
Advantages of Total Station over Conventional instruments
 Traditional survey methods are laborious and time consuming
 Fully automatic electronic measurement
 Digital display of staff reading and distance
 Data storage in instrument possible
 Direct transfer to personal computer of data stored in instruments
 Online operation through integrated inter face to computer
 Eliminate reading error, writing error and error during data transfer
Disadvantage of Total Station:

 The LCD screen does not work well when it is cold.
 Batteries and electronics both do not work well when wet.
 Loss of data is an important consideration.
 Difficulty in remote areas where there is not electricity
 Battery life is also short.
 Initial cost higher than Plane table, Chain or Tacheometer.

11. Write the Principle of plane table survey and explain advantage and
disadvantage of plane table survey.
Ans: Principle of Plane Table Survey:
 The principle of plane tabling is parallelism means,
 Principle: “line drawn on paper or map should be parallel to their corresponding
line on ground”
 Parallelism obtained at phase of orientation
 The Position of plane table at each station must be identical, i.e. at each survey
station the table must be oriented in the direction of magnetic north.
Advantages of Plane tabling are as follows:
 As the numerical values of the angle as well as linear measurements are not
observed the errors and mistakes due to readings recording, and plotting are
eliminated.
 As plotting is done in the field itself chances of omission of important
measurements are avoided.
 The surveyor can compare the plotted work with the actual features of the area.
 The amount of office work is reduced.
 It is less costly as compared to other method of surveying.
 Simple to operate
 It is most suitable for small scale maps.
 No great skill is required to produce a satisfactory
 It is useful in magnetic areas where compass may not be used.
 The mistakes in writing field books are eliminated.
 Contours and irregular feature can be easily represented and checked as the whole
area is in view at the time of plotting
 It is the only means of mapping directly from the ground without notes or
intermediate steps.
Disadvantage of plane tabling:
 It is not intended for very accurate work.
 It is not suitable in monsoon.
 Due to heaviness, it is inconvenient to transport.
 Since there are so many accessories, there is likelihood of them being lost.
 The plane table survey is not possible in wet climates
 Tedious process
 As no field data are taken, it becomes difficult to re plot the plan to a different
scale.
 The time spend in the field is much more as compared to other types of survey
 As the plane table is only waist high, the sight distances are less than those in the
compass survey or theodolite survey.
 The plane table survey can be used in relatively open country where the stations
can be easily sighted.

Danger circle or great circle:
 The circle passing through the ground points let A, B, C and their locations a, b
and c on the sheet is, known as great circle or danger circle.
 A Great Circle is a circle passing through the great triangle formed by joining
resection is desired.
 If the point where the resection is desired lies on the great circle or near the
circumference of the great circle or near the circumference of the circle then the
circle is known as danger circle.
 This circle is named as danger circle because even when the table is not oriented
properly the rays point hence such resection point is not reliable and accurate.
 Hence the resection points should not lie on or in the periphery of 20⅓ the radius
to 20 m of circumference of the great or danger circle.
12. What are the Total Station Survey Error Sources and How to Avoid Them?
Ans: Total Station Survey Error Sources and How to Avoid Them
Pointing Error:
 Due to both human errors to point the instrument and environmental conditions
limiting clear vision of the observed target.
 The best way to minimize it is to repeat the observation and use the average as the
result
Uneven Heating of the Instrument:
 Direct Sunlight may heat one side of the instrument which causes small errors. So
shaded spot should be picked for instrument
Vibration:
 Avoid instrument location that vibrate
•Collimation Errors:
 Check the instrument regularly for collimation errors
Vertical Angles and Elevation:
 When using total station to measure precise elevations, the adjustment of the
electronic tilt sensor of the telescope is very important
Optical Plummet Errors:
 The optical plummet or tribachs must be periodically checked for misalignment.
 Adjustment of Prism Pole
 Recording Error: Reading an angle incorrectly, using wrong code, using
incorrect rod height.

13. Explain briefly graphical triangulation (intersection) with suitable figure.
Ans:
 One of the great advantages of plane table is the ease with which a point can be
located by intersection.
 When the distance between the point and the instrument station is either too large
or cannot be measured accurately due to some field conditions, intersection
method is employed.
 The location of an object is determined by sighting at the object from two plane
table stations (previously plotted) and drawing the rays. The intersection of these
rays will give the position of the object.
 It is therefore very essential to have at least two instrument stations to locate any
point.
 The line joining the two instrument stations is known as the base line.
 No linear measurement other than that of the base line is made.
 The point of intersection of the two rays forms the vertex of a triangle having the
two rays as two sides and the base line as the third line of the triangle.
 Due to this reason, intersection is also sometimes known as graphic

triangulation.
 In intersection method of plane table surveying, the objects or points to be located
are obtained at the point of intersection of radial lines drawn from two different
stations.
Field procedure of graphical triangulation (intersection):
 Let o1 and o2 be the two accessible stations as shown in figure such that they can
be plotted easily.
 A and B are stations to be plotted which are in accessible to setup plane table.
 Set up and orient the plane table at O1 and then transfer the ground point O1 on
drawing paper as o1. place the alidade at o1 and sight the point A and B and draw
rays o1A and o1B similarly sight the ground point O2 and draw line o1O2 and cut
line at scaled distance to fix point o2 on drawing sheet.
 Shift the table at O2 and set up it. Place the alidade at o2 orient it by sighting
station O1 and then sight the point A and B and draw o2A and O2B ray which
intersect the ray o1A and o1B at certain point.
 The point of intersection is location of A and B as a,bin drawing or map

14. Explain briefly methods of plane tabling.
Ans: There are different methods which are used to locate the objects on the map.
(a).Radiation
(b).Intersection
(c).Traversing
(d).Resection
The radiation and intersection methods are generally employed for locating the details
while the traversing method is used to plot the network of stations and the resection
method is employed to determine and to plot the location of plane table as well as to
orient the table simultaneously.
1. Radiation
 In this method, a ray is drawn from the instrument station towards the point, the
distance is measured between the instrument station and that point, and the point
is located by plotting to some scale the distance so measured.
 Evidently, the method is more suitable when the distances are small (within a tape
length) and one single instrument can control the points to be detailed.
 The method has a wider scope if the distances are obtained tacheometrically with
the help of telescopic alidade.
 Let us consider that a plane table is set up at station X and the details in the area X
is to be plotted by radiation method.
 In order to carry out this, first the plane table is set over the station X, clamped
and its position is plotted on paper as x.
 Now, with alidade pivoted at x, salient object points present in the area such as A,
B, C, D etc. of a building around the plane table got bisected and radial lines are
drawn showing their directions.
 The corresponding field distances XA, XB, XC, XD are measured and scale off
on respective radial lines.
 Thus plotted their positions as a, b, c, d etc.
 The plotted positions are then joined to represent the object

(b).Intersection
 One of the great advantages of plane table is the ease with which a point can be
located by intersection.
 When the distance between the point and the instrument station is either too large
or cannot be measured accurately due to some field conditions, intersection
method is employed.
 The location of an object is determined by sighting at the object from two plane
table stations (previously plotted) and drawing the rays. The intersection of these
rays will give the position of the object.
 It is therefore very essential to have at least two instrument stations to locate any
point.
 The point of intersection of the two rays forms the vertex of a triangle having the
two rays as two sides and the base line as the third line of the triangle.
 Due to this reason, intersection is also sometimes known as graphic triangulation.
 In intersection method of plane table surveying, the objects or points to be located
are obtained at the point of intersection of radial lines drawn from two different
stations.
(c)Traversing
 This method of plane table surveying is used to plot a traverse in cases stations
have not been previously plotted by some other methods.
 In this method, traverse stations are first selected.
 The stations are plotted by method of radiation by taking back sight on the
preceding station and a fore sight to the following station.
 Here distances are generally measured by tachometric method and surveying work
has to be performed with great care.
 Traversing is not much different from radiation as far as working principles are
concerned –the only difference is that in the case of radiation the observations are
taken to those points which are to be detailed or mapped while in the case of
traversing, the observations are made to those points which will subsequently be
used as instrument stations.
 The method is widely used to lay down survey lines between the instrument
stations of a closed or unclosed traverse.
(d)Resection
 Process of determining the plotted position of the station occupied by the plane
table, by means of sights taken from known points, locations of which have been
plotted. There are different methods of resection.

15. Describe the procedure with well labeled diagram of tracing paper or
mechanical method of orientation for Resection.
Ans: Field procedure OF Mechanical Method (tracing paper method) of
orientation for resection:
 Suppose A, B and C are the three well-defined points which have been plotted on
the map as a, b and c. It is required to locate a station at P.
 The table is placed at P and leveled. A tracing paper is fixed on the map and a
point p is marked on it.
 With the alidade centered on P the points A, B and C are bisected and rays are
drawn. These rays may not pass through the points a, b and c as the orientation is
done approximately.
 Now a tracing paper is unfastened and moved over the map in such a way that the
three rays simultaneously pass through the plotted positions a, b and c. Then the
points p is pricked with a pin to give an impression p on the map. P is the required
points on the map. The tracing paper is then removed.
 Then the alidade is centered on p and the rays are drawn towards A, B and C.
These rays must pass through the points a, b and c

16. What type of Safety precautions should be applied during survey using total
station? Write the uses of contour map.
Ans: Safety Precautions:
 Focusing directly at the sun, can result -loss of eyesight on the spot.
 Never remove the hand grip carelessly. If the grip is loosely or incompletely
attached, the instrument could fall and may cause a serious injury.
 Make sure not to short the battery terminals. If these are shorted, the resulting
high current would not only damage to the battery, but also start a fire.
 If the instrument or battery comes in contact with water, wipe it off as quickly as
possible and set it in a dry place for a while. When it is completely dry, put it back
in the case.
 Never disassemble the instrument, if you find a problem. Contact the dealer.
Uses of Contour Maps:
 A civil engineer studies the contours and finds out the nature of the ground to
identify. Suitable site for the project works to be taken up.
 By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible to find out profile of the ground
along that line. It helps in finding out depth of cutting and filling, if formation
level of road/railway is decided.
 Indivisibility of any two points can be found by drawing profile of the ground
along that line.
 The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer lines can be decided so as to
minimize and balance earthworks.
 Catchment area and hence quantity of water flow at any point of nalla or river can
be found. This study is very important in locating bunds, dams and also to find out
flood levels.
 From the contours, it is possible to determine the capacity of a reservoir.

17. Explain Lehmann’s method of resection with the help of suitable figure.
Ans: Trial and Error method (Lehmann‟s method)
 Suppose A, B and C are the three well-defined points which have been plotted as
a, b and c on the map. Now it is required to establish a station at P.
 The table is set up at P and leveled. Orientation is done by eye estimation.
 With the alidade, rays Aa, Bb and Cc are drawn. As the orientation is
approximately, the rays may not intersect at a point, but may form a small triangle
the triangle of error.
 To get the actual point, this triangle of error is to be eliminated. By repeatedly

turning the table clockwise or anticlockwise. The triangle is eliminated in such a
way that the rays Aa, Bb and Cc finally meet at a point p. This is the required
point on the map. This point is transferred to the ground by U-fork and plumb
bob.
Lehmann's rules are:

 If the position of the station point lies within the triangle formed by the three
points in the field, the triangle of error also fall inside the great triangle. Similarly
if the position of the point lies at outside the great triangle, triangle of error will be
situated outside of the great triangle
 The distance of point p to be fixed from each of the ray aA, bB and cC is
proportional to the respective distance of the station A, B, and C from the station
P.
 The trial position of the station point lies on the same side of the rays considered
with respect to their directions from the plotted position on the map to their
corresponding field positions
 If the plan table position P lies of the great circle (passing through A, B, and C)
the correct solution is not possible because three rays will always meet at a point
even if table is not oriented.

18. Explain two point problem method of resection with suitable figure.
Ans: The Two Point Problem method:
 In this method, two well-defined points whose positions have already been plotted
on the plan are selected.
 Then, by perfectly bisecting these points, a new station is established at the
required position.
 Suppose Aand B are two well-defined points whose positions are plotted on map
as a and b. It is required to locate a new station at C by perfectly bisecting A and
B.
 An auxiliary station D is selected at a suitable position(CD parallel to AB). The
table is set up at D, and leveled and oriented by eye estimation. It is then clamped.
•With the alidade touching a and b, the points A and B are bisected and rays are
taken. Suppose these rays intersect at d1.
 With the alidade center on d1, the ranging rod at C is bisected and rays is drawn.
Then, by eye estimation, a point c1 is marked on this ray.
 The table is shifted and center on C with a just over c1. It is leveled and oriented
by back sightingat station D.
 Pivot alidade against a sight A and draw a ray resecting the line d1c1 in c
 Pivot the alidade at c and sight B. draw a ray to B. if the ray passes through
plotted point b the orientation of table is correct and c is the correct position of C.
If this ray cuts the previously plotted line d1b at some other point say b1, then
position c is not correct position of C.
 To eliminate this error the table must be rotated by <b1ab. To do this ranging rod
o is fixed in the line with ab1 far away from the table
 The alidade is placed along ab and table is rotated until ranging rod at O is
bisected. It is oriented now and table is then clamped
 Finally alidade places at a and draw a ray from A (ray Aa) similarly with alidade
touching b sight B and draw a back ray Bb. The resection of these two ray (Aa
and Bb ) gives the position of C.

19. Explain Bessel’s or Graphical method of resection with the help of suitable
Sketches.
Ans: Bessel’s method (Graphical method)
 Suppose A,B, and C are three well-defined points which have been plotted as a, b
and c. Now it is required to locate a station at P.
 The table is placed at the required station P and leveled.
 The alidade is placed along the line ca and the point A is bisected. The table is
clamped. With the alidade in center on c, the point B is bisected and rays is drawn
 Again the alidade is placed along the line ac and the point C is bisected and the
table is clamped. With the alidade touching a, the point B is bisected and a ray is
drawn. Suppose this ray intersects the previous ray at a point d
 The alidade is placed along db and the point B is bisected. At this position the
table is said to be perfectly oriented. Now the rays Aa, Bb and Cc are drawn.
These three rays must meet at a point p which is the required point on the map.
This point is transferred to the ground by U-fork and plum bob.

20. Define with diagram how PT traverse is adjusted graphically.
Ans: This method of plane table surveying is used to plot a traverse in cases stations
have not been previously plotted by some other methods.
 In this method, traverse stations are first selected.
 The stations are plotted by method of radiation by taking back sight on the
preceding station and a fore sight to the following station.
 Here distances are generally measured by tachometric method and surveying work
has to be performed with great care.
 The method is widely used to lay down survey lines between the instrument
stations of a closed or unclosed traverse.
Check lines
 To check the accuracy of the plane table traverse, a few check lines are taken by
sighting back to some preceding station.
PROCEDURE
 Select the traverse stations A,B,C,D,E etc on the ground.
 Set the table on starting station „a‟ and perform temporary adjustments.
 Mark the magnetic meridian.
 Locate A on the sheet as „a‟.
 Pivot on „a‟ bisect the next station B and draw a ray
 Measure the distance AB and locate „b‟ on the sheet with a suitable scale.
 Shift the table to next station B, set the table over B, and do temporary
adjustments.
 Place the alidade along „ba‟ and bisect A for doing orientation of plane table.
 Pivot on b bisect c draw a ray
 Measure the distance BC and locate „c‟ on the sheet with the suitable scale.
 Report the same procedure at every successive station until the traverse is
completed.

21. Define plane table survey and explain briefly the accessories of plane table
survey.
Ans: Plane table surveying is a graphical method of survey in which the field
observations and plotting proceed simultaneously. -Dr. K.R. Arrora
 The plane tabling, may be defined as graphical construction of straight lines,
angles and triangles for plotting the ground detail points. -R. agore.
Equipment's and Accessories of Plane Table Survey are as follows:

(a)Plane Table
(b)Tripod
(c)Alidade (simple alidade and telescopic alidade)
(d)Clinometers
(e)Plumb bob and plumbing fork or U-fork
(f)Magnetic compass/ Trough Compass
(g)Spirit level
(h)Drawing paper and accessories
(a)Plane Tabl
 Instrument to carryout graphical survey, surveying and plotting are both carried
out at field itself
 Made of well seasoned wood
 Supported on tripod and tightened normally with butterfly screw.
 In perfect plane table, the drawing surface needs to be perfectly flat (not
undulated)
 Dimensions (In general): 75 cm X 60cm X 2 cm
 Mounted on a tripod and clamps are provided to fix it in any direction.
(b)Tripod
 plane table is mounted on a tripod
 Tripod is generally made of wood, with iron shoe at it‟s toe. The tripod may be
made to fold for convenience of transportation.
 Tripod is provided with three foot screws at its top for leveling of the plane table.
 The length of tripod is 1.2m.
(c)Alidade
 It is a straight edge ruler having some form of sighting device.
 One edge of the ruler is leveled and is graduated (fiducial edge). Always this edge
is used for drawing line of sight.
 It is used to draw a line parallel to the line of sight and thus provides the direction
of the object to be plotted.
 Depending on the type of sighting arrangement, alidades are classified as Plain
Alidade and Telescopic Alidade

Plain Alidade:
 Simple form and used for ordinary work
 It consists of a straight-edge ruler, made of a metal or wood, with one of the edges
beveled and graduated known as fiducial edge (working edge), with two vanes
(sight vanes) which are perpendicular to its ends.
 The two vanes or sights are hinged to fold down on the rule when the alidade is
not in use.
 One of the vanes is provided with a narrow slit (eye vane) while the other is open
and carries a hair or the thin wire (object vane).
Telescopic Alidade:
 The telescopic alidade is used when it is required to take inclined sights
 Also the accuracy and range of sights are increased by its use.
 It essentially consist of a small telescope as an arrangement for sighting (similar to
theodolite) with a level tube and graduated arc mounted on horizontal axis.
 The horizontal axis rests on a A-frame fitted with venire fixed in a heavy rule, one
side of which is used as the working edge along which line may be drawn.
 The inclination of line sight can be read on the vertical circle.
(d)Clinometer
 A clinometer is a fairly simple instrument which is used to measure the value of
slope.
 By using the principles of trigonometry, the height of tall objects can be
calculated from the angles measured.
 Clinometers can be used for:
 Measuring the slope of a tape or chain during distance measurement.
 Estimating the height of a building or other feature using a vertical angle
and horizontal distance
 Abney level is a special type of clinometer
(e)Plumbing fork and plumb bob

 This is a U-shaped piece of metal with parallel arms of equal length, a plumb bob
attached to the free end of the lower arm
 The point of the upper arm and the plumb line are in same vertical direction
The plumbing fork is used for:
Centering the table:
 The upper end of the plumbing fork is placed over the plotted point and the plane
table is so adjusted that the plumb bob is on the station point below.
Transferring of the ground control:
 The plane table is centered over the underground point by means of the plumb bob
while the upper arm of the fork gives the point to be plotted on the drawing sheet
(f) Spirit level:
 A small spirit level either of the tubular variety or of the circular type is used for
ascertaining if the table is properly leveled.
 This can be ascertained by placing the level in two directions at right angles to
each other and observing that the bubble is central in both cases.
(g)Drawing Paper:
 The drawing paper used for plane tabling must be of superior quality so that is
may have minimum effect of changes in the humidity of the atmosphere.
(moisture proof and non-hygroscopic)
 The changes in the humidity and temperature of the atmosphere produces
expansion and contraction in different directions and thus alter the scale and
distort the map.
 The dimensions of the sheet should remain stable under variable conditions of
temperature and humidity.
 It should be capable of withstanding repeated erasures.
 It should also be stiff and tough and suitable for longtime archival, quality storage.
Drawing accessories
 Pencil, Eraser, Sharpener, Scale
22. What is numerical survey? Explain steps of numerical survey.

Ans: Numerical Survey
 Numerical survey is a survey in which the location of a point is determined and
recorded in numerical data format.
 The numerical data may be distances, Angles, or coordinates.
Steps of Numerical Survey
(a)Preparation for Numerical Surveying (Planning)
(b)Checking and adjustment of equipment
(c)Reconnaissance of area specified for survey
(d)Diagram of control network (Monumentation and control point establishment)
(e)Observation
(f)Computation and adjustment of data
(g)Plotting and drawing
(h)Location survey or stake out survey or layout
(a)Preparation for Numerical Surveying (Planning)

 Planning is basically office operation, where the relevant maps and documents are
collected from secondary sources and a detailed plan for the field operation is
designed
 In this stage, place or area is selected on the existing map for numerical survey
 The success of data collection requires careful preparation.
 The first and often the most difficult question is "Why am I doing this survey?“
 Define objective of the survey work
 Study about obstacles during survey work and develop idea to tackle them.
(b)Checking and adjustment of equipment
 The accuracy and quality of any survey depends upon the skills and abilities of the
survey crew.
 However, condition of the equipment affects the accuracy of the survey work.
 Most survey work is running at remote area.
 The basic maintenance of instrument also may not available.
 Small mistake or error can cause failure of whole project.
 So, checking and adjustment of the equipment is most important part or step of
any survey work.
(c)Reconnaissance of area specified for survey
 The main object of reconnaissance is to collect information about the topography
of the area to be surveyed.
 It is the first field operation
 Reconnaissance is a rapid and rough survey conducted to have some preliminary
idea of the terrain
 To plan the survey operation in field.
 To estimate the cost of the project
 To collect and study the available maps of the area
 Various possible way of surveying can be determined.
 The obligatory points that must include in survey are marked.
 If contour maps of the area under investigation are available, they are extremely
useful
 If such maps are not available, the area may be mapped on a small scale by
conducting a rough survey
(d)Diagram of control network (Monumentation and control point establishment)
 We have to prepare the diagram of the control network which are previously
established near the survey site.
 We must monument, establish and make diagram of control point according to
requirement
 If previously established control points are not available at our site then we can
use any of following methods for control survey
1. Traverse
2. Triangulation
3. GPS
4. Levelling, etc.
(e)Observation
The approach and the instruments used depend up on:
 Project size and available budget
 Availability of instrument and manpower
Characteristics of the terrain
 Before starting the observation, the team leader should make a plan to execute it
 The following information should be collected
 Location of the B.M, Trigonometrically station near the site
 Accessibility and means of transportation
 Availability of labors and other required goods and services
 Ownership of the land to be trespassed and to obtain the permission, if required
 The detail topographical survey can be run by using Tachometer, Total station or
GPS instrument, depending on the accuracy requirement

 However, being rapid and accurate and also due to data logging and downloading
facility, the use of Total Station is very popular these days
 Unlike in tachometric observations, using total station direct 3D position of the
detail can be observed and no further computation and reduction are required
(f)Computation and adjustment of data:
The approach and the instruments used depend up on:
Project size and available budget
Availability of instrument and manpower
Characteristics of the terrain
Before starting the observation, the team leader should make a plan to execute it
The following information should be collected:
 Location of the B.M, Trigonometrical station near the site
 Accessibility and means of transportation
 Availability of labors and other required goods and services
 Ownership of the land to be trespassed and to obtain the permission, if require
 The detail topographical survey can be run by using Tachometer, Total station or
GPS instrument, depending on the accuracy requirement
 However, being rapid and accurate and also due to data logging and downloading
facility, the use of Total Station is very popular these days
 Unlike in tachometric observations, using total station direct 3D position of the
detail can be observed and no further computation and reduction are required
(g)Computation and adjustment of data
 This operation can be done in office.
 On the basis of the data stored in total station, booked in field books, kept in
sketched; the Planimetric details and altimetric details are plotted and the final
topographical map is prepared for designing the components of the project
structures
 In tacheometric survey observed data are computed and adjusted according to our
requirement because the observed data are not useful directly.
 If the survey is done for control point establishment (Traverse, Tacheometry, etc.)
then we require the further adjustment and computation of observed data.

23. Numericals
(a)The Following Reading was taken with a tacheometer on to a vertical staff,
Calculate tacheometric constant.
Horizontal Distance Stadia Reading (m)
45 0.885,1.110,1.335
60 1.860,2.160,2.460
Solution: • D1 = KS1 + C ................................(1)

• D2 = KS2 + C ................................(2)
D1 = KS1 + C
45 = K (1.335 – 0.885) + C
45 = K (0.45) + C ....................(3)
D2 = KS2 + C
60 = K (2.460 – 1.860) + C
60 = K (0.6) + C
C = 60 - K (0.6) ....................(4)
Now put the value of eq 4 in eq 3
45 = K (0.45) + C ....................(3)
45 = K (0.45) + 60 - K (0.60)
45 – 60 = - 0.15 K
- 15 = - 0.15 K
K = 100
Put the value of K in Eq no 3
45 = K (0.45) + C
45 = 100 (0.45) + C
C=0
(b). The stadia reading with horizontal sight at a vertical staff held 50 m away
from the tacheometer were 1.385 and 2.380. The focal length of the object glass
was 25cm. The distance between the object glass and trunion axis of a
tacheometer was 15 cm. Calculate the stadia interval.
Solution:
D = KS + C
D = (f/i) S + (f + d) ........... (1)
Here D = 50m
S = 2.380 – 1.385 = 0.995
f = 25cm = 0.25m
d = 15cm = 0.15m
Put the all value in equation no 1
50 = ((0.25 x 0.995) / i) + (0.25 + 0.15)
i = 0.005 m
i = 5 mm Ans

(c) A staff held vertically at a distance of 50 m and 100m from the centre of the
theodolite with a stadia hair, the staff intercept with the telescope is 0.500 And
1.000 respectively. The instrument was then setup over a station P of RL 1850.95
m and the total height of instrument was 1.475m. The hair reading on a staff held
vertically at station Q was 1.050, 1.900 and 2.750 with the line of sigth horizontal.
Calculate the horizontal distance of PQ and RL of Q point.
Solution: Calculation of tacheometric constant
D = KS + C
50 = K (0.005) + C................ (1)
100 = K (1.000) + C.............. (2)
50 = K (0.005) + C................ (1)
C = 50 – 0.005 K.................. (3)
Put the value of C in Eq 2
100 = K (1.000) + C............... (2)
100 = 1.000 K + 50 – 0.005 K
K = 100
Now put the value of K in eq 3
C = 50 – 0.005 K.................. (3)
C = 50 – 0.005 (100)
C=0
Note: if K = 100 and C = 0 means your instrument is perfect
• Calculation of horizontal distance between PQ
D = KS + C........................... (1)
Now
S = 2.750 – 1.050 = 1.700m
K = 100
C=0
Put all the value in equation no 1
D = 100 (1.700) + 0
D = 170m
Calculation of RL of Q point
• RL of Q = 1850.95 + 1.475 – 1.900
= 1850.525m ans:
(d)A tachometer was setup at a station A and the following readings were obtain
on a staff held vertically, calculate the horizontal distance AB and RL of B, when
the constant of instrument are 100 and 0.15
Inst. Staff Vertical Hair Reading (m) Remark

Station Station angle
A BM - 6°40′ 1.200, 1.900, 2.600 RL of BM =
B + 8°20′ 0.800, 1.600, 2.400 850.50m
Solution:
In the first observation

S1 = 2.600 – 1.200 = 1.400m
Θ1 = - 6°40̍′(Depression)
K = 100 and C = 0.15
Vertical Desistance V1 = KS Sin2θ/2 + C Sinθ
= 100(1.400) sin (2 x 6°40′)/2 + 0.15 Sin 6°40′
= 16.143 + 0.0174
= 16.160m
In the second observation
S2 = 2.400 – 0.800 = 1.600
Θ2 = + 8°20′ (Elevation)
Vertical Desistance V = V2 KS Sin2θ/2 + C Sinθ
= 100(1.600) sin (2 x 8°20′)/2 + 0.15 Sin 8°20′

= 22.944 + 0.022
= 22.966m
• Horizontal distance D2 = KS Cos2θ + C Sinθ
= 100 (1.600) Cos2 8°20′ + 0.15 Sin8°20′
= 156.639 + 0.148
= 156.787m
RL of Instrument Axis = RL of BM + h1 + V1
= 850.500 + 1.900 + 16.160
= 868.560m
RL of B = RL of Inst. axis + V2 – h2
= 868.560 + 22.966 – 1.600
RL of B = 889.926m
(e) To determine the gradient between two point P and Q a tacheometer was set
up at a R station and the following observation where taken keeping the staff held
vertical, if the horizontal angle PRQ is 36020’ determine the avg. Gradient
between P and Q Point take K = 100 and C = 0 and RL of HI = 100m
Staff station Vertical angle Staff reading

P + 4°40′ 1.210, 1.510, 1.810
Q - 0°40′ 1.000, 1.310, 1.620
In the first observation (From R to P)

S1 = 1.810 – 1.210 = 0.6m
Θ1 = + 4°40′
Horizontal distance D = KS Cos2θ + C Sinθ
= 100 x 0.6 x Cos2 4°40′+ 0
= 59.60m
Vertical Desistance V = KS Sin2θ/2 + C Sinθ
= 100 x 0.6 x Sin (2 x 4°40′) / 2 + 0
= 4.865m
In the Second observation (From R to Q)
S2 = 1.620 – 1.000 = 0.62m
Θ2 = - 0°40′
Horizontal distance D = KS Cos2θ + C Sinθ
= 100 x 0.62 x Cos2 0°40′ + 0
= 61.99m
Vertical Desistance V = KS Sin2θ/2 + C Sinθ
= 100 x 0.62 x Sin (2 x 0°40′) / 2 + 0
= 0.721m
Avg. Gradient between P and Q point ………………………
Distance D1 = PR = 59.60m,
Distance D2 = QR = 61.99m
‫ ے‬PRQ = 36°20′
PQ2 = PR2 + QR2 – 2 x PR x QR x Cos 36°20′
PQ2 = (59.60)2 + (61.99)2 – 2 x 59.60 x 61.99 x Cos 36°20′
PQ = 37.978m
Difference of Elevation between P and Q
RL of P = RL of HI + V1 – h1
= 100 + 4.865 – 1.510
= 103.355m
RL of Q = RL of HI – V2 – h2
= 100 – 0.721 – 1.310
= 97.969m
Difference of RL of P & Q = 103.355 – 97.969
= 5.386
Average gradient between P and Q = Difference in RL between P & Q / Distance of P
&Q
= 5.386 / 37.978
= 1 / 7.051 Ans:

(f)Find out the distance between P and Q by using the bellow data given in table,
the staff held normal to the line of sight in both the cases value of the tacheometer
constant is 100 and 0.3
Instrument Staff Line Bearing Vertical Hair Reading
at angle
A P AP 84°36° 3°30′ 1.35, 2.10,
2.85
A Q AQ 142°24′ 2°45′ 1.955, 2.875,
3.765
S1 = 2.85 – 1.35 = 1.5m

S2 = 3.765 – 1.955 = 1.809m
Horizontal Distance
AP = D = KS1 Cosθ1 + C Cosθ1 + h1 Sinθ1
= 100 x 1.5 x Cos 3°30′ + 0.3 x Cos 3°30′ + 2.10 x Sin 3°30′
= 149.72 + 0.299 + 0.128
= 150.147m
AQ = D = KS2 Cosθ2 + C Cosθ2 + h2 Sinθ2

= 100 x 1.809 x Cos 2°45′+ 0.3 x Cos 2°45′+ 2.875 x Sin 2°45′
= 180.742 + 0.299 + 0.138
= 181.179m
• Angle PAQ = Bearing of AP – Bearing of AQ
= 142°24′– 84°36′
= 57°48′

• Using Cosine rule
PQ2 = AP2 + AQ2 – 2 x AP x AQ x Cos 57°48°
PQ2 = (150.147)2 + (181.179)2 – 2 x 150.147 x 181.179 x Cos 57°48′
PQ = 162.41m

(g)The vertical angles to vanes fixed at 1m and 3m above the foot of the staff held
vertically at station Q were + 3°20′ and 6°40′ respectively from instrument station
P. if the elevation of the instrument axis at station P is 101.520m calculate
(1) The Horizontal distance between P & Q and
(2) The elevation of the staff station Q)
Solution:
S=3–1=2
θ1 = 6°40′
θ2 = 3°20′
h=1
D = s/tanθ1-tanθ2
= 2/tan6°40′-tan3°20′
2x tan 3°20′/ tan 6°40′- tan 3°20′

= 1.99m
Elevation of Staff station Q = RL of HI + V – h
= 101.520 + 1.99 – 1.0
= 102.510m

(h)The vertical angles to vanes fixed at 1m and 3m above the foot of the staff held
vertically at station Q were - 3°20′and - 6°40′ respectively from instrument station
P. if the elevation of the instrument axis at station P is 101.520m calculate
Solution:
S=3–1=2
θ1 = - 3°20′
θ2 = - 6°40′
h=1
= 2/tan 6°40′ - tan 3°20′

= 34.13m
= 2 x tan 6°40′/ tan 6°40′ - tan 3°20′

= 3.99m
Elevation of Staff station Q = RL of HI + V – h = 101.520 – 3.99 – 1.0 = 96.530m

(i)The vertical angles to vanes fixed at 1m and 3m above the foot of the staff held
vertically at station Q were + 3°20′ and - 6°40′respectively from instrument
station P. if the elevation of the instrument axis at station P is 101.520m calculate
Solution:
S=3–1=2
θ1 = + 3°20′
θ2 = - 6°40′
h=1
= 2/tan 3°20′ + tan 6°40′

= 11.43m
= 2 tan 6°40′/ tan 6°40′ + tan 3°20′

= 1.34m
Elevation of Staff station Q = RL of HI - V – h
= 101.520 – 1.34 – 1.0
= 99.180m

24. Write short notes
(a)Analytic lens:
 A concave lens specially provided in a telescope between the object lens and eye
piece to eliminate the additive constant (f + d) from the tacheometric distance
equations is known as an analytic lens.
 It is fitted in external focusing telescopes only.
Advantages of an analytic lens:
The main advantage of an analytic lens is:
 By the introduction of analytic lens the calculation of distances and heights, is
very much simplified.
 If the multiplying constant is 100 and additive constant is 0, the horizontal
distance is obtained by simply multiplying the staff intercept by 100.
 The analytic lens is sealed against moisture or dust.
 The loss of sight can be compensated for by the use of slightly larger object glass.
Module – 2 Tacheometry
Disadvantages of an analytic lens:
 It increases absorption of light, decreasing the brightness of image.
 It also adds to the initial cost of manufacturing the telescope.
 It cannot be cleaned easily.
 In case of adjustable, it is a potential source of error unless proper field check is
made periodically.
(b)Substance bar
 In this system, bar of fixed length, called a substance bar is used.
 Substance bar has targets at the two ends at a fixed distance. Horizontal angle is
also measured between these two targets and station under this system.
 Among these systems we followed the fixed hair method under Stadia system for
detailing using a Theodolite with stadia diaphragm.
(c) GPS segments
 The GPS comprised of three segments: satellite constellation called space
segment, ground control called operational control segment, and user receiving
equipment called user segment.
Space segment:
 The Space Segment of the system consists of the GPS satellites. These space
vehicles (SVs) send radio signals from space.
 The nominal GPS Operational Constellation consists of 24 satellites that orbit the
earth in 12 hours.
 There are 6 orbital planes with 4 SVs in each orbit
 This constellation provides the user with between five and eight SVs visible from
any point on the earth.
Control segment:
 The Control Segment consists of a system of tracking stations located around the
world.
 The Master Control facility is located at Schreiber Air Force Base (formerly
Falcon AFB) in Colorado.
 It uploads data to satellites.
User segment:
 The GPS User Segment consists of the GPS receivers and the user community
 GPS receivers convert signals into position, velocity, and time estimates.
 Four satellites are required to compute the four dimensions of X, Y, Z (position)
and Velocity
(d) Function of total Station
 Distance Measurement
 Angle Measurement
 Total Station: Co-ordinate Measurement
 Total Station is equipment used in surveying, designed for measuring horizontal
and vertical angles, inclusive of measuring sloping distance of object to the
instrument.
 It is a combination of electronic theodolite and electromagnetic distance
measuring (EDM) instrument.
Safety Precautions of TS:
 Focusing directly at the sun, can result -loss of eyesight on the spot.
 Never remove the hand grip carelessly. If the grip is loosely or incompletely
attached, the instrument could fall and may cause a serious injury.
 Make sure not to short the battery terminals. If these are shorted, the resulting
high current would not only damage to the battery, but also start a fire.
 If the instrument or battery comes in contact with water, wipe it off as quickly as
possible and set it in a dry place for a while. When it is completely dry, put it back
in the case.
 Never disassemble the instrument, if you find a problem. Contact the dealer
(e) EDM
 Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length
between two points using electromagnetic waves.
 EDM is commonly carried out with digital instruments called theodolites.
 EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying
equipment and can be used to measure distances of up to 100 kilometers.
 Each piece of EDM equipment available at Engineer Supply provides dependably
accurate distance measurements displayed on an easy-to-read digital screen.

(f) Principle of Tacheometry
 The principle of techeometry is based on property of isosceles triangles, where the
ratio of distance of the base from apex and length of the base is always constant.
D1/S1=D2/S2=D3/S3=f/I (multiplying constant)

F= focal length of object and
i= stadia intercept
 Tacheometry is the branch of Surveying in which we determine the horizontal
and vertical distances with the angular measurements with an instrument,
Tachemometer.
 It is not so accurate method of finding the horizontal distances as the Chaining is,
but it is most suitable for carrying out the surveys to find the distances in the hilly
area where other methods are quite difficult being carried out.
 It is generally used to locate contours, hydrographic surveys and laying out routes
of highways, railways etc.
(g) Uses of Stadia
The stadia method of surveying is particularly useful for following cases:
 In differential leveling, the back sight and foresight distances are balanced
conveniently if the level is equipped with stadia hairs.
 In profile leveling and cross sectioning, stadia is a convenient means of finding
distances from level to points on which rod readings are taken.
 In rough trigonometric, or indirect, leveling with the transit, the stadia method is
more rapid than any other method.
 For traverse surveying of low relative accuracy, where only horizontal angles and
distances are required, the stadia method is a useful rapid method.
 On surveys of low relative accuracy - particularly topographic surveys-where both
the relative location of points in a horizontal plane and the elevation of these
points are desired, stadia are useful.
 The horizontal angles, vertical angles, and the stadia interval are observed, as each
point is sighted; these three observations define the location of the point sighted.

Errors in Stadia Measurement:
Specific sources of errors in horizontal and vertical distances computed from observed
stadia intervals are as follows:
1. Error in Stadia Interval factor
 This produces a systematic error in distances proportional to the amount of
error in the stadia interval factor.
2. Error in staff graduations
 If the spaces on the rod are uniformly too long or too short, a systematic error
proportional to the stadia interval is produced in each distance.
3. Incorrect stadia Interval
 The stadia interval varies randomly owing to the inability of the instrument
operator to observe the stadia interval exactly.
 In a series of connected observations (as a traverse) the error may be expected
to vary as the square root of the number of sights.
 This is the principal error affecting the precision.
(h)Strength of Figures
 Accuracy of a triangulation network not only does depend on methods and
precision used during observation but also depends on shape of the figures in the
triangulation network.
 The accuracy of the system due to shape of the figure in the net is measured in
terms of the strength of figures.
 A convenient method of evaluating the strength (R) of the figure has been
developed by the Coast and Geodetic survey of USA, which is based on
expression for the square of the probable error (L2) that would occur in 6th place
of logarithm of any side. For a single chain of triangle
 L2 = 3/4d2(1 – C/D)(2
A + AB + 2
B)
Where,
 d: Probable error of an observed directions in seconds.
 D: Number of directions observed (backward and forward) except known side.
• C: Number of conditions to be satisfied in each figure
• A,B: Difference per second in sixth place of decimal of log Sin of distance
angles A and B respectively.
If R represents the terms in equation (1) affected by the shape of the figure
it can be represented as,
R = (1 – C/D)(2
A + AB + 2
B)
The value of R determines the strength of figure, the smaller the value of R
the greater the strength of figure.
Thus the value of R depends on the following factors,
• i) Number of observed directions,

• ii) Number of geometric conditions, and
• iii) Magnitude of distance angles A and B.(The angle opposite to the known
side and the required side are known as the distance angles)
C can be calculated with the following formula
C = (n‟ – s‟ +1) + (n – 2s + 3)
Where,
n': Number of lines observed in both the directions (including known sides)
s‟: Number of stations occupied.
n: Total no. of lines ( including known side)
s: Total no. of stations.
• Relative strength of figure can be computed in terms of R and it can be used to select
the best route for computation
(i)Instrument used in tacheometer

The following instruments were used during our field survey.
Theodolite with a stadia diaphragm:
 Theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angle, to collect the details
of points and to measure the distance of traverse leg by stadia hair method.
Folding staff (3m):
 Folding staff is used to measure vertical distance which is sighted from the level
machine.
Tripod:
 Tripod is used to hold the theodolite.
Measuring tape (30m):
 Measuring tape is used to measure the horizontal distance
Ranging rod:
 Ranging rod is used for signaling and bisection of target.
(j)Uses of Tacheometry
 Preparation of topographic maps which require both elevations and horizontal
distances.
 Survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods are in convenient
 Detail filling
 Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways, etc.
 Checking of already measured distances
 Hydrographic surveys and
 Establishing secondary control.

(k)Features of tacheometer or Characteristic of tacheometer
 The multiple constant (f/i) should have a normal value of 100 and the error
contained in this value should not exceed 1 in 1000.
 The axial horizontal lines should be exactly midway between the other two lines.
The telescope should be fitted with an anallatic lens to make the additive constant
(f + d) exactly to zero.
 The telescope should be truly analectic.
 The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20 to 30 diameters.
The Aperture of the object should be 35 to 45 mm in diameter
(l)Principle of plane table survey:

 The principle of plane tabling is parallelism, meaning that the rays drawn from
stations to objects on the paper are parallel to the lines from the stations to the
objects on the ground.
 The relative positions of the objects on the ground are represented by their plotted
positions on the paper and lie on the respective rays.
 The table is always placed at each of the successive stations parallel to the
position it occupied at the starting station. Plane tabling is a graphical method of
surveying.
 Plane table survey is mainly suitable for filling interior details when traversing is
done by theodolite.
 Sometimes traversing by a plane table may also be done. But this survey is
recommended for work where great accuracy is not required. As the fitting and
fixing arrangement of this instrument is not perfect, most accurate work cannot be
expected.
(m) Importance of topo map:

 Topographic maps are an important tool because they can represent the three-
dimensional landscape in two dimensions.
 A person who can read a topo map can find out the location of peaks, valleys,
ridges and saddles, among other land features.
 Elevations on a topo map are marked with contour lines, which connect points of
equal elevation. Imagine walking around a mountain in a circle, never going
uphill and never going downhill but staying at the same altitude
 The shape of the contour lines can tell you the shape of the landforms in a
particular area. For example, concentric circles show a peak, with the smallest
circle marking the summit. Contour lines that are close together indicate that the
land is very steep, while contour lines that are spread apart show that the land is
relatively flat.

(n) A few common guidelines for detailing are as following:
 Make a clear list of short forms of the remarks and put them into the instrument,
that reduces time of entering remarks during survey
 Make a clear and separate sketch for each observation station, that makes easy for
plotting and trace out repeats in case of mistakes
 Optimize observation points, as for example never take four corners of
rectangular houses because three are sufficient to plot them
 If you have to pick up a circular detail, don‟t take many points at circumference,
pick only two points at the end of diameter and show it in sketch
 Always take a pair of points at the edges of linear features like roads, canals etc.
at each and every bent, but not in between.
 If the structure is parallel, do not observe in pair but in single edge and note the
width once
 Always keep in mind the targeted scale of map while selecting the detail for
observation. It serves you for completeness in content
 Always keep in mind the extent to be surveyed, it saves you from incompleteness
and survey of unnecessary area
 Pick up the spots where there is change in direction either in vertical or in
horizontal or both, that helps for accurate depiction of topography
 Ignore the change in slope that are within the change in elevation of contour
interval
 Don‟t miss to pick up valley lines, stream lines, ridge lines, depressions, passes
and peaks which give real topographic picture
 Don‟t miss to pick up important and permanent details, big boulders, single trees
 Don‟t leave the boundaries of the land cover/use unclosed
(o) Plane Table:
 Instrument to carryout graphical survey, surveying and plotting are both carried
out at field itself
 Made of well seasoned wood
 Supported on tripod and tightened normally with butterfly screw.
 In perfect plane table, the drawing surface needs to be perfectly flat (not
undulated)
 Dimensions (In general): 75 cm X 60cm X 2 cm
 Mounted on a tripod and clamps are provided to fix it in any direction.
Simple Plane Table:
 Rough and most simple type
 Leveling and centering needs to be done by moving legs of tripod
 Can be placed in any horizontal direction or orientation by rotating on horizontal
plane with respect to vertical axis.
 Can be used for works where normal accuracy is required.

Johnson Table:
 Devised by William D. Johnson of US Geological Survey
 Attached with Special type of head called Johnson head
 Can be fixed to tripod with ball and socket arrangement
 Can be fixed after orientation with upper and lower screw
Coastal Survey Table:
 This table is superior to the above two types and is generally used for work of
high precision.
 The leveling off the table is done very accurately with the help of the levelling
head (three foot screws)
 The table can be turned about the vertical axis and can be fixed in any direction
very accurately with the help of a clamp and tangent screws.
 Better for large scale and survey and mapping of large area

25. What is Tacheometric Constant? Describe the procedure for determination of
tacheometric constant in field.
Ans: The constant k = f/i is called the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor and
the constant (f + d) =C is known as the additive constant of the tacheometer but the
latter one is made zero by using an analytic lens in the instrument.
PROCEDURE:
The stadia interval factor (k) and the stadia constant (c) are known as tacheometric
constants. Before using a tacheometer for surveying work, it is required to determine
these constants. These can be computed from field observation by adopting following
procedure.
Step 1: Set up the tacheometer at any station say P on a flat ground.

Step 2: Select another point say Q about 200 m away. Measure the distance between P
and Q accurately with a precise tape. Then, drive pegs at a uniform interval, say 50 m,
along PQ. Mark the peg points as 1, 2, 3 and last peg -4 at station Q.
Step 3: Keep the staff on the peg-1, and obtain the staff intercept say s1.
Step 4: Likewise, obtain the staff intercepts say s2, when the staff is kept at the peg-2,
Step 5: Form the simultaneous equations, using Equation D = ks + c
D1 = k s1 + c ------------- (i) and
D2 = k s2 + c ------------- (ii)
Solving Equations (i) and (ii), determine the values of k and c.
Step 6: Form another set of observations to the pegs 3 & 4, Simultaneous equations
can be obtained from the staff intercepts s3 and s4 at the peg-3 and point Q
respectively. Solving those equations, determine the values of k and c again.
Step 7: The average of the values obtained in steps (5) and (6) provide the
tacheometric constants k and c of the instrument.
26. Derive the expression for the horizontal and vertical distance of a staff from
the instrument when the sight is inclined and the staff is placed vertically.
Ans: Principles of Stadia Method
A tacheometer is temporarily adjusted on the station P with horizontal line of sight.
Let a and b be the lower and the upper stadia hairs of the instrument and their actual
vertical separation be designated as i. Let f be the focal length of the objective lens of
the tacheometer and c be horizontal distance between the optical centre of the
objective lens and the vertical axis of the instrument. Let the objective lens is focused
to a staff held vertically at Q, say at horizontal distance D from the instrument station.
By the laws of optics, the images of readings at A and B of the staff will appear along
the stadia hairs at a and b respectively. Let the staff interval i.e., the difference
between the readings at A and B be designated by s. Similar triangle between the
object and image will form with vertex at the focus of the objective lens (F). Let the
horizontal distance of the staff from F be d. Then, from the similar Ds ABF and a' b' F,
AB/d = a‟b‟/f
Or, d= AB/a‟b‟ *f
D= s/i*f
D= f/i*s
as a' b' = ab = i. The ratio (f / i) is a constant orf a particular instrument and is known
as stadia interval factor, also instrument constant. It is denoted by K and thus
d = K.s --------------------- Equation (*)
The horizontal distance (D) between the center of the instrument and the station point
(Q) at which the staff is held is d + f + c. If C is substituted for (f + c), then the
horizontal distance D from the center of the instrument to the staff is given by the
equation
D = Ks + C ---------------------- Equation
The distance C is called the stadia constant..

. …………………GOOD LUCK……………………

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COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

PREPARED BY:LOKENDRA PRASHAD BHATTA

[3] Prepared by: Lokendra

Methods of relief representation

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3. Write the uses of topographical map

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4. Define horizontal equivalent. Explain types of contour.

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5. Define contouring. Explain briefly factors deciding contour interval.

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7. Explain characteristics of contour.

8. Define interpolation and horizontal equivalent

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Disadvantage of Total Station:

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 Due to this reason, intersection is also sometimes known as graphic

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 To get the actual point, this triangle of error is to be eliminated. By repeatedly

Lehmann's rules are:

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Equipment's and Accessories of Plane Table Survey are as follows:

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(e)Plumbing fork and plumb bob

22. What is numerical survey? Explain steps of numerical survey.

(a)Preparation for Numerical Surveying (Planning)

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Solution: • D1 = KS1 + C ................................(1)

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Inst. Staff Vertical Hair Reading (m) Remark

In the first observation

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Staff station Vertical angle Staff reading

In the first observation (From R to P)

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S1 = 2.85 – 1.35 = 1.5m

AQ = D = KS2 Cosθ2 + C Cosθ2 + h2 Sinθ2

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2x tan 3°20′/ tan 6°40′- tan 3°20′

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= 2/tan 6°40′ - tan 3°20′

= 2 x tan 6°40′/ tan 6°40′ - tan 3°20′