FACTORS INFLUENCING PROVISION OF LOW COST HOUSING AMONG

URBAN SLUM DWELLERS, A CASE STUDY OF SOWETO EAST ZONE A IN

KIBERA, NAIROBI COUNTY, KENYA

KENNEDY MARA MWANIKI

A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

FOR THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR DEGREE IN
PROJECT MANAGEMENT,
JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY.

JUNE, 2023

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 DECLARATION
This project is my original work and has not been presented for the award of any other degree
in any other University

Kennedy Mara Mwaniki

HDE214-0301/2016

Date…………… Signature ……………

This project proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as the University
Supervisor.

Date……………… Signature ……………

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 DEDICATION
This project proposal is dedicated to my family and friends who contributed in various ways
and have been a source of encouragement and inspiration.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to record my sincere gratitude to all those who contributed in various ways towards the
completion of this study. The project has come a long way and I feel indebted to a number of
people who helped me in various ways. I am especially grateful to my supervisor, Mr.
Wycliffe Ogaga for the continued guidance and advice he gave me throughout the project
proposal. The helpful criticism is also very much appreciated for it that helped make this
project a success. I am grateful for my financiers who helped fund my research for my
proposal, the respondents who helped me in collecting the data for my studies. I finally thank
my God for granting me abundant life and good health to successfully complete my research
project proposal and bring this publication into being.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION...................................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION......................................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT....................................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENT.........................................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES..............................................................................................................................ix
ABBREVIATIONS...............................................................................................................................x
DEFINITION OF SIGNIFICANT TERMS..........................................................................................xi
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER ONE....................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the Study.............................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................................5
1.3 Objectives of the Study................................................................................................................5
1.4 Research Questions......................................................................................................................5
1.5 Purpose of the Study....................................................................................................................6
1.6 Scope of the Study.......................................................................................................................6
1.7 Significance of the Study.............................................................................................................6
1.8 Limitations of the Study..............................................................................................................6
CHAPTER TWO...................................................................................................................................7
LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................................7
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................7
2.2 Factors Influencing Provision of Low Cost Housing among Urban Slum Dwellers in Soweto
East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Infrastructure and the Provision of Housing.........................................................................7
2.2.2 Government Policies and Provision of Low Cost Housing...................................................8
2.2.3 Level of Income and the Provision of Low Cost Housing....................................................9
2.2.4 Technology and the Provision of Low Cost Housing..........................................................10
2.3 Theoretical Framework..............................................................................................................11
2.3.1 Theory of Housing Adjustment...........................................................................................11
2.3.2 The Economic Theory of Housing Tenure Choice..............................................................12
2.3.3 Housing Cycle Theory........................................................................................................14
2.4 Research Gap of the Study.........................................................................................................15
2.5 Conceptual Framework..............................................................................................................15

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 2.6 Summary of Literature Review..................................................................................................17
CHAPTER THREE.............................................................................................................................19
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................19
3.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................19
3.2 Research Design........................................................................................................................19
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure........................................................................................20
3.4.1 Sample Size........................................................................................................................20
3.4.2 Sampling Procedure............................................................................................................21
3.5 Research Instruments.................................................................................................................21
3.5.1Data Collection Instruments.................................................................................................21
3.5.2 Data Collection Procedure..................................................................................................21
3.6 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments......................................................................22
3.6.1 Validity of the Instruments.................................................................................................22
3.6.2 Reliability of the Instruments..............................................................................................22
3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation Techniques..............................................................................22
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS.........................24
4.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................24
4.2 Analysis of Preliminary Information.........................................................................................24
4.2.1 Gender of Respondents.......................................................................................................24
4.2.2 Age bracket of respondents.................................................................................................25
4.2.3 Highest Level of Education.................................................................................................25
4.3 Analysis of Infrastructure on Low Cost Housing.......................................................................26
4.3.1 Analysis, Presentation of Influence of Infrastructure on Low Cost Housing......................26
4.3.2 Interpretation of Influence of Infrastructure on Low Cost Housing....................................26
4.4 Analysis of Government Policies on Low Cost Housing...........................................................27
4.4.1 Analysis and Presentation of Influence of Government Policies on Low Cost Housing.....27
4.4.2 Interpretation of Influence of Government Policies on Low Cost Housing........................27
4.5 Analysis of Residents’ Income on Low Cost Housing...............................................................28
4.5.1 Analysis and Presentation of Influence of Level of Residents’ Income on Low Cost
Housing.......................................................................................................................................28
4.5.2 Interpretation of Level of Residents’ Income on Low Cost Housing..................................28
4.6 Influence of Technology on Low Cost Housing........................................................................29
4.6.1 Analysis and Presentation of Influence of Technology on Low Cost Housing...................29
4.6.2 Interpretation of Influence of Technology on Low Cost Housing.......................................30

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CHAPTER FIVE.................................................................................................................................31
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................31
5.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................31
5.2 Summary of Findings................................................................................................................31
5.3 Recommendations.....................................................................................................................34
5.3.1 Recommendations from the Study......................................................................................34
5.3.2 Recommendations for Further Studies....................................................................................35
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................36
Appendix I: Questionnaire...................................................................................................................38

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viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Summary of Research Gap………………………………….15

Table 3.1 Target Population………………………………………………………………………….19

Table 3.2 Sample Size……………………………………………………………………………………20

Table 4.1 Gender of Respondents………………………………………………………………..24

Table 4.2 Age Bracket…………………………………………………………………………………..25

Table 4.3 Highest Level of Education…………………………………………………………….25

Table 4.4 Infrastructure and Low Cost Housing……………………………………………26

Table 4.5Adequacy of Institutional Arrangements for Low Cost Housing…….27

Table 4.6 Level of Residents’ Income and Low Cost Housing……………………….28

Table 4.7 Influence of Technology on Low Cost Housing……………………………30

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x
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework……….....………………….….................………………..16

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ABBREVIATIONS
GOK Government of Kenya
KENSUP Kenya Slum Upgrading Programme
NHC National Housing Corporation
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme

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 DEFINITION OF SIGNIFICANT TERMS
1. Infrastructure: Refers to basic physical and organizational structures and facilities (e.g.
buildings, roads, bridges, power and supplies, hospitals, transport, communication, sewage
and schools) needed for operation of a society, county or enterprise.
2. Technology: The art of innovating or introduction of new methods by use of materials,
tools, techniques and sources of power to make work easier or more productive.
3. Low income earners - Low income earners can be divided into two categories, namely,
the low income earners who have no gainful employment and the low income earners who
are employed junior workers in government and other private establishments. They can also
be self-employed.
4. Affordable housing - is housing that is appropriate for the needs of a range of low to
moderate income households and priced so that low and moderate incomes are able to meet
their other essential basic living costs.

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 ABSTRACT
Housing and especially access to a decent standard of living is a basic human right enshrined
in the Millennium Development Goals and Kenya’s Constitution 2010. Housing is the
leading component of urbanization and access to quality, affordable housing is critical in any
society. The housing situation in Nairobi city just like in most cities in developing countries
is such that housing demand far outstrips supply. The housing market providers have been
unable to provide affordable housing to middle and low income earners in Nairobi. This
problem has often been linked to land acquisition problem, low income levels of the
individuals in this category and their inability to access funds, high cost of building materials,
statutory regulations and non-use of modern and efficient technology. The main purpose of
this study was to determine the factors influencing the provision of low cost housing among
slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County. The specific variables of the
study were aimed at determining how level of income, infrastructure, government policies
and technology affected the subject of house provision. The study used descriptive survey
research design. This design was chosen because the factors under investigation had already
occurred and the researcher did not have the capacity to influence them. In addition, the study
was undertaken in an expansive area. The target population for this study was 759
households. A sample of 125 households was derived. Data collection procedure adopted
purely followed a social science analogy. Primary data was collected through questionnaires
as the main source of data for analysis. Data analysis was done using SPSS statistical
software version 21, while qualitative data was analyzed by coding according to variables in
the study for efficiency. Analysis of variance test was used to check on the relationship
between categories on independent variables and the dependent variable. Correlation
coefficient and multivariate regression model was used to establish whether a relationship
exists between the independent and dependent variables. The study concluded that level of
income, infrastructure, government policies and technology influence the provision of
housing. The study recommends provision of policies that allow for better and more efficient
housing project processes. The study also recommends that that a comprehensive and well-
coordinated support infrastructure is central to the provision of low cost housing. The high
expense of developing houses due to high costs of land and infrastructure which has kept off
potential developers from the low cost housing sector needs to be addressed. Increased use of
alternative methods of technology needs to be encourage and the Government needs to
facilitate development of off-site infrastructure and land servicing which is a critical
component of the realization of low cost housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East
Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County.

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Affordable housing is housing that is appropriate for the needs of a range of low to moderate
income households and priced so that low and moderate incomes are able to meet their other
essential basic living costs. Affordable housing could also be defined as the housing that
provides a foundation for, rather than being a barrier to, good physical and mental health,
personal development and the fulfilment of life objectives. Housing is a permanent structure
for humans. It is also a home, building or structure that is a dwelling or place for habitation
by human beings.

Housing plays a great role in revitalizing economic growth both in developed regions such as
Europe, United States of America and the Caribbean countries, and in developing countries in
sub-Saharan Africa. With shelter being among the key indicators of development, the United
Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights gives one of the basic human rights as the
‘right to a decent standard of living’, central to which is the access to adequate housing.
Housing therefore act as a basic human right demand that both rural and urban dwellers
should therefore have access to decent housing.

It is important to note that worldwide, lack of housing is not restricted to certain parts; both
rural and urban areas are with unsafe or inadequate shelter, resulting in rampant negative
impacts such as the continued proliferation of informal settlements which are drivers for
environmental pollution due to the associated little or no recourse to sewage, garbage
disposal and sanitation. Housing is paramount to human existence as it ranks among the top
three needs of man.
Ellen (2018) stated that there is an urge of rethinking of housing policies, including re-
evaluation of what type of housing is deemed acceptable and affordable for every low income
urban dwellers or residents. It underscores the need to develop more and better quality rental
housing and calls for reassessment of housing and infrastructure investment programmes, as
well as more creative approaches for expanding home ownership.
The provision of adequate housing in any country is very vital as housing is a stimulant of the
national economy. Housing is a set of durable assets, which accounts for a high proportion of
a country’s wealth and on which households spend a substantial part of their income.
Housing has been a concern of individual, families, group and government since the down of

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urban civilization. This problem has often been linked to land acquisition problem, low
income of the individual, high cost of building materials, statutory regulations, and non-use
of locally available and cheap alternative building materials. It is usually a situation of either
the government has failed in meeting up with its obligations or that the individuals had
remained for some times incapacitated to be able to break through various bureaucracies in
land acquisition procedure. One of the greatest problems in the world today is that of
provision of shelter.
Cytton (2018) stated the Kenyan government plans to meet affordable housing through
delivering of 1 million units over the next five years out of which, 20% would be social
housing and 80% would be affordable housing.
Reuters (2017) said that one of the main challenges is a shortage of finance. There are fewer
than 25,000 mortgages in Kenya as banks have limited access to long term funding. Less than
10% of Kenya’s housing credit is in the form of bank mortgages, with most people borrowing
from savings and loan cooperatives funded by member’s deposits.

Ellen (2018) stated that rent represents a significant share of household income, but indicates
low ability to achieve ownership, if viewed as monthly mortgage payments. The relative
value of house features with electricity, kitchens and number of rooms emerging as important
drivers of rent. Neighborhood conditions, such as lack of flooding and perceived safety, and
neighborhood level infrastructure and services such as garbage collection and access to
transport, also had impact on rent.
This study is based on theory of housing adjustment that was first discovered by Morris and
winter. The theory deals with how households think and behave in performing their housing
behavior (Morris and Winter, 1996). Morris and Winter theory purports that if a household is
below the norms of the society, that household feels dissatisfied and seeks to change its
situation. The major components of the theory are housing norms and constraints that affect
the household ability to act. When a household recognizes housing deficit possible corrective
measures to be taken by the household is to move to a different house, do a household
adaption whereby the household makes its own changes such as reducing needs and
removing constraints (Sherman and Combs, 1997). The theory of household adjustment
mainly focuses on relationships among specific variables which may influence a person’s job
satisfaction and overall life satisfaction. In many cases this theory has been used to study
constraints and residential satisfaction among low income earners and single parent families
(Bruin and Cook. 1997).

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Brendan (2017) in Australia, low income earners cannot get a chance to own homes. The
dream of owning a home is slipping away. They cannot afford to live in luxurious homes as
the houses they have, the rent is rising, the cost of living as well. Most people tend to live in
edge cities where housing is cheaper.

Mastura (2018) in Malaysia, said that the Malaysian government and housing developers
have experienced shortage of homes for low income earners. This is due to politics in
allocation of people’s housing program, non-construction of low cost housing by developers
because of unmerited waivers.

Adewale Festus and Amos (2015) in Nigeria said that housing problems abound in urban
centres which include overcrowding, slum dwelling. This is due to ever increasing population
and absence of infrastructure.

Kenya is experiencing rapid urban growth in a context of limited economic growth and
restricted land supply. Rental housing is expanding as only a few people can afford their own
homes. Rental accommodation in Kenyan towns has usually been associated with low-
income households but it has also become the main form of housing for middle income
households.
(Cytonn 2018)President Uhuru Kenyatta’s affordable housing programme agenda, aimed to
ensure that at least one million Kenyan families become home owners. Housing is a
permanent structure for humans. It is also a home, building or structure that is a dwelling or
place for habitation by human beings.

(Daily Nation 2017)Housing is one of the pillars of the ‘’Big Four’’ agenda of the Jubilee
Government Despite some attempts at achieving decent housing for Kenyans, Kenya has, on
the whole, failed to address the dire housing conditions of her population. Past governments
had tended to leave this important sector almost entirely to private sector effort, concentrating
itself on the provision of limited number of residential quarters for its deserving officers. The
situation has been partially alleviated through the activities of the private sector housing
developers, who have been a key supplier of housing, particularly in Nairobi.

There are however very few players in the low cost housing industry and there seemed to be a
minimal interest of other private sector housing developers to venture in. These private sector
developers are successful in the middle and high income housing markets and this implies
that they may have the capacity and skill set to supply the low-income housing required to

3
reduce the housing shortfall in the country. They have however, shied away from the low
income market mainly because the profitability margins are lower as compared to housing
developments for the other markets. The shelter situation in Nairobi city just like in most
cities in developing countries is such that housing demand far outstrips supply. The low
house markets providers have been unable to provide low and affordable housing to middle
and low income earners in Nairobi. The need for new housing in urban areas currently stands
at 150,000 units annually while only 23 per cent of this demand is being met (Rewel 2014).
The gap between supply and demand is more relevant to low and middle income households
who represent 48 percent of the required new houses. The lack of appropriate housing has
resulted in the expansion of informal settlements such as slums. Many people are forced into
overcrowded establishments or are left completely homeless. Some researchers suggest that
over 60% of Nairobi’s population resides in slums.
Low cost housing deals with people whose incomes fall within sh0 to sh15,000 per month.
Kibera is the largest urban slum in Nairobi and the largest urban slum in Africa. The 2009
Kenya Population and Housing Census (Daily Nation 2009) reports Kibera’s population as
170,070 contrary to previous estimates of one million people. Other sources like UN-Habitat
suggest the total population to be 500,000 to 1,000,000 depending on which slums are
included in kibera, as the neighbourhood is divided into a number of villages like Kianda,
Soweto East, Gatwekera, Kisumu Ndogo, Laini Saba, Siranga, Makina and Mashimoni.

Salome (2015) in Kibera, Nairobi, provision of low cost housing is a challenge due to
insecurity, inadequate technology, lack of secure land tenure, poor planning, politics.

(UN HABITAT 2008) the socio-economic record shows that Soweto east has 19,318
inhabitants spread out in four zones: A, B, C and D. Zone A is the largest in size and accounts
for 37% of the houses in Soweto east. Zone A is the largest in size and accounts for 37% of
the houses in Soweto East. The goal of the housing project in Soweto East was to rehabilitate
the area, where the sponsors would like to provide new permanent housing, equipped with
services. The project was started in 2004.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem
With increased urbanisation, adequate, affordable and decent housing has become a mirage
with the most affected being the low and middle income earners who form majority of
Nairobi’s urban population and who dwell in slums like Kibera. The 2009 Kenya Population
and Housing Census reports Kibera’s population as 170,070 contrary to previous estimates of
one million people. Housing is a numbers game: the more people there are in any town, the
greater the need for housing. The challenge of provision of affordable housing for low
income urban dwellers is universal.

There is a great deal of mistrust of the government and development organisations in Kibera.
Histories of failed aid projects and forced evictions have left many residents feeling
exploited. This is one of the main reasons among many like rich politics, bribery of the rich
people, inadequate infrastructure; the mortgages are set to high above the limits of the
residents as well as government policies that hinder affordable housing for low income
earners in Kibera. As a result, this research seeks to find out factors that influence provision
of low cost housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A , Kibera.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1. To determine the influence of infrastructure on the provision of low cost housing
among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County.
2. To establish the influence of government policies on provision of low cost housing
among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County.
3. To determine the influence of the residents level of income on provision of low cost
housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County.
4. To establish the influence of technology on the provision of low cost housing among
urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County.

1.4 Research Questions

1. Does infrastructure influence provision of low cost housing among urban slum
dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County?
2. How do government policies influence provision of low cost housing among urban
slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County?
3. How does the residents’ level of income influence provision of low cost housing
among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County?

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 4. Does technology influence provision of low cost housing among urban slum dwellers
in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County?

1.5 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to analyze the factors influencing provision of low cost
housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This study covered Nairobi County specifically Soweto East Zone A in Kibera for a period
from 2015 to 2019. This study talked about the factors that influence provision of low cost
housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study would be important to other researchers to further the research, to my respondents
who would be able to know which factors to consider, policy makers in the mortgage industry
to develop sound strategies that will support provision of housing in the country as a whole.
The government would also get to know the effectiveness of various government policies as a
result; the information would enable the lower and middle class people to access housing
infrastructure, basic services necessary for a healthy living environment in urban areas.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

A study of such magnitude was faced with the limitations of unwilling respondents to
respond to the questionnaires, accessing respondents in the financial sector is hard, logistics
problem to access the respondents as well as to have a follow up on the questionnaires.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
This chapter presented a review of literature on factors influencing provision of low cost
housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County. It
discussed general theoretical and empirical review on the factors influencing provision of low
cost housing in Kibera. A conceptual framework was discussed and drawn to emphasize on
the factors.

2.2 Factors Influencing Provision of Low Cost Housing among Urban Slum Dwellers in
Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County.

2.2.1 Infrastructure and the Provision of Housing

In the confines of this study, infrastructure referred to basic physical and organizational
structures and facilities (e.g. roads, electric power supply, water supply and sewage systems)
needed for operation of a county or enterprise. Infrastructure was considered a major
determinant to provision of housing to many Kenyans and it was the reason why people have
a choice to determine where they can stay. There had been more human settlement in areas
with developed infrastructure areas than those still undeveloped. This is because people can
access water, electricity, better roads for transport and better sewerage systems within the
emerging members of the settler society.
Government and private sector players (Government 2007) i.e. developers and contractors have a
role to address the infrastructural problems in order to spur the development of housing units
In Kenya, provision of low-cost housing has not been successful because the stakeholders
who have the duty to undertake the projects have complained that the cost of building
materials, land and infrastructure is too expensive to be able to support low-cost housing
segment. According to Mr. Joe Mungai, the managing director of the Tamarind property
developers, the biggest problem to low-cost housing is the lack of infrastructure.
Although the government has encouraged developers to invest in low-cost housing projects
with the promise of providing proper infrastructure this has not been the case and most
developers and finance institutions have opted to target wealthy households. The wealthy
individuals can finance the mortgages where the infrastructure is good and does not need

7
government involvement because the wealthy individuals in Kenya do not believe that the
government will be able to honor its pledge of improving the infrastructure in the urban areas
where low-income structures can be built.
Another problem affecting infrastructure was inadequate access of clean water in some of the
urban slums. This is a problem that could not be solved by any financing institutions but the
responsibility of the Kenyan government to ensure that supply of water is constant in urban
areas; this will in turn attract more investors to put effort to financing low-cost housing.
Infrastructure such as lack of public transportation system; road infrastructure and existing
Para-transit system (matatus) offer significant opportunities for efficiency improvements.
Poor and inadequate road conditions and lack of modal separation cause high rates of traffic
mortality and poor pedestrian safety.
Improvement of housing for the Kenyan population is a major concern to the Government
being it is among The Big Four Agenda of President Uhuru’s reign (Cytton 2018). This
concern has been influenced by the fact that the improvement in housing stock is a
strategically important social and economic investment. In addition, well-planned housing
and infrastructure of acceptable standards and affordable cost when combined with essential
services affords dignity, security and privacy to the individual, the family and the community
as a whole. Adequate shelter also prevents social unrest occasioned by depravity and
frustrations of people living in slums and informal settlements. Besides this social function,
housing is also an investment good contributing both directly and indirectly towards poverty
reduction through employment generation, raising of incomes, improved health and increased
productivity of the labour force.

2.2.2 Government Policies and Provision of Low Cost Housing

Abdulahi and Azziz(2018), Malaysia one of the fastest growing economies in South East
Asia has redefined provision of housing by redefining the country’s housing policy and gone
into partnership with the private sector by providing incentives. The incentives include faster
development approvals, relaxed planning standards, faster licensing procedures and a
facilitative regulatory regime. The incentives have considerably facilitated delivery of more
units of decent and affordable housing to vulnerable groups.

Government legislations and policies in the housing sector were designed to facilitate
production and provision of adequate and decent housing for all. Where there are
imperfections in the housing market the government is obligated to rectify the imperfections
on both the demand and supply side. In Kenya sustainable development is premised upon a

8
number of socio-economic rights achievements one of these is the right to adequate and
decent housing. The realization of this right is important as it will lead to a healthy
population. These among other essentials ensure that the population remains productive and
motivated to work. However, one major problem bedeviling a large proportion of the
productive population in Kenya is the lack of decent and affordable housing especially for the
low income groups. The little that is available is accessible to a significantly small portion of
the population.

Most low income urban dwellers live in deplorable conditions, a characteristic of habitation
in the slums, the current urban housing need is estimated at 150,000 units per annum as
opposed to the current production of 20,000-30,000 units annually, the enormous deficit
stands at 120,000units per annum (Republic of Kenya)
The role of government in low income housing is critical as evidenced by the Kenya
Constitution recognition of housing as a key constitutional right under the Bill of Rights
article 43 (1) (b) housing delivery in Kenya( Kenya Constitution, 2010) Low income housing
in Kenya has been hampered by lack of adoptive housing sector policy an example of this is
in the housing financing where key financial institutions in Kenya continue to ignore
provision of finance for low cost housing leaving it to secondary financial institutions such as
microfinance institutions. This situation has been blamed on the lack of incentives for the
financial institutions to provide financing for the low income groups, a key indication of the
lack of an adoptive housing sector policy regime. To remedy this there is a need to
understand how government policies influence provision of low cost housing delivery in
Kibera.

2.2.3 Level of Income and the Provision of Low Cost Housing

The financial institutions in Kenya offer funds in the hope of making profit and declare
dividends for its shareholders because that is the reason why the institutions are in business.
The high desire to earn quick profits has led to increase in interest rates for borrowers of
finance in the institutions and hence it has prevented low-income groups who cannot afford
the high interest rates set by the institutions.
The local government has the duty to help the poor people who cannot manage to pay the
high amounts of interest requested by financial institutions by providing them with better
housing at affordable prices but unfortunately the income collected by institutions in terms of
taxes and service charges has not been sufficient to completely solve the housing problem in
urban centres.

9
Financing low-income housing has been deemed a challenge due to several factors that
hinder its proper functioning. Several factors have hindered efficient financing for low-
income housing. The most notable aspect of financing for low-income housing is the risk of
default by the borrower because the low-income groups do not always have a guarantee of
constant financing. These limitations are the main cause of many financial institutions in
Kenya avoiding to venture into the business of financing low-cost housing. Pricing ensures
that a company is paid for the value it creates to its customers and with effective product
development, promotion and distribution yields success for an organization.
Due to this effect, low income earners living in urban slums like Kibera cannot be able to
secure mortgages for the houses that the government built for them through the Kenya Slum
Upgrading Project (KENSUP 2004). The prices are high for them yet the government says
it’s affordable. Most of the slum dwellers in Soweto, Kibera earn very little. The houses they
were built for, they opted not to move in but to rent them to the rich people who were
encroaching on them at four and five times the subsidised rate. They then moved to the slums
with extra cash. Many middle class people swooped in, searching for affordable houses in a
city with skyrocketing rents. Many secured apartments through the informal systems of
bribery which dictates a great deal of life in Kenya. Cost of housing is the total amount that a
homeowner spends on mortgage acquisition i.e. principal and interest of the amount, property
insurance, property taxes and any other related reoccurring expenses; this all boiled down to the
level of the residents’ income. There was general consensus that real urban development can only
be achieved if proper settlements are supported in the peri-urban sectors or informal sectors.

As the scale of urbanization increases, the task of providing appropriate and affordable housing to
the urban poor has persisted as one of the most intractable problems facing developing countries
(Macoloo, 2015).

2.2.4 Technology and the Provision of Low Cost Housing

Technology is the art of innovating or introduction of new methods by use of materials, tools,
techniques and sources of power to make work easier or more pleasant or more productive.
(Temba 2015)
Use of improved technologies like the use of pre cast concrete has helped in quicker and
easier provision of low cost housing in Kibera and many other areas. As has been
acknowledged in a wide array of policy statement, research and pronouncements, there is a
need to continue investing in research in cheaper, appropriate settlement designs and housing

10
products. This would enhance housing quality. Settlement design should be enhanced by
including design experts and professionals at planning and project design stages, and enacting
design guidelines for designers and regulators to achieve sustainable and environmentally
efficient settlements. House designs need to be further enhanced through the enforcement of
certain minimum standards, which can only be achieved through proper policy declarations.
For ease of adoptability, it is widely argued that as many traditional and alternative building
technologies should be used as possible. In addition, a variety of innovative house designs for
subsidized houses should be encouraged through incentive schemes.
Housing supply is produced using land, labor and various inputs such as electricity and
building materials (Sani 2013). The quantity of the new supply is determined by the cost of
these inputs, the price of the existing stock of houses and the technology of production.
House prices and the growth rate of house price are the two measures of the intensity of
urban housing demand. According to, housing is in ‘inelastic supply in some cities either
through little or lack of open land, restrictive local regulations on development that make it
prohibitively expensive or slow’.
The shelter crisis in the developing world is indisputable ( Thalmann 2006) This is also in
respect to urban centres like Nairobi where there is rapid growth of slums. Housing stocks in
towns and cities, in particular, are under considerable pressure from rapid urbanization. This
situation has been shown to be most critical with regard to low-cost housing. Consequently, a
number of strategies have been discussed and attempted in order to assuage associated shelter
problems. The foremost of these strategies has entailed, inter alia, research, development and
demonstration of affordable, easily obtainable and easy-to-use materials for the design and
construction of satisfactory low-cost housing.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

According to Cedric Pugh (1986) it was not until the late 1960s that housing attracted much
attention from academic social scientists. Since then, literature has expanded widely and
diversified establishing housing with a specialised status in economics, politics and in related
subjects. A number of thoughts regarding urban housing have been developed during the
recent decades set within the market economy and socialist context.

2.3.1 Theory of Housing Adjustment

This study will be based on theory of housing adjustment that was first discovered by
(Morris and winter). The theory deals with how households think and behave in performing
their housing behaviour (Morris and Winter, 1996). Morris and Winter theory purports that, a

11
household is below the norms of the society, that household feels dissatisfied and seeks to
change its situation. The major components of the theory are housing norms and constraints
that affect the household ability to act. When a household recognizes housing deficit possible
corrective measures to be taken by the household is to move to a different house, do a
household adaption whereby the household makes its own changes such as reducing needs
and removing constraints (Sherman and Combs, 1997). The theory of household adjustment
mainly focuses on relationships among specific variables which may influence a person’s job
satisfaction and overall life satisfaction. In many cases this theory has been used to study
constraints and residential satisfaction among low income earners and single parent families
(Bruin and Cook. 1997)
Abdul, (2008), Adeniyi, (2007),Bourne,(2007) & Chatterjee, (2008) acknowledged too that
housing problem manifest itself in many ways which include: conspicuous and residual house
rent situation, an absolute scarcity of housing, the evolvement and proliferation of slums and
squatter settlements especially in large cities, lack of finance on the part of the citizen to
construct their own house. The summary of Adamu’s assertion is that housing problem,
especially in the metropolis is virtually a function of the irregularities of urban land
administration. This ugly situation according to him had unavoidably matured to a poor
tenancy situation.
The average urban dweller seems to be exhausted of all the possible options. Egunjobi,
(2007) noted that the majority of low income earners find it difficult to secure the loan or
other form of assistance for building their own houses. Undoubtedly, the issue of building
standard is one of the central problems in providing shelter for large majority of low income
earners. On his critical observation of the general urban housing problem, Liman (1989)
condemns that a policy that cannot guarantee every access to residential land by the poor, but
rather encourages speculation and turn back to question the validity of individual tenure
certainly erodes the basis of its acceptability. This is undoubtedly a chaining situation as far
as urban land acquisition is a concern. The attendant problem here is that land, though seem
to be abundant but it is shared among the high income individuals.

2.3.2 The Economic Theory of Housing Tenure Choice

Within the theory of housing markets, one may broadly distinguish three approaches which
roughly correspond to the historical development of the discipline. The first retains the
assumption of a perfect, frictionless, competitive market mechanism when addressing issues
of localization, heterogeneity, durability and housing taxation (Smith, 2006). This line of

12
research reached a considerable degree of maturity in the mid-eighties. It has greatly
improved our understanding of urban spatial structure, the determinants of housing supply
and demand, and the measurement of prices for heterogeneous goods.
Given the assumption of a perfect mechanism for the allocation of housing, however, the
welfare implications remain humdrum. With the possible exception of neighbourhood
externalities, housing markets appear efficient, provided that all agents are forward–looking
and rational (Thalmann, 2006).
The second approach emphasizes imperfect competition and frictions resulting from search
cost, mobility cost and contractual incompleteness. A central question is how markets
actually achieve coordination in the absence of a Walrasian auctioneer, given all the
particularities of housing. Stimulated by the advances in the theory of imperfect information,
incomplete contracts, optimal search and matching markets, this strand of research ‘took off’
in the eighties and has made substantial achievements since then. The literature deals with a
broad range of issues e.g. the role of real estate agents, the purpose of the various features of
rental contracts, vacancy rates, optimal pricing strategies and search behaviour. This
approach delivers a more realistic picture of the institutions and mechanisms through which
coordination is achieved and adds a cautious note with respect to the welfare properties of the
housing market (Otiso, 2002).
Due to search and mobility cost, competition is imperfect even with a large number of agents
on both sides of the market. Search externalities give rise to vacancy rates which deviate from
first–best, and incomplete contracts create subtle turnover externalities. Not surprisingly, the
policy implications tend to be more exciting. In principle, efficiency can often be enhanced
through appropriate state intervention, though practically, the very same features which
prevent the market from achieving first–best efficiency make the desirability of government
intervention moot.
A large number of households have suffered low affordability in developing countries. After
the urban housing reform in developing countries has shifted from the planned economy and
try to develop more market oriented housing measures under the control of the local
government. But in reality housing reform has made houses more expensive and at the lower
end of the market there exist a strong demand for affordable housing. The primary housing
reform initiative has created a large gap among the affordability of the populace (Ichangai,
2008).
Therefore state owned work units play the major role in the market.

13
2.3.3 Housing Cycle Theory
The housing cycle theory states that the consecutive stages of the housing market tend to be
cyclical in nature (Needleman,L.1965). Needleman illustrated the relationship between the
number of vacancies and the level of house prices in a way that demonstrated what he called
‘the housing cycle’.

In the first stage of the cycle, the house prices are low and the vacancies are high signifying a
housing surplus. As the number of households increase, there occurs a corresponding rise in
demand for housing leading to a decrease in percentage of the vacant housing units.
Consequently, there will be a slight rise in prices. In the second stage, the decreasing number
of vacancies in the face of increasing demand becomes so marked that it eventually leads to
higher housing prices. In the third stage, following sustained demand for houses, the housing
prices rise to more than the cost of building new houses from start up, leading to buyers
delaying the buying of houses which in turn lead to more vacancies and consequent drop in
house prices.

The high housing prices would stimulate more active house supply, due to the involvement of
investors in the apparently profitable field of housing supply. In the fourth stage, the
increasing housing supply would lead to a significant drop in housing prices. This led
Newman to argue that the situation would tend to return to the first stage.

However, the theory has weaknesses in that it makes assumptions on the ability of the market
to control the forces of demand and supply. In the case of a rapid increase in demand the
private sector may not have the technical, equipment and capital capacity to respond
effectively. On the other hand governments have the resources to undertake huge projects
which do not target just the perceived market but also seek to influence growth in other
sectors.

14
2.4 Research Gap of the Study
Table 2.1 Summary of Research Gap

Variable Author and Findings Knowledge gap

year
Level of residents’ Murinda and  every four women  the study did not focus on
income and Silvie, 2008. respondents had suffered at house provision
provision of low least one form of gender-
cost housing based abuse: economic,
physical or emotional
Infrastructure and GOK, (2007)  Shortage in house  The study did not use
Provision of low supply in Kenya equal representation of the
cost housing population
Technology and Douglas &  Materials employed to  Study did not measure the
Provision of low John 2008 avail adequate shelter to number of households done
cost housing the per-urban poor with alternative technology
(did not specify actual
materials as well)

2.5 Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework is a schematic presentation which identifies the variable that when
together explains the issue of concern.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Level of income 15

 Loan amount advanced

 Mortgage finance
 Level hhh

Government policies

 Land and housing policies

 Land rates
 Housing regulations
Infrastructure
 Electricity lines
 Water pipes/tanks
 Road networks
 Sewage systems
Provision of low cost housing
 Construction of low cost
houses
 Construction of quality houses
 Access to quality houses by
low and middle income urban
dwellers

Technology

 Cost of Innovation
 House designs
 Type of innovation

16
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
As illustrated in Figure 1, the provision of low cost housing is dependent on the level of
income, infrastructure, government policies and technology used. However for people to
settle in a respective area, a number of factors are considered before such a decision is taken.
The factors are further detailed below:
Level of income and provision of low cost housing: Housing is accessible and affordable to
all if the cost of construction is much less that the income levels, hence the residents can
afford to pay within the prevailing lending rates (Interest Rate, Base lending rates, price of
construction inputs, etc).
Infrastructure and provision of low cost housing: People elect to settle within a given area
after determining the availability of serviced road and basic amenities. Therefore, housing
mushrooms where there are already roads, water, electricity, schools and hospitals etc.
Technology and provision of low cost housing: There are other alternative building
technologies which have not been well received by Kenyans due to a number of factors. The
use of conventional brick and motor building technologies (cement blocks and stones) which
is more costly and takes more time has inhibited the shift to these new alternative
technologies that would have spurred provision of housing e.g. panels, interlocking blocs,
precast concrete.
Government policies and provision of low cost housing: Housing is dependent on the policies
and regulations that are put in place. For housing to be available to the low income earners,
the land rates should be regulated, the housing policies in terms of mortgage payment should
be revised. All this will help in a long way for more low and middle income urban dwellers to
be home owners.
This conceptual framework therefore presents all the variables, and how they inter-relate
within a dynamic setting.

2.6 Summary of Literature Review

Despite the emphasis being laid on housing provision by people and various governments,
this basic human need has continued to elude many. In developing countries such as Nigerian
government have been making attempts at providing adequate housing to the low-income
earners but studies have shown that this category of households are not well benefited (Sani
2013). Indeed, in many developing countries, the provision of shelter, particularly for the
low-income group, is grossly inadequate. Despite the shelter programmes, projects and other

17
forms of government action taken in many countries, the shelter problem prevails with
increasing dimensions.
Government involvement in the shelter sector ranges from the provision of completed
housing units to several forms of supportive measures. The review of the study indicates that
the cost of production of the houses by government is almost doubled that by an individual
himself. The review of the study also revealed that low-income housing problems through
direct construction of mass houses, such projects allocated to the Low-cost house provision,
end with land speculators and requires long and complicated bureaucratic procedures and
costs before they can be developed, thereby forcing the Low-income earners to look outside
the government land allocation system to the informal ones. The housing process in
legislation, planning, design, financing, construction and maintenance is unnecessarily too
lengthy, complicated and has lots of un-necessary bureaucratic bottlenecks. The inadequate
and, sometimes, negative effects of public-sector intervention in the shelter delivery process
can be summed up as problems of insufficient coverage, affordability by beneficiaries, lack
of replication and, to a lesser degree, social acceptability low housing provision.

18
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter outlined the methodology that was used to meet the objectives of the study. It
discussed the research design, the target population, the sample size and sampling techniques,
data collection instruments, validity and reliability of instruments, data collection procedure
and data processing and analysis techniques.

3.2 Research Design

A research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data (Kothari 2004).
The study employs descriptive research design where the design answers the questions who,
what, where, when and how (Pervez &Kjell 2005). Descriptive research describes data and
characteristics about the population or phenomena being studied. In context, the research
tends to lie more on quantitative approach than on qualitative one. The aspect that views
collected was from the players’ point of view, their own subjective frames of reference,
necessitates a qualitative approach. For the attainment of the objectives, it is essential that the
dealers’ own subjective perspectives were captured.
3.3 Target Population
The focus of the study was on determining the factors influencing the provision of low cost
housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto Eat Zone A Kibera, Nairobi County. The
target population for this study was 759 respondents comprising of Six hundred and twenty
four (624) home owners, five (5) heads of financial institutions; which included, Housing
Finance, National Housing Corporation, Kenya Commercial Bank, Jamii Bora Bank and Co-
operative Bank, and One hundred and twenty (120) developers who were key players on
provision of housing in Nairobi were targeted as seen in the table below.
TABLE 3.1 Target Population
Description Number of Respondents
Household Heads 624
Heads of Financial Institutions 5

19
 Head of Developer Organizations 120
Total 759

3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

Sampling is a procedure through which some elements were selected from the population to
be representative of the others. The basic idea was that by selecting a sample, conclusions can
be drawn about the entire population. Stratified random sampling was used to ensure all sub-
groups in the study were involved, and then simple random sampling was used to get
respondents from each sub-group /category.

3.4.1 Sample Size

In determining the sample size, the study adopted the formula developed by Fisher et al
(1991):
Since the targeted population is above 759, the sample size (n) was calculated using the
following formula:
n = n ÷ {1+ (n/N)}
Where:
n = desired sample size (when target population is greater than 759)
nf= desired sample size (when target population is less than 759)
N = the target population
n = 150 ÷ {1+ (150/759)}
=125.24 which is approximately 125 respondents
= 125 respondents were selected using proportionate and simple random method across the
targeted respondents
Table 3.2 Sample Size
Description Target Population Sample Size
Heads of Financial 5 5
Institutions
Heads of Developer 120 30
Organisations
Household heads 624 90
Total 759 125

The study used simple sampling technique to identify respondents who to answer the
questionnaires sent; the sample included 5 heads of financial institutions as the target
20
population was only 5 none could be excluded from the study, 30 heads of developer
organizations and 90 household heads.

3.4.2 Sampling Procedure

The sampling plan described the sampling unit, sample size, sampling procedures and the
sample size for the study. The sampling frame describes the list of all population units from
which the sample is selected.
A sample of 25% was drawn from the target population through simple random sampling.
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2000) a representative sample is one which is at least
10% or 30% of the population therefore the choice of 25% was considered as representative
for the study.
Simple sampling design was the most appropriate sampling procedure to use in the study
because this enabled the researcher to provide each person in the total population that was
interviewed the opportunity to be included in the final sample (Pervez & Kjell, 2005).

3.5 Research Instruments

3.5.1Data Collection Instruments

This study used a questionnaire as Primary tool of data collection and it was subdivided into
five (5) sections that discussed the general information of the respondents and the specific
objectives of the study. These include: level of income on provision of low cost housing;
infrastructure on the provision of housing; government policies on the provision of housing
and technology on the provision of housing. The questionnaire was structured to have open
and closed ended questions that were sent to the participants. Telephone interviews were
done to enhance the objectives of the study as outlined earlier. The reason for providing the
questionnaire was to clarify the answers that have been provided during the interview to
improve the credibility of the research.

3.5.2 Data Collection Procedure

Direct interviews were performed by way of phone and the closed and open-ended questions
were asked, respondents who had agreed to provide information that might be helpful in the
study of the topic being researched on provided more knowledge on what is required of them.
Information collected through the questionnaires form the main part of the qualitative
approach in a research, because it explores in depth the research topic and ensures that the

21
major details that are important to the whole study being conducted have been effectively
studied (Chapman, 2005).

3.6 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments

Reliability measures the extent to which a research instrument can produce the same results
over and over again while validity describes the extent to which the instrument measures
what it purports to (Kothari, 2004).

3.6.1 Validity of the Instruments

Validity is the degree by which the sample of test items represents the content the test is
designed to measure. Content validity was adopted for this study and measured of the degree
to which data collected using a particular instrument represents a specific domain or content
of a particular concept. The usual procedure in assessing the content validity of a measure is
to use a professional or expert in a particular field. To establish the validity of the research
instrument the researcher sought the opinions of experts in the field of study especially the
researcher’s supervisor and lecturers. This facilitated the necessary revision and modification
of the research instrument thereby enhancing validity.

3.6.2 Reliability of the Instruments

Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement and was assessed using the test– retest
reliability method. The questionnaire was issued to same respondents two times.
The first administration was done during the pilot study, sometime was allowed to elapse,
long enough to eliminate response by remembering responses given in the first round.
The scores on the two sets of measures were then correlated to obtain an estimated coefficient
of reliability. The reliability coefficient was computed using the Karl Pearson’s product
moment coefficient of correlation (r). The items were scored individually and aggregated to
get the total score on the whole instrument for both test and re-test administrations.
r = nΣ xy – Σx Σy
{n ∑ x 2-(∑x)2} {n ∑ y 2-)(∑ y ¿ ¿2}
Where r= Reliability coefficient
n = Number of respondents
x= Total scores of test administration
y= Total score of retest administration
A high value of r is considered to yield high reliability coefficient for the instrument used.

22
3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation Techniques.
For collected data to be understood by the common man easily, analysis of data was done
data to summarize the essential features and relationships of data in order to generalize from
the analysis to determine patterns of behaviour and particular outcomes. The researcher used
qualitative and quantitative techniques in analyzing the data; regression analysis is used in the
study.
Before processing the responses, the completed questionnaires were edited and classified for
completeness and consistency. Data was analyzed into frequency distribution to indicate
variable values and number of occurrences in terms of frequency. Descriptive statistics such
as means, standard deviation and frequency distribution were used to analyze the data.
Frequency distribution tables were summarized where percentages and other diagrams such
as bar charts, grouped frequency distributions and pie charts were used during the analysis.
The organized data was interpreted on account of concurrence, mean and standard deviation
to objectives. A content analysis and descriptive analysis was employed. The content analysis
was used to analyze the respondents’ views about the challenges affect provision of low cost
housing solutions. Inferential statistics correlation and regressions analysis were done to
establish the extent to which factors affects provision of low cost housing among urban slum
dwellers solutions in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi. A multiple regression model was
developed to establish the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
(Sekaran, 2003). The relationship equation was represented by the linear equation below:
Y = α+ β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4 + μ
Y= Provision of low cost housing
α = Constant
μ= Error
β= Coefficient of the independent variables
X1= Infrastructure
X2= Government policies
X3= Residents’ level of income
X4= Technology
3.8 Ethical Considerations
The researcher relied on ethical issues as identified by Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), while
undertaking this study. The research follows the three principles of ethics which include
Respect, beneficence and justice. The participants were informed of the purpose of the study
before information is sought from them thus conforming to the principle of voluntary and

23
informed consent. The researcher sought approval from the University and Cooperative
Societies management before fieldwork. Honesty, integrity and confidentiality are highly
maintained throughout the study.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter covers data, analysis, presentation and analysis. The main objective of the study
was to determine the factors influencing the provision of low cost housing among urban slum
dwellers in Soweto East Zone A in Kibera, Kenya. In order to simplify the discussions, the
researcher provided tables and figures that summarize the collective reactions and views of
the respondents.

4.2 Analysis of Preliminary Information

The targeted sample size was 125 participants. Those filled and returned questionnaires were
90 respondents making a response rate of 72%. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999),
a response rate of 50% is adequate for analysis and reporting; a rate of 60% is good and a
response rate of 70% and over is excellent. This means that the response rate for this study
which was established to be 72% was excellent and therefore enough for data analysis and
interpretation.

4.2.1 Gender of Respondents

The study sought to determine the gender distribution of the respondents. The findings were
presented in the table below.
Table 4.1 Gender of Respondents
Gender of respondents Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 44 49
Female 46 51
Total 90 100

The study found it paramount to determine the respondents’ gender in order to ascertain
whether there was gender parity in the positions indicated by the respondents. The findings of
the study are as shown in table 4.1 above. According to the analysis it was evident that
majority of the respondents were female and this was represented by 51% while 49% were

24
male. It can therefore be deduced that females were the most dominant gender in the sector
for housing provision in Kenya.

4.2.2 Age bracket of respondents

Table 4.2 Age Bracket
Age bracket Frequency Percentage (%)
20-30 years 20 22.22%
31-40 years 22 24.44%
41-50 years 23 25.56%
51-60 years 15 16.67%
60 and above years 10 11.1%
Total 90 100%

The respondents were required to indicate their age bracket where the study findings
indicated that majority (25.56%) indicated that their age bracket was 41 to 50 years; 24.44%
indicated that they were 31-40 years of age; 16.67% of the respondents indicated that they
were 51-60 years of age; 11.1% of the respondents were above 60 years of age and 22.22% of
the respondents were aged between 20 and 30 years of age. Therefore, the study deduced that
the respondents were mature and had rich experience on the factors that influence the
provision of low cost housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera in
Kenya.

4.2.3 Highest Level of Education

The study sought to determine the highest level of education for the respondents. The
findings were presented in the table below.
Table 4.3 Highest Level of Education

Highest Level of
Education Frequency Percentage (%)
Secondary education 19 21.11
Diploma 17 18.89
Bachelor’s degree 35 38.89
Master’s degree 19 21.11
Total 60 100

25
The study sought to find out the respondents highest level of education. The findings of the
study are presented in table 4.3. From the findings, majority (38.89%) had university degrees,
hence there were undergraduates. This was closely followed by 21% of the respondents who
indicated that they had reached postgraduate studies at masters’ level; while the findings
further show that 21% of the respondents had reached secondary education level of
education. The findings showed that 18.89% had reached diploma level. This finding
revealed that the respondents were knowledgeable and also had a good background of the
factors that influence the provision of low cost housing among urban slum dwellers in
Soweto East Zone A, Kibera in Nairobi.

4.3 Analysis of Infrastructure on Low Cost Housing

4.3.1 Analysis, Presentation of Influence of Infrastructure on Low Cost Housing

The study sought to determine the influence of infrastructure on the provision of low cost
housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County. The
overall evaluation that applies to the organization by rating the extent of agreement to which
the respondents agree to the given statements.

Table 4.4 Infrastructure and Low Cost Housing

Statement Mean Standard Deviation
Availability of electric power 4.76 0.62
how it influences provision of
low cost housing
Availability of road networks 4.79 0.68
and how it influences
provision of low cost housing
Availability of sewerage 4.70 0.52
systems and its influence on
provision of low cost housing
Availability of water and its 4.73 0.54
influence on provision of low
cost housing

26
4.3.2 Interpretation of Influence of Infrastructure on Low Cost Housing
The study sought to establish the extent to which respondents agreed with the given
statements concerning infrastructure development and how it influences provision of low cost
housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County. From
the findings, majority of the respondents agreed strongly that cost of providing infrastructure
amenities is very high in Nairobi County and that availability of electric power, roads,
sewerage system and water does influence provision of low cost housing as indicated by a
mean of 4.76, 4.79, 4.70 , 4.73 with standard deviation of 0.62, 0.68, 0.52, 0.54 . This
implies that the high expense a developer would incur in developing suitable infrastructure
has to be borne by the house buyer, which makes the prices for houses to go up and become
un-affordable to many. A comprehensive and well-coordinated support infrastructure is
central to the provision of low cost housing in Soweto East, Kibera in Nairobi County.

4.4 Analysis of Government Policies on Low Cost Housing

4.4.1 Analysis and Presentation of Influence of Government Policies on Low Cost

Housing
Table 4.5 Adequacy of Institutional Arrangements for Low Cost Housing
Institution Frequency Percentage
National Housing 24 26.67
Corporation
Housing Department 30 33.33
Land Department 36 40
Total 40 100

According to the respondent the lands department was the most effective institution at 40%
the National land commission which was given mandate in 2012, followed by housing
department at 33.33% which implements low cost housing developments through its various
programmes e.g. KENSUP and also formulates housing policy, followed by NHC at 26.67%
which oversaw construction of middle and low cost housing.

4.4.2 Interpretation of Influence of Government Policies on Low Cost Housing

The Housing Act and the Building Code had a stake in delivery of low cost this was
according to of the respondents this is because the Housing Act enables housing development
in the low income segment while the Building Code gives regulations and standards for

27
construction materials, followed by the housing policy which gives guidelines for the housing
sector at and lays special emphasis on low cost housing. The National Land Policy and the
Land act at the legislations have a great stake in contribution to housing and their impacts are
strongly enacted in the year 2009 and 2012 respectively.

4.5 Analysis of Residents’ Income on Low Cost Housing

4.5.1 Analysis and Presentation of Influence of Level of Residents’ Income on Low Cost
Housing
The study sought to determine the influence of cost on the provision of low cost housing
among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera Nairobi County. The overall
evaluation that applies to the organization by rating the extent of agreement to which the
respondents agree to the given statements. Where 5(very great extent), 4(Great extent),
3(Moderately extent),2 (Less extent), 1(No extent)
Table 4.6 Level of Residents’ Income and Low Cost Housing
Statement Mea Std. Deviation
n
Quick profits has led to increase in interest rates for borrowers of 4.42 1.248
finance in the institutions
The government has a duty to provide affordable housing to those 4.45 1.151
who are unable to pay high interests by financial institutions
Local government has the duty to help the poor people who 3.56 0.454
cannot manage to pay the high amounts of interest requested by
financial institutions
Low-income housing is the main cause of many financial 3.98 0.142
institutions in Kenya avoiding to venture into the business of
financing low-cost housing
Pricing ensures that a company is paid for the value it creates to 4.12 1.212
its customers and with effective product development, promotion
and distribution yields success for an organization
Financial institutions determine the correct value to be disbursed 4.05 0.965
to a mortgage applicant while considering the interest that will be
paid back with the loan

28
4.5.2 Interpretation of Level of Residents’ Income on Low Cost Housing
From the study it was noted that level of residents’ income influences housing provision. This
was indicated by the high mean values calculated through SPSS analysis on cost and finances
related statements. The respondents strongly agreed that the government has a duty to provide
affordable housing to those who are unable to pay high interests by financial institutions with
a mean of 4.45; the respondents strongly agreed that quick profits has led to increase in
interest rates for borrowers of finance in the institutions with a mean of 4.42; the respondents
were undecided that the local government has the duty to help the poor people who cannot
manage to pay the high amounts of interest requested by financial institutions with a mean of
3.56; the respondents agreed that low-income housing is the main cause of many financial
institutions in Kenya avoiding to venture into the business of financing low-cost housing with
a mean of 3.98; the respondents agrees that pricing ensures that a company is paid for the
value it creates to its customers and with effective product development, promotion and
distribution yields success for an organization with a mean of 4.12 and they also agreed that
financial institutions determine the correct value to be disbursed to a mortgage applicant
while considering the interest that will be paid back with the loan with a mean of 4.05.
The study deduced that financing low-income housing has been deemed a challenge due to
several factors that hinder its proper functioning. Several factors have hindered efficient
financing for low-income housing. The most notable aspect of financing for low-income
housing was the risk of default by the borrower because the low-income groups do not
always have a guarantee of constant financing. These limitations are the main cause of many
financial institutions in Kenya avoiding to venture into the business of financing low-cost
housing.

4.6 Influence of Technology on Low Cost Housing

4.6.1 Analysis and Presentation of Influence of Technology on Low Cost Housing

The study sought to determine the influence of technology on the provision of low cost
housing in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi County. The overall evaluation that applies
to the organization by rating the extent of agreement to which the respondents agree to the
given statements. Where 5( very great extent), 4(Great extent), 3(Moderately extent),2 (Less
extent), 1(No extent)

29
Table 4.7: Influence of Technology on Low Cost Housing

Technology Mean Std.

Deviation
Housing stocks in towns and cities, in particular, are under 4.31 0.354
considerable pressure from rapid urbanization
There is a need to develop more appropriate settlement designs and 4.03 0.322
housing products and to ensure appropriate housing quality
Settlement design should be enhanced by including design 3.97 0.352
professionals at planning and project design stages, and design
guidelines for designers and regulators to achieve sustainable and
environmentally efficient settlements
Traditional and alternative building technology should be used where 3.64 0.441
possible
A variety of innovative house designs for subsidized houses should be 4.35 0.944
encouraged through incentives

4.6.2 Interpretation of Influence of Technology on Low Cost Housing

The findings on the table above, shows that the respondents agreed that housing stocks in
towns and cities, in particular, are under considerable pressure from rapid urbanization with a
mean of 4.31; the respondents agreed that there is a need to develop more appropriate
settlement designs and housing products and to ensure appropriate housing quality with a
mean of 4.03; the respondents agreed that settlement design should be enhanced by including
design professionals at planning and project design stages, and design guidelines for
designers and regulators to achieve sustainable and environmentally efficient settlements with
a mean of 3.97; the respondents were undecided on traditional and alternative building
technology should be used where possible with a mean of 3.64.

30
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction
This chapter presented the summary of the findings from chapter four, and also gave
conclusions and recommendations of the study based on the objectives of the study.

5.2 Summary of Findings

The main objective of the study was to investigate the factors influencing the provision of
low cost housing in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera, Nairobi. The study specifically focused on
the influence of infrastructure on the provision of low cost housing; the influence of
government policies on the provision of low cost housing; the influence of government
policies on provision of low cost housing and the influence of technology on the provision of
housing. The targeted sample size was 125 participants. Those filled and returned
questionnaires were 90 respondents making a response rate of 72%. According to Mugenda
and Mugenda (1999), the response rate for this study was excellent and therefore enough for
data analysis and interpretation.
The study found it paramount to determine the respondents’ gender in order to ascertain
whether there was gender parity in the positions indicated by the respondents. According to
the findings it was evident that majority of the respondents were female and this was
represented by 51% while 49% were male. It can therefore be deduced that females were the
most dominant gender in the sector for housing provision in Kenya.
The study findings indicated that majority (25.56%) indicated that their age bracket was 41 to
50 years; 24.44% indicated that they were 31-40 years of age; 16.67% of the respondents
indicated that they were 51-60 years of age; 11.1% of the respondents were above 60 years of
age and 22.22% of the respondents were aged between 20 and 30 years of age. Therefore, the
study deduced that the respondents were mature and had rich experience on the factors.

31
The findings of the study found out, majority (38.89%) had university degrees, hence there
were undergraduates. This was closely followed by 21% of the respondents who indicated
that they had reached postgraduate studies at masters’ level; while the findings further show
that 21% of the respondents had reached secondary education level of education. The
findings showed that 18.89% had reached diploma level. This finding revealed that the
respondents were knowledgeable and also had a good background of the factors.
The study established that failure by the County and National Governments to provide the
requisite infrastructure services has made the provision of low-cost housing untenable to a
very great extent. High cost of providing infrastructure amenities, availability of roads,
electric power, water, and sewerage system affects provision of low cost housing. Lack of
Local government’s facilitation of off-site infrastructure and land servicing (i.e. development
of trunk infrastructure, water &sanitation, etc.) has led to developers having to incur
infrastructure costs themselves and then charging the buyers for it to compensate the costs.
The effect of this is high sale prices for housing units which will be unaffordable to many.
The research also sought to establish the influence of infrastructure on the provision of
housing in Nairobi County. From the analysis of the findings it was noted that the
respondents agreed that infrastructure has become too expensive to be able to support low-
cost housing segment with the respondents strongly agreed that various infrastructural
components influence provision of low cost housing, water is a factor affecting situation of
housing in urban centres with a mean of 4.73%, electric power with a mean of 4.76%,
sewerage systems 4.70% and roads with a mean of 4.79%. The small standard deviation
indicated uniformity in the responses from the respondents.
The study also found out that the set out policies played a key role in delivery of low cost
housing by providing guidelines for the housing sector. Also, through these policies,
provisions of funds set aside for housing developments in the low income segments have
been made possible. In addition, incentives as a matter of policy have also been put in place
to encourage housing developers to invest in the low income segment. The government has
also provided for public private partnerships to increase the production of low cost housing
developments, research on low cost housing and building materials has been conducted and
it’s an ongoing process, improving and developing housing infrastructure has also had an
impact in the development of low cost housing e.g. provision of sewer line, clean water from
drinking, provision of electricity among others. Policy on land use planning and management
are also crucial in low cost housing development and as such they tend to address issues on

32
tenure regularization especially in formal settlements where low income earners reside and to
also set aside land banks for housing developments.
From the findings it was concluded that the government policies were crucial in the
development of low cost housing. The implementation of some of these policies remains a
challenge due to underfunding of the housing sector and rapid urbanization which exerts
pressure on the already limited supply of the housing stock. Adequate and affordable housing
for low income earners has the effect of ameliorating the highly unequal income distribution
in the country and thus providing improved standard of living.
From the study it was noted that cost influenced housing provision. The respondents strongly
agreed that the government has a duty to provide affordable housing to those who are unable
to pay high interest rates. The study generally noted that most respondents strongly agreed
that level of income had a significant influence on the provision of housing.
The study established that cost of land for housing development was a major challenge in
addressing provision of low cost housing for the low and middle income class. This was
evidenced by how the respondents felt that the current land prices were very expensive.
These high costs of land would have to be absorbed by the buyers of these housing units and
this would not make business sense if the target is low cost housing. Pricing of land and
availability of land was found to be determined by the distance from services and amenities,
nearness to commercial, academic, health facilities and availability of public transport and
therefore the further land is from the city centre.
From the study it was noted that level of residents’ income influences housing provision. This
was indicated by the high mean values calculated through SPSS analysis on cost and finances
related statements. The respondents strongly agreed that the government has a duty to provide
affordable housing to those who are unable to pay high interests by financial institutions with
a mean of 4.45; the respondents strongly agreed that quick profits has led to increase in
interest rates for borrowers of finance in the institutions with a mean of 4.42; the respondents
were undecided that the local government has the duty to help the poor people who cannot
manage to pay the high amounts of interest requested by financial institutions with a mean of
3.56; the respondents agreed that low-income housing is the main cause of many financial
institutions in Kenya avoiding to venture into the business of financing low-cost housing with
a mean of 3.98; the respondents agrees that pricing ensures that a company is paid for the
value it creates to its customers and with effective product development, promotion and
distribution yields success for an organization with a mean of 4.12 and they also agreed that

33
financial institutions determine the correct value to be disbursed to a mortgage applicant
while considering the interest that will be paid back with the loan with a mean of 4.05.
The findings, showed that the respondents agreed that housing stocks in towns and cities, in
particular, are under considerable pressure from rapid urbanization with a mean of 4.31; the
respondents agreed that there is a need to develop more appropriate settlement designs and
housing products and to ensure appropriate housing quality with a mean of 4.03; the
respondents agreed that settlement design should be enhanced by including design
professionals at planning and project design stages, and design guidelines for designers and
regulators to achieve sustainable and environmentally efficient settlements with a mean of
3.97; the respondents were undecided on traditional and alternative building technology
should be used where possible with a mean of 3.64.

5.3 Recommendations

5.3.1 Recommendations from the Study

1. From the findings and the conclusion the study recommends that a comprehensive and
well-coordinated support infrastructure is central to the provision of low cost housing.
The high expense of developing houses due to high costs of building materials, land and
infrastructure which has kept off potential developers from the low cost housing sector needs
to be addressed.

2. The study further recommends that the Government must be the enabler, partner, facilitator
or and catalyst to create a favorable and maintain enabling environment, for both public and
private players’ participation that would eventually bring cost of house construction down.
The Ministry of Land, Housing and Urban Development needs to implement land reforms
and enact laws and regulations that would ensure equity and equitable distribution of land in
Nairobi County.

3. The professionals and developers in the housing sector need to embrace and adopt
alternative building technologies some of which like Polystyrene Panels has been found to
cut material cost by 30% and time by 50% (Moko & Olima, 2014). The National and County
Governments need to get involved in providing basic and necessary infrastructure such as
water, power, sewerage and roads so that the infrastructure cost is not passed on to the final
buyer of the house. On funding the government and developers need to get involved in
mobilizing long term and low interest rate funds to bring cost of financing down through

34
initiatives such as mobilizing county’s saving through national schemes such as National
Social Security Fund and international sourcing of funding through issuing international
housing bonds.

5.3.2 Recommendations for Further Studies

1. The researcher recommends that more research needs to be carried out on appropriate
and applicable Public-Private-Partnership approaches that can be implemented to
reduce house construction cost. The researcher also recommends a comparative study
on use of alternative building technology and traditional modern technology.

2. A similar study can be conducted to cover more stakeholders such as house

developers, construction sector professionals and Ministry of Housing as the
respondents with a comparative analysis of their views.

3. More research to be conducted in other slums in Nairobi (Korogocho, Mathare,

Kawangware,) for comparison with Nairobi findings on factors affecting provision of
housing.

4. This study recommends further study to be carried out to determine how to address
the factors that hinder provision of low cost housing so as to facilitate provision of
low cost housing.

35
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rising housing costs
Bruin, M., & Cooks. C (2007). Understanding constraints and residential satisfaction among
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Age, J. Wiley, Chichester.
Morris , E.W. & Winter, (1996). Housing, Family and Society (Rev. ed.) Ames, IA: Morris
and Winter.
Murinda S. & Silvie K., (2008). The potential of solar water disinfection as a household
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Sherman .S. L. & Combs. E.R. (2007). Characteristics related to elderly persons’ perceived
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Lausanne, station 16, Ch 1015
Kothari, C.R 2004, Research Methodology Methods and Techniques, second edition, New
Delhi: New age International Publisher
Otiso, K.M. 2002, State, voluntary and private sector partnerships for slum upgrading and
basic service delivery in Nairobi City, Kenya, Cities, volume 20, issue 4, pages 221-
229.

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Government of Kenya (2007), Housing Sector Incentives and Market Re – Engineering
Measures, Ministry of Housing.
Otiso, K M. (2002), Forced Evictions in Kenyan cities, Singapore Journal of Tropical
geography 23 (3).
Cedric Pugh, (1986) "Housing Theory and Policy", International Journal of Social
Economics, Vol. 13 Iss: 4/5, pp.3 – 104
Ichangai,A. (2008). Application of By-Laws in Construction of Buildings, B.A. Thesis,
University of Nairobi.
Mugenda & Mugenda 1999, Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches,
African Centre for Technology Studies Publishers

Smith 2006, Urban Development and Civil Society: the Role of Communities in Sustainable
Cities, Routledge Publishers
NHC, (2010), Housing Finance and Housing delivery systems in Kenya: Bottlenecks,
recent developments and the way forward, Housing Finance International.
Mugenda and Mugenda AG (2003), Research methods; qualitative and quantitative
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Needleman, L.(1965), The Economics of Housing. Staples Press UK pp. 147-159
UN-HABITAT. (2008b). Soweto East Redevelopment Proposal.
UN-HABITAT. (2008a). Minutes of the Design and Redevelopment Committee Meeting,
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Cytton (2018) Affordable Housing in Kenya
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Appendix I: Questionnaire
INTRODUCTION
Dear respondent all information given in this questionnaire will be treated with utmost
confidentiality. Please tick () the box that matches your answer to the questions and
give the answers in the spaces provided as appropriate.
SECTION A: BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1. Gender
i. Male [ ]
ii. Female [ ]

2. State your age group

i. Between 20 to 30 years old [ ]
ii. Between 31to 40 years old [ ]
iii. Between 41to 50 years old [ ]
iv. Between 51 to 60 years old [ ]

3. Education Level
i. Secondary [ ]
ii. Diploma [ ]
iii. Bachelor’s Degree [ ]
iv. Master’s Degree [ ]

SECTION B: FACTORS INFLUENCING PROVISION OF LOW COST

38
HOUSING AMONG URBAN SLUM DWELLERS IN SOWETO EAST ZONE A,
KIBERA IN NAIROBI COUNTY
INFRASTRUCTURE AND HOUSING
1. To what extent does infrastructure development affect provision of low cost housing?
i. Very great Extent [ ]
ii. Great Extent [ ]
iii. Moderately Extent [ ]
iv. Less Extent [ ]
v. No Extent [ ]

2. To what extent do you agree with the following statements concerning

infrastructure development and how it influences provision of low cost housing among urban
slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera in Nairobi County? (1=No extent, 2=Less
extent, 3=Moderately Extent, 4= Great Extent and 5= Very Great Extent)
Statement 1 2 3 4 5
Availability of electric power influences provision of low cost housing
among urban slum dwellers in Soweto
Availability of roads influences provision of low cost housing among urban
slum dwellers in Soweto
Availability of sewerage systems influences provision of low cost housing
among urban dwellers in Soweto
Availability of water influences provision of low cost housing among
urban dwellers in Soweto

GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND HOUSING

1. To what extent do government policies affect provision of low cost housing?
i. Very great Extent [ ]
ii. Great Extent [ ]
iii. Moderately Extent [ ]
iv. Less Extent [ ]
v. No Extent [ ]

39
2. To what extent do you agree with the following legislations and how they influence
provision of low cost housing in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera Nairobi County? (1=No extent,
2=Less extent, 3=Moderately Extent, 4= Great Extent and 5= Very Great Extent

1 2 3 4 5
Legislation No Less Moderately Great Very Great
Extent Extent Extent Extent Extent
Housing Act CAP
117
National Housing
Policy
National Land
Policy

LEVEL OF RESIDENTS’ INCOME AND HOUSING

1. To what extent does the level of residents’ income affect provision of low cost
housing?
i. Very great Extent [ ]
ii. Great Extent [ ]
iii. Moderately Extent [ ]
iv. Less Extent [ ]
v. No Extent [ ]

2. To what extent do you agree with the following statements concerning

Level of residents’ level of income and how it influences provision of low cost housing
among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone A, Kibera Nairobi County? (1=No extent,
2=Less extent, 3=Moderately Extent, 4= Great Extent and 5= Very Great Extent)

40
 1 2 3 4 5
Statement No Less Moderately Great Very
Extent Extent Extent Extent Great
Extent
The duty of the government to
provide affordable housing

Low income housing is the main

cause of financial institutions failing
to venture into the business

Income of residents depend on the

amount of mortgage they can apply
for

Income depend on how one can

afford to rent a decent house

TECHNOLOGY AND HOUSING

1. To what extent does technology affect provision of low cost housing?

41
i. Very great Extent [ ]
ii. Great Extent [ ]
iii. Moderately Extent [ ]
iv. Less Extent [ ]
v. No Extent [ ]

2. To what extent do you agree with the following statements concerning technology and how
it influences provision of low cost housing among urban slum dwellers in Soweto East Zone
A, Kibera Nairobi County? (1=No extent, 2=Less extent, 3=Moderately Extent, 4= Great
Extent and 5= Very Great Extent)
1 2 3 4 5
Statement No Extent Less Extent Moderately Great Extent Very Great
Extent Extent
Settlement
designs to be
enhanced by
professionals
Housing
stocks are
under
considerable
pressure from
urbanization
There is need
to utilize
alternative
methods of
building
technology

Thank you
42
43