MILTON MARGAI TECHNICAL

UNIVERSITY

B-TECH YEAR I

ELECTRONICS
EEE 111

JOSEPH N WILLIAMS
❖Definition
Electronics is a branch of physics that
deals with the emission, behavior, and
effects of electrons (as in electron tubes
and transistors) and with electronic
devices.
Electronics is the branch of science that
deals with the study of flow and control
of electrons (electricity) and the study
of their behavior and effects in
vacuums, gases, and semiconductors,
and with devices using such electrons.
Electronics deals with the flow of
charge (electron) through non-metal
conductors (semiconductors). Electrical
deals with the flow of charge through
metal conductors.
STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Matter is made of atoms. Atoms are the
smallest particle of an element that
takes part in a chemical reaction. The
center of an atom is called a nucleus
that is surrounded by revolving
electrons. The nucleus contains protons
and usually some neutrons, therefore it
is positively charged. The revolving
electrons are negatively charged with a
charge that is equal in magnitude but
opposite in polarity to the charge of the
proton. Since the opposite charge
attracts, there is an attractive force
between proton and electron.
An atom is neutral (uncharged) if the
number of its orbiting electrons is equal
to the number of protons in its nucleus.
If an atom has more electrons than the
number of its protons it is called
negative ions.
If it loses a valence electron it is called
a positive ion. Only the valence
electrons are involved in the work of
electrical and electronics circuits
because current can only be supported
by the movement of electrons into and
out of the valence band.
Valence
electron
Valence
Band
Forbidden
gap Conduction
band
❖VALENCE BAND
Is the outermost shell or band that holds
the valence electrons. This outer shell
or orbiting shell controls the electrical
properties of an atom.
❖ CONDUCTION BAND
It is the band to which the valence band
losses free electrons. The movement of
an electron will depend on the
bandwidth or gap and the amount of
energy applied.
ENERGY LEVEL
The Fermi energy level is used to
determine the last filled energy level in
the valence band at absolute zero
temperature. The absolute zero
temperature is the temperature at which
no electrons have enough energy to
occupy any energy level above the
Fermi energy level. The size of this
bandgap determined if the metal is a
conductor, insulator, or semi-conductor.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN
CONDUCTOR, SEMI-CONDUCTOR,
AND INSULATOR
i. CONDUCTOR
The Fermi energy level in a conductor
lies within the conduction band, which
makes it easier for electrons to move
from the valence band to the
 conduction band. If a voltage is applied
across a conductor, electrons can easily
jump to a free energy level that is
slightly above, pick up speed, and drift
in the direction of the electric field
which will result in the material
conducting electricity.
ii. SEMI-CONDUCTOR
The Fermi energy level in a
semi-conductor lies between the
 band and the conduction band. This gap
can be excited by about one electron
volt at room temperature so that
conduction can take place.
iii. INSULATOR
The Fermi energy level in an insulator
has a large energy gap between the
valence band and the conduction band.
This makes it very difficult for
electrons to move from the valence
band to the conduction band. If
conduction needs to take place, an
incredible amount of energy should be
applied, which will eventually destroy
the material.
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON
THE CONDUCTIVITY OF
SEMICONDUCTOR AND
CONDUCTOR
SEMI-CONDUCTOR
When the temperature of a
semiconductor material is increased,
the number of free electrons that are
able to break their covalent bond and
enter the conduction band increases
greatly, thereby reducing the resistance.
Thus increasing the temperature of a
semiconductor material leads to a
decrease in the resistance.
CONDUCTOR
At 0°K, the number of electrons that
are able to crossover to the conduction
band is quite enough for conduction to
take place. Their fore increasing the
temperature will cause these electrons
to collide with each other and force
them to drift away from the conduction
band, which will increase the
resistance. Thus increasing the
temperature of a conductor will cause
an increase in the resistance of the
conductor.
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC
SEMI-CONDUCTOR
INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR
This implies that the property is a
characteristic of pure material that has
nothing but silicon or germanium
atoms. The material conductivity of
which is found to increase very
strongly with increasing temperature.
EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR
This implies that impurity atoms are
added to the characteristics of a pure
material meaning another material is
found in them.
❖FORMATION OF CRYSTAL
MATERIAL
An atom that is normally bonded with
the nearest neighbor atoms in a special
shape. A silicon atom that is a part of a
crystal has eight electrons in the
valence orbit and four neighbor atoms.
Each of the four neighbors shares one
electron. Since each shared electron is
being pulled in opposite direction, it is
a kind of a bond between the opposite
core. This type of bond is known as a
covalent bond.
❖FORMATION OF HOLES PAIR
At room temperature, pure silicon
crystal is an insulator because in
covalent bonding the valence electrons
are held tightly in their orbits. A free
electron is an electron that is not held
tightly and is free to migrate or move
about through the material. If pure
silicon crystal is excited through
electro-motive force, exposure to light,
or an increase in temperature, it will
cause the electron to break away from
their atomic bonding and become free
electrons. The place where this free
electron was held, is now filled with a
positive charge called a-holes pair.
❖DOPING
One way to raise conductivity. This
means adding impurity atoms to an
intrinsic crystal. A doped material is
called an extrinsic semiconductor.
Impurity atoms added to the
semiconductor change the thermal
equilibrium density of electrons and
holes. Adding extremely small amounts
of impurities to pure semiconductors in
a controlled manner is called doping.
❖N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
If a different type of atom, such as
arsenic, with five valance band
electrons, is placed in intrinsic silicon,
the crystalline structure changes. The
arsenic atom occupies a site by sharing
four of the five valence electrons with
Silicon atoms and releases the last
valance electron to the crystal as a free
electron. This crystalline structure is
called an N-type extrinsic
semiconductor because the structure
contains extra electrons and is
negatively charged.
❖P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
If an atom with three electrons, such as
boron, is introduced in an intrinsic
semiconductor, the atom shares all of
its three valance electrons with
neighboring Silicon atoms. The
crystalline structure ultimately forms a
“hole” in the boron site, signifying the
absence of electrons. This is called a
P-type semiconductor where the site is
charged positively when the hole is
occupied by a free electron.
 DIODE
A diode is among the simplest
semi-conductor. It can conduct
unilaterally meaning in one direction.
The positive lead is known as the anode
while the negative lead is known as the
cathode.

P-N JUNCTION
A p-n junction is a piece of
semiconductor material in which part of
the material is p-type and part is n-type.
At the junction, the donated electrons in
the n-type material, called majority
carriers, diffuse into the p-type material
(diffusion is from an area of high
density to an area of lower density), and
the acceptor holes in the p-type material
diffuse into the n-type
material.
 DEPLETION LAYER
When a P-type semi-conductor material
and an N-type semi-conductor are
placed together, the minority electrons
and holes at both ends diffuse or
recombine with each other to form a
dipole. These dipoles accumulated or
build up at the junction of both
materials and prevent further
recombination of electrons and holes.
The layer formed by these dipoles at
the junction is called a depletion layer.
 POTENTIAL BARRIER
This is a charge or voltage set up by the
dipoles at both ends of the junction
when depletion occurs and they prevent
further movement of electrons and
holes across the junction.
FORWARD BIASED
When an external voltage is applied to
a p-n junction making the p-type
material positive with respect to the
n-type material, the p-n junction is
forward biased. The applied voltage
opposes the contact potential, and, in
effect, closes the depletion layer. Holes
and electrons can now cross the
junction and a current flows.
REVERSED BIASED
When an external voltage is applied to
a p-n junction making the p-type
material negative with respect to the
n-type material, the p-n junction is
reverse biased. The applied voltage is
now in the same sense as the contact
potential and opposes the movement of
holes and electrons due to opening up
the depletion layer.
DIODE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
DIODE CALCULATION IN IDEAL
STATE
 Example 1
The following voltages 5V, 10V, 15V,
20V, and 25V were connected in series
with an ideal silicon diode and a 10KΩ
resistor. Calculate;
i. The voltage across the load resistor
ii. The circuit current
iii. The power dissipated by the load
resistor and the diode.
 EXERCISE
i. For the same circuits in fig above, if
V=0V, 4V, 8V, 12V, 16v and 20V,
R=200Ω, calculate:
a. The voltage across the diode
and resistor
b. The current through the circuit.
c. The power dissipated by the
resistor and the diode
ii. Referring to the circuits fig above,
if V=12V, 16V, 20V, and 24V,
R=1KΩ, calculate:
a. The voltage across the diode
and resistor
b. The current through the circuit.
c. The power dissipated by the
resistor and the diode
iii. If in the circuit fig above, V=15V
and 20V, each value of the resistor
1KΩ, and 470Ω what will be:
a. The voltage across the diode
and resistor
b. The current through the circuit.
c. The power dissipated by the
resistor and the diode
 DIODE CALCULATION IN
PRACTICAL STATE
Example 2
Assume a silicon 0.7V or germanium
0.3V diode is connected in series with a
battery source of 40V and a 40Ω
resistor. Calculate;
a. The voltage across the diode and the
resistor
b. The current in the circuit
 EXERCISE
i. If V=36V, R=30Ω What are the
values of;
a. Voltage across the resistor and
the diode.
b. The circuit current
c. Power dissipated by the resistor
and the diode
ii. If R=120Ω, V=5V, 10V, 15V, 20V,
and 25V. What are the values of
 a. Voltage across the resistor and
the diode.
b. The circuit current
c. Power dissipated by the resistor
and the diode
iii. If R=120Ω, V=8V, 12V, 16V, 20V,
and 24V. Find
a. Voltage across the resistor and
the diode.
b. The circuit current
c. Power dissipated by the resistor
and the diode
 TYPES OF DIODES
Power diode
Varactor diode
Zener diode
Bi-directional diode
Schottky diode
Tunnel diode
Opto-electronics or LED
(light-emitting diode)
APPLICATIONS OF A DIODE
❖HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
In a half-wave rectifier, a single diode
is used to rectify only the positive or
negative half cycle of a sinusoidal input
wave.
❖ FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
In a full-wave rectifier, two diodes are
used to rectify both the positive and
negative cycle of the input sinusoidal
wave.
❖BRIDGE RECTIFIER
In the bridge rectifier, four diodes are
used with two of the diodes
conducting in the positive cycle and
the other two conducting in the
negative cycle of the input sinusoidal
wave.
❖CLIPPERS
Clipping is a process in which one or
two parts of the input waveform are
eliminated(clipped) above or below a
certain reference level and the rest of
the waveform is passed to the output
without any distortion.
SERIES CLIPPERS
In a series clipper, the diode will be in
series with the load.
 PARALLEL CLIPPERS
In a parallel clipper, the diode will be
in shunt with the load.

❖CLAMPERS
t is used to re-insert or restore the dc
level to the input signal, the circuit can
also be called dc restorer or a
dc re-inserter

❖ZENER DIODE
It is sometimes called a breakdown
diode. It is designed to operate in the
reverse breakdown region or beyond
the peak inverse voltage rating of
normal diode. This voltage is called
Zener voltage. The Zener diode is the
backbone of voltage regulation because
of its temperature coefficient, which is
the breakdown voltage deviation during
the temperature rise or fall. Because the
Zener diode is reversed biased, it
operates in the breakdown region with
high stable Zener voltage. Changes in
current through the diode have no effect
on the voltage across it. The Zener
diode established a constant voltage
across the load line within a range of
output voltage and current, out of this
range the voltage drop remains constant
and the current flow through the diode
will vary to compensate for the changes
in load resistance.
 ZENER DIODE STABILIZATION
Because the Zener diode is reversed
biased, it operates in the breakdown
region with high stable Zener voltage.
Changes in current through the diode
have no effect on the voltage across it.
The Zener diode established a constant
voltage across the load line within a
range of output voltage and current, out
of this range, the voltage drop remains
constant and the current flow through
the diode will vary to compensate for
the changes in load resistance.
ZENER BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
AVALANCHE EFFECT
When a breakdown voltage is reached,
a large number of carriers are produced
by geometric sequence. Each
free-electron liberates one valence
electron to get two, the two
this occurs until the reverse current
becomes huge.
AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN
This breakdown voltage is reached
when free electrons are accelerated to
such high speed that they can dislodge
valence electrons, the current is known
as reverse breakdown current.
ZENER EFFECT
This breakdown voltage occurs when
the intensity of the electric field
becomes high enough to pull electrons
out of their valence orbit. The
breakdown voltage of the Zener effect
is called Zener voltage.
ZENER DIODE CIRCUIT
CALCULATION (IDEAL STATE)
Example
A circuit with the following source
voltages 4V, 12V, and 20V were
connected in series with a 250Ω resistor
and a Zener diode with a
voltage of 12V. calculate;
a. The voltage across the resistor
b. The circuit current
c. The output voltage
d. The power dissipated by the resistor
and the diode
 EXERCISE
1. A Zener diode with 5V is connected
in series with a 120Ω resistor and
voltage sources of 4V, 8V and 10V.
Calculate;
i. The circuit current
ii. The output voltage of the
circuit
iii. The power dissipated by the
diode and the resistor
2. Draw a circuit having a variable
voltage source ranging from 12V –
15V. The regulated voltage from the
output is 10V. The current through
the Zener diode never drops below
10mA.
i. What is the largest value of the
resistor connected in the circuit
to meet this requirement?
ii. What is the maximum current
 ii. in the circuit
3. You are given a circuit to verify the
output voltage, the circuit current,
and the voltage across the resistor
using the following voltage sources
6V, 8V, and 10V. After observation,
it was noticed that the Zener diode
with 5V is open and the resistor
value is 50 Ω.
 ZENER DIODE CIRCUIT
CALCULATION (PRACTICAL
STATE)
 Example
A circuit with the following source
voltages 4V, 12V, and 20V was
connected in series with a 250Ω resistor
and a Zener diode with a voltage of
12V and 20Ω resistance. Calculate;
i. The voltage across the resistor
ii. The circuit current
iii. The output voltage
iv. The power dissipated by the resistor
and the diode
EXERCISE
ZENER DIODE POWER
REGULATION
 STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF
A BI-POLAR TRANSISTOR (BJT)
A transistor has two junction slabs of
semiconductor crystal. One junction is
forward biased while the other is
reversed biased. If an N- material is
formed between two P-materials, it is a
PNP transistor. If on the other hand a
P-material is formed between two
N-materials then it is an NPN
The leads connected to these
semiconductor materials are called
emitter, base, and collector.
The base is always between the emitter
and collector material and it is lightly
doped. The collector junction is made
larger than the emitter to improve the
collector action.
For normal operation, the emitter-base
junction is forward biased, while the
collector-base junction is reversed
biased. Under these conditions, the
emitter sends free electrons into the
base, but since the base is lightly doped
and thin most of these free electrons
pass through the base to the collector
which collects or gathers these
electrons from the base. The movement
of these electrons will cause an emitter
current which will, in turn, result in the
flow of current across the reversed
biased collector-base junction is known
as collector current.

OPERATING REGION OF A BJT

TRANSISTOR
BJT transistor operates in three regions:
❖ ACTIVE REGION:
In the active region, the emitter-base
junction is forward biased while the
collector-base junction is reversed
biased. In this state, the transistor
operates as an amplifier.
❖ SATURATION REGION:
In the saturation region, both
emitter-base junction and collector-base
junction are forward biased. In this
state, the transistor operates as a switch.
❖ CUTT-OFF REGION:
In the cut-off region, both emitter-base
junction and collector-base junction are
reversed biased. In this state, the
transistor is off.
 TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
(BJT)
The BJT transistor has three
configuration modes, they are:
❖ COMMON BASE
CONFIGURATION:
Here the base is made common to both
the emitter and collector.
EXERCISE
❖ COMMON COLLECTOR
CONFIGURATION:
Here the collector is made common to
both the base and emitter.
EXERCISE
 i. collector-ground voltage
ii. Draw the load line.
4. If the transistor becomes defective
(acts like an open between its
collector and emitter leads) in the
circuit described in exercise 1, what
dc voltages can we expect to
measure at the collector and at the
emitter with respect to the ground?
 COMMON EMITTER
CONFIGURATION:
Here the emitter is made common to
both the base and the collector
FIXED-BIAS
EXERCISE
 SELF-BIAS OR EMITTER-BIAS OR
STABILIZED BIAS
The operation of this is similar to the
fixed biased but with a resistor at the
emitter.
TWO SOURCE SUPPLY BIASED
iii. Sketch the dc load line and identify
the quiescent point Q.
EXERCISE
 i. Quiescent collector current and
emitter-collector voltage?
ii. The collector power
dissipation?
iii. The saturation current and
emitter-collector cutoff
voltage?
iv. Sketch the dc load line for the
circuit.
2. The leakage current is negligible.
What are the values of:
i. Quiescent collector current and
emitter-collector voltage?
ii. The power dissipated by the
collector?
iii. The saturation current and
emitter-collector cutoff
voltage?
FEEDBACK-BIAS
EXERCISE
VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS
 i. collector to ground voltage.
ii. Sketch its dc load line.
EXERCISES
 i. What is the value of the circuit
collector current,
emitter-collector voltage,
collector power dissipated and
collector-to-ground voltage?
ii. Sketch the dc load line for the
circuit and show the operating
point.
 i. collector-to-ground voltage?
ii. Sketch the dc load line for the
circuit and show the operating
point.
EMITTER FOLLOWER BIAS
EXERCISE
 ii. Sketch the load and show its
operating point.
iii. If saturated, what current will
the BJT conduct?
iv. If this BJT is at cutoff, what
voltage will be across its
collector and emitter?
 ii. Sketch the operation point.
iii. If saturated, what current will the
BJT conduct?
iv. If at cutoff, what voltage will be
across this BJT’s collector and
emitter leads?
 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FET)
The field effect transistors are unipolar, and
voltage-controlled device. They are used where
very high input resistance and low noise are
desirable or necessary. They are also used to
amplify weak signals.
TYPES OF FET’S
There are two types of FETs they are:
❖ Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
❖ Metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistor (MOSFET)
FETs are either an n-channel or a p-channel.
JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
(JFET)
The JFET transistor consists of an n-type
semiconductor with a p-type material diffused
into it. The leads called source (S) and drain (D)
are connected to the n-type semi-conductor, and
a gate (G) lead is connected to the p-type
material. The channel provides the passage
through which current can flow.
 BIASING A JFET’s TRANSISTOR
To bias a JFET N-Channel transistor, the drain
is made positive with respect to its source, while
in a P-Channel JFET transistor, the drain is
made negative with respect to the source. In the
N-Channel, the negative voltage on the
p-material with respect to the n-material reverse
biased the junction and causes depletions at the
DRAIN CURRENT VERSUS
DRAIN-TO-SOURCE VOLTAGE
CHARACTERISTICS
 EXERCISE
1. The data sheets of an n-channel MOSFET
specify that VGS(th)=3V and ID=1mA with
VGS=5V. Find ID with each of the following
values of VGS=4V, 5V, 6V and 7V.
2. The data sheets of a p-channel MOSFET
specify that VGS(th)=-2.5V and ID=-1mA with
VGS=-5.5V. Find ID with values of VGS from
-2.5V to -7V in 0.5V increments. Sketch the
results on a piece of linear graph paper
A. DEPLETION MOSFET: Unlike the
enhancement MOSFET, whose channel are
closed when VGS=0V and the drain current
ID=0A. The depletion MOSFET channel is
open, that is when VGS=0V there is large
amount of charge carrier that support a drain
current ID. This current can only be control or
reduce when the values of VGS is made either
negative or positive for the channel used.