FOREIGN POLICY ANALYSIS (504)

COURSE OUTLINE:

1. Importance of Foreign Policy in International Relations

2. What is Foreign Policy
3. What is Foreign Policy Analysis
4. What are the Three Levels of Foreign Policy Analysis
5. Approaches to the Study of Foreign Policy Making
6. Principles and Objectives of Foreign Policy
7. Determinants of Foreign Policy
8. Instruments of Foreign Policy
9. Inputs in Foreign Policy Making
a. Role of Head of Government
b. Foreign Minister
c. Foreign Office
d. Parliament
e. Media
f. Public Opinion
g. Pressure Groups
h. Political Parties
i. Military Establishments
j. Intelligence Agencies
10. External Factors of Foreign Policy Making (Transnational Factors)
11. Foreign Policy Making in Democratic a State: U.S.A and U.K
12. Foreign Policy Making in a Socialist State: People’s Republic of China (PRC)
13. Foreign Policy Making in Turkey and Iran
14. New Trends in Foreign Policy Making

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Topic: Importance of Foreign Policy in International Relations?
It is a known fact that the formation of government is essential to run a state and no state
can live without maintaining interstate relations which have become so essential in these
days. To that end every government has to formulate a foreign policy.

Like internal and domestic policies, industrial policy, agricultural policy, defense policy,
education policy, labor policy etc. A state gives special attention to the careful
formulation and successful execution of its foreign policy.

A successful foreign policy enhances a nation’s power and prestige in the comity of
nations. Foreign policy gains also increase a government’s credibility in the eyes of
public internally as well as externally.

Herein lies the importance of foreign policy. It has become one of the most important
core fields of international relations.

Topic: What is Foreign Policy?

Nations have always been interdependent and these are bound to remain so even after
attaining high levels of development. Interdependence has been an incontrovertible fact
of international relations. It compels every nation to get essentially involved in the
process of establishing and conducting relations with other nations. Each nation
establishes diplomatic, economic, trade, educational, cultural and political relations with
other nations.

For giving meaning and direction to her relations with other nations, each nation
formulates and adopts a Foreign Policy. It is through its foreign policy that it tries to
secure the goals of national interest in international relations. The behaviour of each
nation in international environment is always conditioned by its foreign policy.

Foreign policy embodies general objectives that guide the activities and relationships of
one state in its interactions with other states.

Foreign policy is a systematic statement of deliberately selected national interests. It is

through foreign policy, every state decides “what course it will pursue in world affairs
within the limits of its strength and the realities of the external environment.” It,
therefore, gives a sense of direction to a state. It creates a sense of purpose as well as a
confidence to achieve that purpose. It becomes so indispensable that no state can operate
at international level without it.

In other words, Foreign policy involves the formulation and implementation of a group of
principles which shape the behavior pattern of a state while negotiating with other states
to protect or further its vital interests.

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Topic: What is Foreign Policy Analysis?

Foreign policy analysis is a branch of political science dealing with theory development
and empirical study regarding the processes and outcomes of foreign policy. Foreign
policy analysis is the study of the management of external relations and activities of state.

Foreign policy analysis involves the study of how a state makes foreign policy. As it
analyzes the decision making process, FPA involves the study of both international and
domestic politics. FPA also draws upon the study of diplomacy, war, intergovernmental
organizations, and economic sanctions, each of which are means by which a state may
implement foreign policy.

In academia, foreign policy analysis is most commonly taught within the discipline of
public policy within political science or political studies, and the study of international
relations. FPA can also be considered a sub-field of the study of international relations,
which aims understand the processes behind foreign policy decision making. The most
prominent scholars in this field of study include Richard Snyder, James Rosenau,
Alexander George, Graham Allison and Irving Janis.

Stages in Decision Making:

Assessment of the international and domestic political environment: Foreign policy

is made and implemented within an international and domestic political context, which
must be understood by a state in order to determine the best foreign policy option. For
example, a state may need to respond to an international crisis.

Goal setting: A state has multiple foreign policy goals. A state must determine which
goal is affected by the international and domestic political environment at any given time.
In addition, foreign policy goals may conflict, which will require the state to prioritize.

Determination of policy options: A state must then determine what policy options are
available to meet the goal or goals set in light of the political environment. This will
involve an assessment of the state's capacity implement policy options and an assessment
of the consequences of each policy option.

Formal decision making action: A formal foreign policy decision will be taken at some
level within a government. Foreign policy decisions are usually made by the executive
branch of government. Common governmental actors or institutions which make foreign
policy decisions include: the head of state (such as a president) or head of government
(such as a prime minister), cabinet, or minister.

Implementation of chosen policy option: Once a foreign policy option has been chosen,
and a formal decision has been made, then the policy must be implemented. Foreign
policy is most commonly implemented by specialist foreign policy arms of the state
bureaucracy, such as a Ministry of Foreign Affairs or State Department. Other
departments may also have a role in implementing foreign policy, such as departments
for: trade, defence, and aid.

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Topic: What are the three levels of Foreign Policy Analysis?

Various levels of analysis that each have the potential to affect foreign policy: leader
personality and worldview; perceptions, problem representations, the use of analogies,
and reasoning; the role of advisors, group decision making, and the impact of institutional
arrangements; domestic audiences, national history, culture, and the state’s political
institutions; capabilities, size, and geographic location.

In foreign policy analysis, causes are called independent variables. The effect (or the set
of options considered, the decision, the behavior, or the outcome) that we seek to explain
is call the dependent variable. The effect, or dependent variable, would not have occurred
if the independent variables had not been present. In addition, the dependent variable
would have taken a different shape if different independent variables had been present or
if the independent variables had been of different relative strength.

However, it is also important to recognize that different causes sometimes explain

slightly different things—such as decisions, behaviors, and outcomes—and require that
we investigate phenomena at different levels of analysis—the individual, state, and
international system.

1. Individual level of analysis is the most specific of all the three levels of analysis. It
focuses on individuals, such as leaders and their advisors, to explain foreign policy.

2. State level of analysis, the middle of the three levels of analysis, focuses on factors
internal to the state as the ones that compel states to engage in specific foreign policy
behaviors.

3. System level of analysis is the most abstract of the three levels of analysis. It focuses
on the interactions between states. Foreign policy analysis rarely employs this level of
analysis; although it uses system level attributes descriptively to understand the context
of foreign policy making.

Foreign policy analysis privileges the individual level of analysis—and with it the
consideration of options and the making of decisions. Foreign policy analysis does not
deny that the state and system levels of analysis have their roles to play.

A student of Foreign Policy analyses the actions of a state towards external environment
(i.e., other states) and the conditions, usually domestic, under which those actions are
formulated.

The study of foreign policy includes both the study of national objectives to be achieved
and the means used for securing these.

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Topic: Approaches to the Study of Foreign Policy Making?

Foreign policy analysis allows us to better understand how political actors make policy
decisions and how they relate to other foreign government and non-government entities.
Foreign policy is a complex discipline wherein numerous actors work within structures
both inside and outside the state to have an impact on the decision-making process. It is
useful to have analytical process models to illuminate the dynamics in this field and help
explain how states conduct their foreign policy, international relations and diplomatic
endeavors.

There are five main models in foreign policy analysis that will be explored in this article:
the rational actor model, the bureaucratic politics model and the organizational process
model—all three of which were developed by foreign policy analyst and scholar, Graham
Allison, and outlined in his book, The Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile
Crisis—as well as the inter-branch politics model and the political process model. In
order for an international relations professional to effectively analyze foreign policy as a
whole, it is necessary to determine the relative strengths and weaknesses of each model
therein and understand the ways in which each approach has the potential to remedy the
inadequacies of the others.

Rational Actor Model:

The most widely cited foreign policy analysis approach is the rational actor model. This
approach assumes that the main actor in foreign policy is a rational individual who can be
relied on to make informed, calculated decisions that maximize value and perceived
benefits to the state. The rational actor model relies on individual state-level interactions
between nations and government behavior as units of analysis; it assumes the availability
of complete information to policymakers for optimized decision making, and that actions
taken throughout time are both consistent and coherent. There are four main steps in the
rational actor’s decision-making process: identify the problem, define desired outcomes,
evaluate the consequences of potential policy choices and finally, make the most rational
decision to maximize beneficial outcomes.

The rational actor theoretical approach can be useful to understanding the goals and
intentions behind a foreign policy action. However, critics of this model believe it does
not account for instances when complete information may not be available, as well as the
relatively subjective concept of rationality or factors that might inhibit rational decision
making.

Bureaucratic Politics Model:

Unlike the rational actor model, which looks at the state as a unitary actor, the
bureaucratic politics model analyzes decisions on the premise that actions are taken by a
number of independent, competing entities within a particular state. Each of these
separate entities brings values to the decision-making process, as well as its own view of
what’s best for personal, organizational and national interests. Each party attempts to
satisfy its goals, meaning any collective action is contingent upon successful negotiations
and the arrival at an ultimate consensus between all entities.

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A number of factors can influence each party’s decision making and how it achieves its
goals, such as the relative power and degree of influence of each other actor in the group.
Each party has opposing viewpoints and desired outcomes related to an array of issues,
and success in achieving certain goals may require other parties to make certain
concessions, resulting in decisions that are often seen as more beneficial to one side than
the others. Additional factors that impact decision making include the degrees of
importance of certain goals and the political values each party represents. The
increasingly partisan nature of U.S. politics provides an excellent example of this model
in action.

The bureaucratic politics approach is often touted as an explanation as to why states

sometimes act irrationally. However, some argue the model doesn’t account enough for
highly concentrated power held by certain entities, such as the executive branch in U.S.
governance. It is also seen as very U.S.-centric and difficult to apply in the context of
other styles of government.

Organizational Process Model:

In contrast to the two aforementioned approaches, the organizational process model

views government as a mix of powerful organizations working in concert rather than an
individual or a group of partisan entities. This model examines foreign policy decisions
as made within the rigid strictures of bureaucracy, where actions may only be taken with
proper authorization and adherence to the chain of command, respecting established
processes and standard operating procedures, or SOP. Here, government leaders don’t
tackle the broader scope of a crisis but instead delegate smaller facets of the issue to
committees, departments and other bureaucratic entities supporting the government.

Critics often bemoan the fact that this model limits individuals’ ability to act, which
results in reduced insight and a lack of alternative perspectives. The organizational
process model can also decrease the overall flexibility of an organization. However,
applying this model has the potential to streamline decision making with the
establishment of standard protocol for certain circumstances with predictable, measurable
outcomes. In other words, the organizational process model anticipates the measured
pace of bureaucratic practices and seeks to create protocol that can be readily applied in
the event of a crisis.

Inter-Branch Politics Model:

The inter-branch politics model is similar to the organizational and bureaucratic process
models in that it involves separately defined groups or entities. However, rather than
focusing on singular goals and outcomes, the inter-branch politics model evaluates
actions and their outcomes based on the combined efforts and cohesiveness of different
groups and their progress toward achieving collective goals. According to Tan Qingshan,
a political science professor and Director of Asian Studies at Cleveland State University
who first introduced the model, the bureaucratic and organizational entities within and
outside states do not operate in complete independence, but rather interact and influence
each other.

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Political Process Model:

The political process model of foreign policy analysis was developed by Roger Hilsman
in his book, The Politics of Policymaking in Defense and Foreign Affairs. According to
Hilsman, there are a large number of actors involved in the foreign policy decision-
making process, mainly concentrated in the office of the President and Congress, but
across all levels of government as well. Similar to the bureaucratic politics model, the
political process model emphasizes bargaining and the presence of various power centers
seeking to achieve their respective goals—these goals can either be in conflict or
consensus with those of others. However, this model differs from the bureaucratic politics
model as it focuses more on the individual participants and their personal goals and
mindsets about international politics rather than organizations and groups as a whole.
According to Hilsman, the individual ideology of each political actor is one of the most
important factors in determining and explaining decision-making. Critics of the model,
however, maintain that it is too similar to the bureaucratic politics to make a substantive
contribution to the field of foreign policy analysis.

Foreign policy analysis is necessary to improve our overall understanding of the

government and the political decision-making processes that play out on the world stage.
Each approach to diplomacy offers a unique set of potential drawbacks and benefits, and
emphasizes the importance of the political actors and structures involved and how they
work to attain their foreign policy goals.

Topic: Principles of Foreign Policy?

A set of principles, policies and decisions adopted and followed by the nation in
international relations.

 Objectives, goals or aims of national interest which are to be secured.

 Means to be used for achieving the goals of national interest.
 Broad policy principles and decisions for conducting international relations.
 Assessment of the gains and failures of the nation in respect of its goals of
national interest.
 Policies, decisions and action-programmes for maintaining continuity or change
or both in international relations.

In simple words, it can be observed that Foreign Policy is a set of principles and
decisions, a plan of action and a thought out course of action adopted and used by a
nation for conducting relations with other nations and all international actors with a view
to secure the preferred and defined goals of her national interest.

Topic: Components of Foreign Policy?

 Formulation of the objective in the most precise terms possible
 The nature of the action to be undertaken, stated with sufficient clarity to guide
and direct the state’s other officials and
 The forms and perhaps the amounts of national power to be applied in pursuit of
the objective

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  Policy makers
 Interest and objectives
 Principles of foreign policy
 Means of foreign policy
 Principles underlying foreign policy
 Problems faced by the nation
 The particular way of making policy including the role of foreign policy makers
 The products or results of foreign policy.

Topic: Objectives of Foreign Policy?

1. Maintaining the integrity of the state

2. Promoting economic interest
3. Providing for national security
4. Protecting national prestige and developing national power
5. Maintaining world order

These can be supplemented by specific objectives according to the peculiar problems and
conditions of the particular country.

Pr-requisites of Foreign Policy Study of foreign policy necessitates that the following
factors must be borne in mind.

1. Foreign policy has many constituents, most important of which are defense,
diplomatic and economic interests. These Constituents though singly salient, are not
necessarily mutually exclusive. They often coexist and strongly influence each other.

2. Foreign policy is made in the name of a state, but it is the government which
really formulates and executes it. The government is not an inanimate body. It is a
synthesis of organizations and individuals having their organizational and personal
interests which are not necessarily similar.

3. Foreign policy never operates in vacuum rather it is conditional by an

environment, both domestic and external. The domestic environment consists of
political parties, pressure groups, rival bureaucratic organizations, public opinion,
political culture etc. The external environment comprises among other sub systemic
actors neighboring states and others belonging to the region, super powers and
international organizations, especially the UN, World Bank, IMF and regional
organizations like SAARC, BRICS, SCO, ECO, etc.

4. In government it is some individuals around whom foreign policy making

revolves. It may be the President or Prime Minister or the King of a state and his
foreign minister, advisers and subordinates. Mostly the Head of the Government
plays the prominent role in this regard.

5. Foreign policy always involves both decision and action, with decision perhaps the
more important element. Action on behalf of an objective can result from policy only

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 it the decision itself indicates clearly what the policy maker had in mind both as to
objective and procedure.

6. Foreign policy embraces both important and less important matters. The routine
matters are dealt with at lower levels whereas important things are sent to higher
levels for disposal. There is a linkage between the degree of the importance of the
subject and the level of authority where it is disposed of.

7. Cost-risk factor in foreign policy has also its significance A policy decision
requires the commitment of resources, the assumption of a risk or both. One must
keep in mind that, in foreign policy as in life, everything has its price. The most
complex problem in policy formulation is the decision about how much effort should
be made in pursuit of an objective in view of competing claims of other goals and the
resource crunches.

8. Foreign policy has to be examined from actual behavior pattern of states rather than
exclusively from declared objectives or policy plans.

Topic: Determinants of Foreign Policy?

The foreign policy of a nation is formulated and implemented by its policy makers. In
doing so they take into account the national interest of the nation, the internal and
external environment, the national values, the foreign policy goals and decisions of other
nations and the nature of international power structure. These constitute the
factors/elements of Foreign Policy.

1. Territorial Size:

The size of a state is an important factor of its Foreign Policy. Size influences the
psychological and operational environment within which the foreign policy-makers and
public respond.

It includes, as Rosenau says, both human and non-human resources. Nations with large
human and non-human resources always try to be big powers and they have better
chances of becoming big powers in international relations.

However, size alone is not an independent determinant of foreign policy. Resources and
capabilities of the state are not always dependent upon size. The countries of the Middle
East, even with small sizes but with the largest quantity of oil resources, have been
playing quite an active role in international relations. Japan is relatively a small sized
state and yet its role in international relations has been active and influential.

2. Geographical Factor:

Geography of a state is relatively the most permanent and stable factor of its foreign
Policy. The topography of land, its fertility, climate and location are the major geographic
factors which influence the Foreign Policy of a nation. These factors determine both the

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needs as well as the capability to fulfill the needs of the people of a nation. Suitable
geographical factors can help and encourage the nation to adopt and pursue higher goals.

The role played by English Channel in the development of Britain as a major naval power
and consequently as an imperial power is well known.

The influence of the Atlantic Ocean on the US Foreign Policy has been always there.

Indian Foreign Policy now definitely bears the influence of the geographical location of
India as the largest littoral state of the Indian Ocean.

The geographical distance from Pakistan has been a factor in the foreign policy of
Bangladesh.

The natural resources and the food production capacity of a nation is directly linked with
its geography. These factors are also important factors in the formulation and
implementation of foreign policy. Adequate existence of vital natural resources—
minerals, food and energy resources—have been helping factors of the US and Russian
foreign policies.

Geography, as such is an important and permanent factor of foreign policy, yet it is not a
deterministic factor. The revolutionary developments in communications and modern
warfare, and the ability of nations to overcome geographical hindrances have tended to
reduce the importance of geography.

3. Level and Nature of Economic Development:

One of the main reasons why the US Foreign Policy has been very often successful in
securing its national objectives, particularly in relation to the poor and economically
lowly placed states of the world is the high degree of its economic development. The
developed countries of our times are highly industrialized and economically developed
states. These can use foreign aid as a tool for securing their foreign policy goals.

The level of economic development also determines the scope of relations that a nation
wishes to establish with other nations. The Foreign Policy of Japan in the contemporary
times is directly and fundamentally related to its economic development. The military
preparedness and military capability of a nation is again directly related to the factor of
economic development and industrialization. Only industrially and economically
developed nations can hope to become major and stable military powers.

Economic power constitutes a fundamental dimension of national power in contemporary

times and at present; it can be used more effectively for securing foreign policy goals.

4. Cultural and Historical Factors:

The cultural heritage and the history of a nation are again important and valuable factors
of its Foreign Policy. The norms and traditions that characterize the life of the people of a
state are highly influential factors of its foreign policy. During the process of interpreting

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and formulating the objectives of national interest, the decision makers are always
governed by their cultural links, historical traditions and experiences.

5. Social Structure:

The structure and nature of the society for which the foreign policy operates is also an
important element. The nature of social groups and the degree of conflict and harmony
that characterize their mutual relations are determined by the social structure. A society
characterised by strong internal conflict and strife acts as a source of weakness for the
foreign policy.

A society of united, enlightened and disciplined people with a high degree of group
harmony is always a source of strength. The democratization of the process of policy-
making in recent times has increased the importance of social structure as an element of
foreign policy. The linkages between the domestic and international environments have
tended to strengthen the role of this element.

6. Government Structure:
The organization and structure of government i.e. the organizational agencies which
handle the foreign policy-making and implementation is another important element of
foreign policy. The shape of the foreign policy is also determined by the fact as to
whether the government agencies handling it are democratically constituted or not.

Whether the authority relations are centralized or decision-making is free and open. The
government officials also act as decision makers and this factor always influences the
formulation of foreign policy. Foreign policy of a nation has to adapt to the environment.
In a centralized and authoritarian system, the foreign policy can remain and often remains
isolated from the domestic environment.

The nature of legislature-executive relations is also an influential factor in Foreign Policy

decision-making. The harmony between the two, as is there in a parliamentary system,
can be a source of strength and lack of harmony between the two can be a source of
hindrance for the foreign policy makers. Similarly, the nature of party system, elections
and electorate are other influential factors. The continuity in Indian Foreign Policy has
been also due to the nature of government-making in India.

7. Internal Situation:
Like the external situational factors, sudden changes, disturbances or disorders that occur
within the internal environment of a nation also influence the nature and course of foreign
policy. The internal opposition to the military regime in Pakistan during 1947-89 was a
determinant of Pakistani foreign policy. The rise of new leadership in China is now an
important input of Chinese Foreign Policy. The internal situation of Pakistan—a military
dominated state trying to be a democratic political system has always been a factor of
Pakistan’s Foreign Policy.

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8. Values, Talents, Experiences and Personalities of Leaders:

Since the Foreign Policy of a nation is made and implemented by leaders, statesmen and
diplomats, naturally it bears an imprint of their values, talents, experiences and
personalities. The ideas, orientations, likings, disliking, attitudes, knowledge, skill and
the world-view of the national decision-makers are influential inputs of Foreign Policy.
The differences among the leaders are also influential inputs of a foreign policy.

However, this does not mean that this factor is an independent determinant of Foreign
Policy. Leaders are always guided by the dictates and demands of national interest. Each
leader is committed to the securing of national interests of the nation. The vital interests
of the nations are a source of continuity if the personalities and attitudes of the leaders are
a source of change. The two have to be balanced before these serve as foreign policy
inputs.

9. Political Accountability:

In the words of Rosenau, “the degree to which public officials are accountable to the
citizenry, either through elections, party competitions, legislative oversight, or other
means, can have important consequences for the timing and contents of the plans that are
made and the activates undertaken in foreign affairs.”

A political system which is both responsive to and responsible before the people, works
in a different environment than the political system which is a closed system i.e., a
system which is neither open nor accountable to the people. As such foreign policy of an
open political system is more responsive to public opinion and public demands than the
foreign policy of a closed political system. The difference between the foreign policies of
democratic and totalitarian/authoritarian states is always largely due to his factor.

10. Ideology:

Foreign Policy is a set of principles and a strategic plan of action adopted by a nation to
fulfill the goals of national interest. It has always an ideological content. For securing
support for its goal as well as for criticizing the foreign policy goals of other nations, it
needs and adopts an ideology or some ideological principles.

It, therefore, always tries to use the ideology as well as to popularize its ideology. The
ideology of communism remained an important factor of the foreign policies of
communist nations during 1945-90. Anti- Communism and Pro-Liberal Democracy
ideologies have always influenced the shape and course of foreign policies of non-
communist Western nations. Ideological conflict remained determining factor in the cold
war policies (1945-90) of both the super powers.

Similarly, ideological commitments have been a source of affinity in the foreign policies
of Islamic nations.

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11. Diplomacy:

Diplomacy is the instrument by which foreign policy of a nation travels beyond its
borders and establishes contacts with other nations. It is diplomacy which tries to secure
the goals of foreign policy during the course of relations with other nations. Besides
being a means, diplomacy is also an input of foreign policy. The world view sketched by
diplomacy and the reports prepared by the diplomats are valuable sources of foreign
policymaking.

The modes of operation and quality of diplomacy always affect the operational quality
and efficiency of a foreign policy. It has been through diplomacy that India and Pakistan
have been trying to initiate and adopt confidence building measures. Morgenthau regards
Diplomacy as the best instrument of power management among states.

12. International Power Structure (Global Strategic Environment):

The relations that nations establish among themselves are backed by their respective
national interests and powers. In fact, such relations involve struggle for power among
them. The net effect is that international relations constitute a power structure in which
the more powerful nations—the super powers and the major powers—play a more
vigorous and leading role than the relatively less powerful nations.

The foreign policy of every nation is influenced by the nature of power structure that
prevails at a particular time in the international environment.

13. Public Opinion:

Public Opinion, (national as well as international) is another important input of Foreign

Policy. Decision-makers of each nation have to accept and give due place to the opinion
of the people they represent as well as to the World Public Opinion. Undoubtedly, the
decision-makers as leaders have to lead the public yet they also have to accommodate the
demands of public opinion.

14. Technology:

The application of the knowledge of scientific inventions to practical and useful purposes
leads to technology. The level of technological development and the nature of technical
know-how are important elements of foreign policy. Highly advanced technology has
been a major factor of the strength of the foreign policies of the major powers.

The level and nature of industrial output and military preparedness of a nation are
dependent upon technology. These in turn are important components of Foreign Policy.

Technology is, however, a relatively less stable element of foreign policy because
technological changes always and continuously take place in every society. Moreover, it
is only in relation to scientific and industrial development that technology becomes a
factor of foreign policy.

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15. External Environment:

Foreign Policy has to operate in the international environment which is subject to many
frequent and important situational changes. Consequently, it has always to adapt
according to these changes. These situational changes act as foreign policy inputs.

Further, the Foreign Policy of a nation is always made and implemented with an eye on
the situation in various regions of the world.

Similarly, international issues and crises are also important factors of Foreign Policy. The
issue of New International Economic Order, the energy crisis, the problem of distribution
of international resources, the issue of proliferation, protection of human rights,
elimination of international terrorism and others has been major factors in the foreign
policy decisions of India and other developing nations.

16. Alliances and International Treaties (Bilateral and Multilateral):

Alliance is a means by which some nations pool their powers or agree to pool their
powers in the event of a particular situation. Alliances serve as instruments of foreign
policies.

NATO’s support to the US decision to declare a war against Taliban’s Afghanistan

decidedly gave strength to the US foreign policy. However, many other nations, the Non-
aligned nations, still continue to regard alliances as a source of tension and distrust and
their foreign policies are still governed by the anti-alliance principle.

Recently, another factor has become an influential factor in Foreign Policy- making. The
realization for mutual inter-dependence has given birth to a large number of regional
organizations, arrangements, agreements and trading blocs.

European Union, ASEAN, SAARC NAFTA, APEC, SCO and several others have been
major players in international economic relations. The foreign policy of every nation is
now becoming conscious of these organizations, trading blocs and economic and trade
agreements. The pressures of NPT & CTBT and the decisions of WTO on every foreign
policy is a well known fact.

Hence, international treaties, pacts, trading blocs and alliances also constitute a factor of
foreign policy.

Topic: Instruments of Foreign Policy?

The instruments of foreign policy may be said to be those institutions or devices through
which the national power or resources are used for the accomplishment of the interests
and objectives. These are as follows:

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1. Diplomacy:

Good diplomats ambassadors, envoys, ministers etc and through their art of diplomacy
can put country’s viewpoint effectively before the world and fulfill foreign policy
objectives by means of mutual negotiations and thus spare their country from resorting to
coercive methods. Diplomacy reduces the area of disagreement and misunderstanding
with other states. It is instrumental in reaching out agreements, treaties and pacts with
other nations. It plays its role both during war and peace.

2. Publicity and Propaganda:

These can be used steadily to combat and break down the undesirable attitudes and
opinions and to create the desired attitudes and opinions. India’s factually strong case on
Kashmir has been distorted by a systematic and ceaseless propaganda by Pakistan, so
much so that quite some people in the world may wonder as to what, after all, the facts of
the case are publicity through radio, television magazines and other literature is also used
as an instrument of foreign policy.

3. Balance of Power:

This method is used for avoiding imbalance of power and strengthening the position of
given nations. For example, Britain employed the principle of balance of power for a long
time in the European power politics in order to maintain the status quo and prevent any
particular power from being too strong.

4. Collective Security:

The principle of collective security is adopted to secure collective defense as

threateningly posed or actually mobilized against a powerful nation or nations. Balance
of power and collective security are extremely useful as instruments for smaller nations
which have a limited capacity to defend themselves.

5. International Law and Organizations:

These are also used by nations whenever possible for advancing the objectives of their
foreign policy. During the post War period, Britain and France used the League of
Nations to maintain status quo which was in their favor. Now we see that a number of
third World countries are using the platform of the United Nations for some of the basic
goals of their foreign policies-anti-colonialism, anti-racialism, disarmament and so on.

6. Economic and non-political methods:

Various economic methods are also adopted by various nations to achieve their foreign
policy objectives and also to harm the interest of Opponents. Economic organizations are
formed for this purpose e.g. E.E.C., E.C.M., COMECON, MI-I Economic methods have
already been discussed in detail in the previous chapter on National Interest. Sometimes

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nations also exploit religious, cultural and ethnic affinity to fulfill foreign policy
objectives tag the use of Islam by many Muslim countries.

7. War and Peace:

The institutions of war and peace are a kind of ultimate answer to the problems of a
nation’s foreign policy of the two, peace comes on the heels of war, generally
inaugurating a basic change in the foreign policies of nations concerned. But war is
generally a devastating answer to the problems of a nation’s foreign policy. When
objectives of foreign policy cannot be achieved through other means, nations resort to
war as an end argument.

Topic: Inputs in Foreign Policy Making?

a. Role of Head of Government

The head of government is the chief officer of the executive branch of a
government, often presiding over a cabinet. So, when we talk about the role of
the head of the government in making foreign policy, it does not mean that he
himself engages in the drafting of the resolutions. But the head of the government
often consults with an advisory body of experts and advisers with experience and
knowledge in international affairs. Having said that, a head of government does
enjoy some discretionary powers in influencing the course of the consultations.

b. Foreign Minister & the Foreign Office:

The confidence between the Prime Minister and the Minister of Foreign Affairs
and whatever the least attention of the chief of the government in foreign issues,
foreign minister does not put the policies without the consent of the head of the
government. A Foreign Minister derives its importance from being the head of the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In almost all countries the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs is the main sources of information and basic tools for the implementation
of foreign policy. It is where the information is detailed and continuous embassies
to send reports on the situations of the different countries. After the arrival of
these reports are analyzed by the experts distributed on the main sections of the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It provides a summary of these reports after its
analysis to the Minister of Foreign Affairs with advice on what should be the
foreign policy.

c. Parliament

The Parliament and its foreign affairs committee play a strong role not only in
foreign policy decision-making, but also in preparing decisions. The making and
implementation of foreign and security policies in a parliamentary democratic
system is the prerogative of the executive. There is a complex process in the
executive for policy making involving institutional and organisational networks,
campaigning by the advocates of different perspectives and mutual
accommodation. In Pakistan, foreign and security policies are made jointly by
civilian and military authorities with a strong input from the intelligence agencies,
especially the ISI.

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 The parliament can debate and discuss foreign and security policies. It can seek
information from the executive and provide guidelines on how to handle foreign
policy and security issues. These guidelines are in broad and general terms.
However, the parliament neither makes the foreign policy nor micromanages it.

There are three important instruments that the parliament can use to influence
foreign policy making. First, as the prime minister and the cabinet are responsible
to the parliament, the latter can exert pressure to change their policies. If the
foreign policy is completely unacceptable, the parliament can change the prime
minister and bring forward a person who will carry out their wishes and desires.

Second, the members of parliament must develop professional capacity to deal

with foreign policy and security issues. Most of them make either simplified
statements or follow the party line, making statements with the objective of
getting space in the media or condemning whatever the government is doing. The
members should make mature statements on security and foreign policy issues
that reflect deep thinking and an understanding of dynamics of international
politics. Each party represented in the parliament should arrange briefings by
specialists and professionals for its members so that they are better prepared to
deal with complex foreign policy and security issues.

Third, the committees of two houses dealing with foreign policy and security
matters should be strengthened. These must have research staff to provide them
basic data and short overview-papers on the relevant security and foreign policy
issues. The role of the committee depends to a great extent on the seriousness of
the members and their capacity to address the issues within its domain. This is not
possible without professional support to their work. The committee should also
invite professional and experts for their comments and analysis of foreign policy
and security issues.

The parliamentary committees on defence and security affairs are now working
regularly. They have made good beginnings but their processes have to be
strengthened and the members need to be helped to upgrade their knowledge and
understanding of security and foreign policy affairs. Good work done by the
committee will strengthen the role of the National Assembly and the Senate.

d. Media & Public Opinion & Pressure Groups

Due to the importance and influence of the media it plays a significant role in
influencing both the decision makers and the public opinion. The views of the
citizens, whether formal or informal, are formed as a result of the observation and
interpretation of the events by the opinion makers-media personalities. Media is
the primary source of information regarding the international events, and it’s also
an essential source of interpretation. For the official decision makers, the media
and the press, radio, TV play a prominent role in directing them and providing
them vital information on international affairs. In addition to the fact that media is
an important source of information, internal and external, it can be used as an

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 indicator of public opinion and the positions of the citizens to the state's foreign
policy.

On the other hand the public opinion as a driving force in shaping the foreign
policy had no role before the First World War. However, with the end of the war,
and with the growth of political awareness of the public at large, the public
opinion represented the will of the people and started to affect the domestic and
foreign policies of the states. Normally, the public opinion is represented through
the medium of media. Nowadays, it does play an important role in influencing the
decision-making process.

Likewise, various pressure groups also tend to influence the formulation of

foreign policy. They use various pressure tactics like protests, hunger strikes, and
sometimes violence to pressure and compel the politicians to make decisions in
their favor. They have emerged as an important factor and influential actors in
influencing both the domestic and the foreign policy of the State.

e. Political Parties
Political parties are considered as the most prominent political institution that
contributes to the making of foreign policy. However, it depends upon the
political structure of the country with respect to the role of political parties in
making foreign policy. If there is more than one party, as is the case in the
democratic countries, then normally the ruling party haves a say in formulating
the foreign policy.

Topic: Basic Goals & Guiding Principles of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy

1. Maintenance of territorial integrity.

2. Maintenance of its political independence.
3. Acceleration of social and economic development.
4. Strengthening its place on the globe.
5. Keeping cordial and friendly relations with all countries.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN POLICY:

1. Protection of Freedom and Sovereignty: Pakistan came into being after great
sacrifices of million of Muslims. Like any other country, she also considers with deep
regard the need for preservation of its independence and does not allow any country to
harm its freedom. Therefore, the principle of protection of independence and sovereignty
is the corner stone of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy.

2. Cordial Relations with Muslim Countries: Pakistan always tries to establish cordial
and friendly relations with Muslim countries. It has always moved its concern against
Israel, India and U.S.S.R capturing Palestine, Kashmir and Afghanistan respectively. She

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has shouldered high responsibilities and used her influence for safeguarding the rights of
the Muslims. Pakistan is also an active member of the Islamic Conference.

3. Non-Interference in Internal Affairs of Other Countries: Pakistan has sought to

establish normal and friendly relations with all countries especially in neighbouring
countries, on the basis of universally acknowledge the principle of national sovereignity,
non use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states.

4. Implementation of U.N Charter: Pakistan’s policy is to act upon UN charter and to

support all moves by the UN to implement it. Pakistan has been the member of UN since
the year of its birth.

5. Promotion of World Peace: Pakistan’s policy is to promote peace among nations. It

has no aggressive designs against any country. Neither does it support any such action.
Pakistan has always held that the international disputes should be settled through
negotiations rather than non-battlefield.

6. Non-Alignment: Pakistan follows the policy of Non-Alignment i.e. to keep away from
alignment with any big power bloc, and avoids taking sides in the cold war. It has also
given up its association with SEATO and CENTO and was included in NAM in 1979.

7. Support for Self-Determination and Condemnation of Racial Discrimination:

Pakistan is a stomach supporter of the right of self-determination and has been in the fore
front of efforts to eliminate colonialism and racism. It has advocated the right of self-
determination of Kashmir.

8. Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament: Pakistan is deeply conscious of the

fact that international peace and security cannot be achieved and sustained in the world
with arms. Disarmament is the imperative condition for truly durable peace in the world.
Pakistan has a vital stake in promotion of disarmament both in the nuclear and
conventional fields. It is included in the principles of its foreign policy that a collective
endeavour by countries at the regional level to promote disarmament and enhance
security at the lowest possible level of armaments is an indispensable result to their
advocacy of global disarmament.

9. Member of International Organization: Pakistan had become the member of the

British Commonwealth with the time of its establishment. In addition it is the member of
United Nations (U.N), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Organization of Islamic
Conference (OIC), Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), South Asian Association
for Regional Co-operation (SAARC), Association of South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN), and D-Eight. Being a member of International Organizations the objectives of

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Pakistan are to struggle for world peace, to unify the Muslim countries and to promote
regional co-operation.

Topic: External Factors of Foreign Policy Making (Transnational

Factors)

Certain external factors and situations also influence and shape a nation’s foreign policy.
These factors are as follows:

1. International Organizations:

These include international law, the U.N.O., and its activities, UNESCO, I.L.O, W.H.O.,
I.M.F., etc. The nations cannot completely ignore international law, treaties and contracts
so that their violations may not put in danger the policies. Almost all countries are also
members of the U. N O. Its decisions and activities affect the foreign policy of many
nations. The Communist China for a long time ignored international organizations and
consequently could not secure its due position in the sphere of international relations. In
1971 she became a member of U.N.O. and this fact caused several shifts in China’s
foreign policy.

2. World Public Opinion:

World public Opinion provides dynamism to external environment. It is always changing.

It is very difficult to know it unless it becomes very clear and organized. Like a flicker of
light it influences the foreign policy rarely. The characteristic of consistency is absolutely
absent in it. Only if domestic public opinion of many countries combines it becomes an
effective world public opinion. Then it also serves as a determinant of foreign policy No
country howsoever powerful can go ever challenging world public Opinion

3. Reaction of other States:

The states cannot always neglect the viewpoint of other states while making their foreign
policies. Moreover, every state has some friendly nations or allies. Their reaction about a
particular policy has to be given special attention States usually never attempt to pursue
those interests which are totally Opposed to the fundamental interests of other state it a
police ignores the reaction of other states it has little chance to succeed.

4. Other External Factors:

The other external factors that have a bearing upon foreign policy are general world
conditions, whether tense or relaxed, cold war like or detente like, war prone or peace
oriented. General regional environment, whether surrounded by hostile or friendly
neighbors. Special endemic problems inflicting the region like Palestinian problem in
West Asia. Political and economic global problems like arms race, nuclear proliferation,
economic depression, economic protectionism, economic inequalities e. g. North-South

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problem, refugee problem etc. Prevailing alliance system and power structure in the
world-bipolar or multi polar also influence foreign policy of various states.

f. Military Establishments & Intelligence Agencies

Intelligence as a tool of foreign policy emerged significantly after the Second World War
and played a prominent role in international politics in the international community and
foreign policies of many States. Generally, the military establishments and the
intelligence agencies do work on the pattern of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in terms
of collecting and analyzing the information, as well as serving as a tool for the
implementation of the government's foreign policy. But what distinguishes them from the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs is that they are collecting confidential information related to
the national security and the implementation of government policies which are not in
conformity with the usual diplomatic rules. In some states a National Security Council is
constituted. It works as a special committee in the government, with an advisory role and
is to provide advice to the head of state with regard to the coordination of policies related
to national security and foreign affairs, military, and some internal policies related to
national security. Simply put, we can say that the National Security Council and the role
of the architect and coordinator of the foreign policy of the State, particularly the security
policy. It sets out the general framework of the outer resolution, thus contributing to the
foreign policy-making.

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