Leadership and Decision

UNIT 6 ORGANISATIONAL POWER AND Making

POLITICS

Objectives

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• diagnose the extent, location and types of power in an organisation;
• understand how and by whom power is exercised in an organisation;
• examine different aspects of power dynamics in an organisation.
• appreciate the role of politics in an organisation;
• identify various political strategies used for gaining power in organisations;
and
• take note of organisational politics in understanding behaviour in
organisations.
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Concept of Power
6.3 Differentiating Power from Authority and Influence
6.4 Sources of Power
6.5 The Bases of Power
6.6 Using Power Ethically
6.7 The Dynamics of Power
6.8 Why are Organisations Political?
6.9 Political Perspective of Organisations
6.10 Politics as a Means of Resolving Conflicting Interests
6.11 How to Play Politics?
6.12 Influencing the Decision Process and Design
6.13 How to Recognise Political Tactics?
6.14 Summary
6.15 Self Assessment Questions
6.16 Further Readings

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Power is a potentially sinister subject. Power’ says Bierstedt (1950), ‘stands
behind every association and sustains its structure. Without power there is no
organisation and without power there is no order.’ Paradoxically, the most potent
exercise of power may be invisible. Power relations can be subtly changing and
ambiguous. In theory, managers command and employees obey. In practice, it is
not always so. Indeed, what appears as unquestioning obedience may actually be
a covert form of resistance. It is useful, therefore, to understand something about
the nature of power in organisations.
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Organisational Processes Politics is not just about international affairs, parliaments and domestic issues.
Organisations are themselves systems of political activity. Economics may
influence organisational decisions but politics is the ultimate arbiter. It is not
enough for managers to be planners, organisers, analysts and strategists. They
must also be politicians in their respective organisations. Power and politics are
very closely related concepts. A recognition of the political realities of power
acquisition in today’s organisations and an examination of some specific political
strategies for acquiring power are of particular interest for understanding the
dynamics of organisational behaviour.

6.2 CONCEPT OF POWER

Power is said to be like love, impossible to define but easy enough to recognise
(Martin, 1977). Power is understood as the ability to influence other people and
events.
In the words of White and Bednar, “Power is the ability, to influence people of
things, usually obtained through the control of important resources.”
A comprehensive definition of power is given by Dahl (1957), when he wrote
that “A has power over l3 to the extent that he can get B to do something B
would not otherwise do.” Russell (1938) conceptualizes power as “the production
of intended effects.”
Dehl’s definition suggests that power must overcome resistance in order to
succeed whereas according to Russell, power need not imply resistance. All the
above definitions suggest that power involves compulsion.
These has been a recent trend towards empowerment, the shifting of power away
from managers and into bands of subordinates. Empowerment occurs in varying
degrees in different organisations.

Characteristics of Power
The following are the characteristics of power :
1) Specific :
Power is specific in the sense that it may be exercised by some people in
some circumstances. Power may not be exercised by all people in all
circumstances.
2) Dependency :
The main feature of power is dependency. The greater the dependence of
one person on you, the greater is the amount of power you can exert on him
3) Expand or Contract :
Power is elastic. People who are habituated to exercise power, may try to
acquire more power and expand it. In some organisations, due to change in
position of a manager in the organisation, that is, shift from one department
to the other may cause contraction in power.
4) Reciprocal Relationship :
Power relationships in an organisation are reciprocal in nature. Power exists
due to relationship between two or more persons. It is based on two-way
58 concept of influencing others and being influenced.
Views of Power and Influence: Organisational Power and
Politics
There are different views of power which a manager takes to increase the power
of both managers and their employees.
1) Autocratic View of Power :
In autocratic view, the power flows downward, it basically comes from the
authoritative structure from the management. In autocratic view, someone
loses and someone gains, as it has fixed amount.
2) Participative View of Power :
In participative view, the power varies i.e. Power has variable amount. It
flows in all directions. The power comes from both official and unofficial
channels and applied by activities in a group.
Positive and Negative Consequences of Power
The fact that we can see and succumb to power means that power has both
positive and negative consequences. On one hand, powerful CEOs can align an
entire organization to move together to achieve goals. Amazing philanthropists
such as Paul Farmer, a doctor who brought hospitals, medicine, and doctors to
remote Haiti, and Greg Mortenson, a mountaineer who founded the Central Asia
Institute and built schools across Pakistan, draw on their own power to organize
others toward lofty goals; they have changed the lives of thousands of individuals
in countries around the world for the better (Kidder, T. (2004). Mountains beyond
mountains: The quest of Dr. Paul Farmer, a man who would cure the world.
New York: Random House; Mortenson, G., & Relin, D. O. (2006). Three cups of
tea: One man’s mission to promote peace…One school at a time. New York:
Viking). On the other hand, autocracy can destroy companies and countries alike.
The phrase, “Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely”
was first said by English historian

John Emerich Edward Dalberg, who warned that power was inherently evil and
its holders were not to be trusted. History shows that power can be intoxicating
and can be devastating when abused, as seen in high-profile cases such as those
involving Enron Corporation and government leaders such as the impeached
Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich in 2009. One reason that power can be so
easily abused is because individuals are often quick to conform. To understand
this relationship better, we will examine three famous researchers who studied
conformity in a variety of contexts.

6.3 DIFFERENTIATING POWER FROM

AUTHORITY AND INFLUENCE
Usually, the term power is interwined with another concept, authority. But there
is a difference between the two concepts. Power refers to the capacity to influence
others. The person who possesses power has the ability to manipulate or change
the behaviour of others. Authority, on the other hand, is the source of power.
Authority is legitimate and it confers legitimacy to power. Power itself need not
be legitimate.

Authority exists where one person has a formal right to command and another
has a formal obligation to obey. Authority may be seen as institutionalised power.
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Organisational Processes For example, a police officer has authority to ‘stop’ a motorist. The motorist is
legally obliged to comply. Managers are said to possess a ‘right to manage’.
Employees are legally obliged to obey the employer’s instructions provided these
are lawful and within the scope of the contract of employment.

Whereas power and authority are potentially mandatory, influence, by contrast

implies persuasion. Influence is usually conceived of being broader in scope,
than power, Influence is more closely associated with leadership than power, but
both obviously are involved in the leadership process.

Marx was highly influential but not powerful. in contrast Stalin was powerful
but not influential. In organisations, employees may influence decisions through
joint consultative committees and other mechanisms, yet the organisation reserves
the final say.

6.4 SOURCES OF POWER

Interpersonal Sources of Power
French and Raven identity five interpersonal sources of power: reward power,
coercive power, legitimate power, expert power, and referent power.

Reward power: Reward power is an individual’s ability to influence others’

behaviour by rewarding their desirable behaviour. Employees comply with
requests and directives because of the authority of managers to grant rewards in
the form of praise, promotions, salary increase, bonuses, and time-off. Reward
power can lead to better performance, but only as long as the employee sees a
clear and strong link’between performance and rewards.

Coercive power: Coercive power is an individual’s ability to influence others’

behaviour by means of punishment for undesirable behaviour. For example,
subordinates may comply because they expect to be punished for failure to respond
favourably to managerial directives. Punishment may be major or minor,
depending on the nature of omission or commission.

Legitimate Power: Legitimate power most often refers to a manager’s ability to

influence subordinates’ behaviour because of the manager’s position in the
organisational hierarchy. Subordinates may respond to such influence because
they acknowledge the manager’s legitimate right to prescribe certain behaviours.

Legitimate power is an important organisational concept. Typically, a manager

is empowered to make decisions within a specific area of responsibility, such as
quality control, accounting, human resource, marketing, and so on.

Expert power: Expert power is an individual’s ability to influence others’

behaviour because of recognised skills, talents, or specialised knowledge. To the
extent that managers can demonstrate competence in analysing, evaluating,
controlling, and implementing the tasks of subordinates, they will acquire expert
power.

Referent power: Referent power is an individual’s ability to influence others’

behaviour as a result of being liked or admired. For instance, subordinates’
identification with a manager often forms the basis for referent power, This
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identification may include the desire of the subordinates to emulate the manager. Organisational Power and
Politics
Referent power is usually associated with the individuals who possess admired
personality characteristics, charisma, or a good reputation.

Structural Sources of Power

Much of the attention directed at power in organisations tends to focus on the
power of managers over subordinates. An additional perspective is that the
characteristics of the situation affect or determine power. Important structural
sources of power include knowledge, resources, decision making and networks.

Knowledge as power: Organisations are information processors that must use

knowledge to produce goods and services. The concept of knwledge as power
means that individuals, teams, groups, or departments that possess knowledge
are crucial in attaining the organisation’s goals. Intellectual capital represents
the knowledge, know-how, and competency that exists in the organisation. This
intellectual capital can provide an organisation with a competitive edge in the
marketplace.

Resources as power: Organisations need a variety of resources, including money,

human resources, equipment, materials, and customers to survive. The importance
of specific resources to an organisation’s success and the difficulty in obtaining
them vary from situation to situation. The departments, groups, or individuals
who can provide essential or difficult-to-obtain resources acquire more power in
the organisation than others.

Decision making as power: The decision making process in an organisation

creates more or less power differences among individuals or groups. Managers
exercise considerable power in an organisation simply because of their decision
making ability. Although decision making is an important aspect of power in
every organisation, cultural differences make for some interesting differences in
the relationship. For example, in Chinese organisation, decision making power
was more decentralised in manufacturing firms than in service organisations.
The reverse was true in British firms, with power being more decentralised in
the service organisations than in the manufacturing firms.

Networks as power: The existence of structural and situational power depends

not only on access to information, resources and decision making, but also on
the ability to get cooperation in carrying out tasks. Managers and departments
that have connecting links with other individuals and departments in the
organisation will be more powerful than those who don’t have.

6.5 THE BASES OF POWER

Etzioni identifies three basic resources of power namely, (a) coercion, (b)
remunerative power, and (c) normative power.

Coercion means the ability to manipulate physical sanctions including physical

chastisement, forcible detention, to deprive a person of food, sleep and other
physiological needs. Force is therefore required in order to obtain compliance.
Examples of such organisations include jails, detention centres, concentration
camps, and some psychiatric hospitals.

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Organisational Processes Remunerative power refers to the ability to manipulate material rewards and
sanctions including salaries, wages, promotions and training. Utilitarian
organisations engage in ‘producing goods and services for sale in the market
place. Material inducement is required to procure compliance. Such organisations
include factories, hotels and commercial enterprises. Normative power rests upon
human need for approval and recognition. It refers to the ability to manipulate
symbols including medals, gadgets, badges and certificates. Normative
organisations are those whose mission is primarily idealistic or value- based.
Such organisations include voluntary organisations and political groups, schools,
universities and hospitals. The members of these organisations are highly
committed.
According to Etzioni each form of power is associated with a particular form of
involvement. Coercion is associated with alienation and hostility, remunerative
power with calculative involvement and normative power with moral
involvement.
Another influential contribution to the literature and power in organisations is
French and Raven’s typology of power.
Box 1: French and Raven’s Typology of Power

Coercion The ability to deprive, that is, to decrease another’s

outcomes. Reward The ability to control that which
another party values, that is, to increase another’s
outcomes.
Expertise Possession of specialized knowledge.
Information Possession of or control of access to important data
concerning the organisation and its environment.
Legitimacy Synonymous with authority, that is, the power
which emanates from a person’s position in the
organisation.
Referent Ability to exert charisma, to procure commitment.

Source: Drummond H., Introduction to Organisational Behaviour, p.129.

6.6 USING POWER ETHICALLY

To be considered ethical, power-related behaviour must meet three criteria:
1) Does the behaviour produce a good outcome for people both inside and
outside the organisation? If the power-related behaviour serves only the
individual’s self-interest and fails to help the organisation reach its goals, it
is considered unethical.
2) Does the behaviour respect the rights of all parties? The question emphasises
the criterion of individual rights. Free speech, privacy, and the process are
individual rights that are to be respected, and power-related behaviours that
violate these rights are considered unethical.
3) Does the behaviour treat all parties equitable and fairly? This question
represents the criterion of distributive justice. Power-related behaviour that
treats one party arbitrarily or benefits one party at the expense of another is
62 unethical.
The Reaction to Power Organisational Power and
Politics
How do employees respond when managers use the different kinds of power?
According to Herbert Kelman, three distinctly different types of reactions are
likely to occur as people respond to attempts to influence their behavior. They
are compliance, identification, and internalization.
• Compliance ensues when people conform to the wishes or directives of
others so as to acquire favorable outcomes for themselves in return. They
adopt new attitudes and behaviors not because they agree with the orders.
They obey it just because they can get some rewards or avoid some
punishments.
As long as the rewards or punishment still exist, they will still obey the
rules.
• Identification occurs when people accept the direction or influence of others
because they identify with the power holders and seek to maintain
relationships with them—not because they value or even agree with what
they have been asked to do. I am your friend, so I do as you ask me to do
because I still want to be your friend.
• Internalization: people may adopt others’ attitudes and behaviors because
this course of action satisfies their personal needs or because they find those
attitudes and behaviors to be congruent with their own personal values. In
either case, they accept the power holders’ influence wholeheartedly.
• Above all the types of power reward power, coercive power, process power,
information power and representative power will lead to compliance,
legitimate power, expert power, rational persuasion will lead to
internalization, referent power will lead to identification.
Using Power Behavior
A Manager or leader uses power by several methods.
1) Legitimate request
The manager requests that the subordinate comply because the subordinate
recognises that the organisation has given the manager the right to make the
request. Most day to day interactions between manager and subordinate are
of this type.

2) Instrumental compliance
It is based on the reinforcement theory of motivation. In this form of
exchange, subordinate complies to get the reward the manager controls.
Suppose that a manager asks a subordinate to do something outside the
range of subordinate’s normal duties, such as working extra hours. The
subordinate complies and as a direct result reaps praise and a bonus from
the manager.

3) Coercion
A manager is using coercion when she suggests or implies that the subordinate
will be punished, fired or warned if he does not do something.

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Organisational Processes 4) Rational persuasion
It occurs when the manager can convince the subordinate that compliance
is in the subordinate’s best interests. For example, a manager might argue
that the subordinate should accept a transfer because it would be good for
the subordinate’s career.

5) Personal identification
A manager who recognises that he has referent power over a subordinate
can shape the behaviour of that subordinate by engaging in desired
behaviours. The manager consciously becomes as model for the subordinate
and exploits personal identification. Sometimes a manager can induce to do
something consistent with a set of higher ideals or values through
inspirational appeal.

6) Information distortion
The manager withholds or distorts information to influence subordinates
behaviour. For example, if a manager has agreed to allow everyone to
participate in choosing a new group member but subsequently finds one
individual whom he really prefers, he might withhold some of the credentials
of other qualified applicants so that the desired member is selected. This
use of power is dangerous. It may be unethical, and if the subordinates find
out that the manager has deliberately mislead them, they will lose their
confidence in the manager.

Individual Vs. Organisational Power

Power is the ability to exert influence in the company beyond authority. Managers
get power both from organisational and individual sources. They derive
organisational power by virtue of their position in the company. On an individual
basis, the manager has personal power which is based on his expertise and his
power to control behaviour. A supervisor’s individual power may include job
knowledge, personal influence, interpersonal skills and ability to get results,
empathetic ability, persuasive ability and physical strength.

Information power is based upon persuasiveness or content of a communication

and is independent of the influencing individual. Managers who are good
communicators are able to persuade the subordinate to accept an unpopular task.
In order to keep leadership position and maintain stability in employment
managers need to enhance their personal power. One way is to continue to upgrade
their expertise and knowledge.
Develop a likeable personality, dress professionally, and make friends with in
their division and outside because the help from many people may be needed in
future.
Managers should be aware of the strategies for exercising influence as influence
leads to more power. Some common strategies include using facts to support a
logical argument. Use flattery, praises, and goodwill to win friends both inside
and outside the workplace
They need to have friends among the higher authority who can help them to
enhance their authority and to adopt their recommendations. Such friends are a
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great asset to their long term survival in the company. Enhancing and maintaining Organisational Power and
Politics
power and authority does not come naturally. We have to work for it

Activity 1: Based on your own experience, give example of both effective

and ineffective uses of power.
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What is Influence?
Starting at infancy, we all try to get others to do what we want. We learn early
what works in getting us to our goals. Instead of crying and throwing a tantrum,
we may figure out that smiling and using language causes everyone less stress
and brings us the rewards we seek. By the time you hit the workplace, you have
had vast experience with influence techniques. You have probably picked out a
few that you use most often. To be effective in a wide number of situations,
however, it’s best to expand your repertoire of skills and become competent in
several techniques, knowing how and when to use them as well as understanding
when they are being used on you. If you watch someone who is good at influencing
others, you will most probably observe that person switching tactics depending
on the context. The more tactics you have at your disposal, the more likely it is
that you will achieve your influence goals.

Al Gore and many others have spent years trying to influence us to think about
the changes in the environment and the implications of global warming. They
speak, write, network, and lobby to get others to pay attention. But Gore, for
example, does not stop there. He also works to persuade us with direct, action-
based suggestions such as asking everyone to switch the kind of light bulbs they
use, turn off appliances when not in use, drive vehicles with better fuel economy,
and even take shorter showers. Ironically, Gore has more influence now as a
private citizen regarding these issues than he was able to exert as a congressman,
senator, and vice president of the United States.

Researchers have identified distinct influence tactics and discovered that there
are few differences between the way bosses, subordinates, and peers use them,
which we will discuss at greater depth later on in this chapter. We will focus on
nine influence tactics. Responses to influence attempts include resistance,
compliance, or commitment.

Resistance occurs when the influence target does not wish to comply with the
request and either passively or actively repels the influence attempt. Compliance
occurs when the target does not necessarily want to obey, but they do.
Commitment occurs when the target not only agrees to the request but also
actively supports it as well. Within organizations, commitment helps to get things
done, because others can help to keep initiatives alive long after compliant changes
have been made or resistance has been overcome.
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Organisational Processes 1) Rational persuasion includes using facts, data, and logical arguments to
try to convince others that your point of view is the best alternative. This is
the most commonly applied influence tactic. One experiment illustrates
the power of reason. People were lined up at a copy machine and another
person, after joining the line asked, “May I go to the head of the line?”
Amazingly, 63% of the people in the line agreed to let the requester jump
ahead. When the line jumper makes a slight change in the request by asking,
“May I go to the head of the line because I have copies to make?” the
number of people who agreed jumped to over 90%. The word because was
the only difference. Effective rational persuasion includes the presentation
of factual information that is clear and specific, relevant, and timely. Across
studies summarized in a meta-analysis, rationality was related to positive
work outcomes (Higgins, C. A., Judge, T. A., & Ferris, G. R. (2003).
Influence tactics and work outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 24, 89–106).

2) Inspirational appeals seek to tap into our values, emotions, and beliefs to
gain support for a request or course of action. When President John F.
Kennedy said, “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you
can do for your country,” he appealed to the higher selves of an entire
nation. Effective inspirational appeals are authentic, personal, big-thinking,
and enthusiastic.

3) Consultation refers to the influence agent’s asking others for help in directly
influencing or planning to influence another person or group. Consultation
is most effective in organizations and cultures that value democratic decision
making.

4) Ingratiation refers to different forms of making others feel good about

themselves. Ingratiation includes any form of flattery done either before or
during the influence attempt. Research shows that ingratiation can affect
individuals. For example, in a study of resumes, those resumes that were
accompanied with a cover letter containing ingratiating information were
rated higher than resumes without this information. Other than the cover
letter accompanying them, the resumes were identical (Varma, A., Toh, S.
M., & Pichler, S. (2006). Ingratiation in job applications: Impact on selection
decisions. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21, 200–210). Effective
ingratiation is honest, infrequent, and well intended.

5) Personal appeal refers to helping another person because you like them
and they asked for your help. We enjoy saying yes to people we know and
like. A famous psychological experiment showed that in dorms, the most
well-liked people were those who lived by the stairwell—they were the
most often seen by others who entered and left the hallway. The repeated
contact brought a level of familiarity and comfort. Therefore, personal
appeals are most effective with people who know and like you.

6) Exchange refers to give-and-take in which someone does something for

you, and you do something for them in return. The rule of reciprocation
says that “we should try to repay, in kind, what another person has provided
us.”Cialdini, R. (2000). Influence: Science and practice. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon, p. 20. The application of the rule obliges us and makes us indebted
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 to the giver. One experiment illustrates how a small initial gift can open Organisational Power and
Politics
people to a substantially larger request at a later time. One group of subjects
was given a bottleof Coke. Later, all subjects were asked to buy raffle tickets.
On the average, people who had been given the drink bought twice as many
raffle tickets as those who had not been given the unsolicited drinks.

7) Coalition tactics refer to a group of individuals working together toward a

common goal to influence others. Common examples of coalitions within
organizations are unions that may threaten to strike if their demands are
not met. Coalitions also take advantage of peer pressure. The influencer
tries to build a case by bringing in the unseen as allies to convince someone
to think, feel, or do something. A well-known psychology experiment draws
upon this tactic. The experimenters stare at the top of a building in the
middle of a busy street. Within moments, people who were walking by in a
hurry stop and also look at the top of the building, trying to figure out what
the others are looking at. When the experimenters leave, the pattern
continues, often for hours. This tactic is also extremely popular among
advertisers and businesses that use client lists to promote their goods and
services. The fact that a client bought from the company is a silent
testimonial.

8) Pressure refers to exerting undue influence on someone to do what you

want or else something undesirable will occur. This often includes threats
and frequent interactions until the target agrees. Research shows that
managers with low referent power tend to use pressure tactics more
frequently than those with higher referent power.Yukl, G., Kim, H., & Falbe,
C. M. (1996). Antecedents of influence outcomes. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 81, 309–36. Pressure tactics are most effective when used in a
crisis situation and when they come from someone who has the other’s
best interests in mind, such as getting an employee to an employee assistance
program to deal with a substance abuse problem.

9) Legitimating tactics occur when the appeal is based on legitimate or

position power. “By the power vested in me…”: This tactic relies upon
compliance with rules, laws, and regulations. It is not intended to motivate
people but to align them behind a direction. Obedience to authority is filled
with both positive and negative images. Position, title, knowledge,
experience, and demeanor grant authority, and it is easy to see how it can
be abused. If someone hides behind people’s rightful authority to assert
themselves, it can seem heavy-handed and without choice. You must come
across as an authority figure by the way you act, speak, and look. Think
about the number of commercials with doctors, lawyers, and other
professionals who look and sound the part, even if they are actors. People
want to be convinced that the person is an authority worth heeding. Authority
is often used as a last resort. If it does not work, you will not have much
else to draw from in your goal to persuade someone

6.7 THE DYNAMICS OF POWER

Power is a part of the fabric of organisation. To appreciate the reality of
organisations it is necessary to know something about the nature and dynamics
of power in organisations.
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Organisational Processes Informal Power: In theory an employee is allotted sufficient power to enable
him to do his job, no more and no less. In practice people in organisations can
acquire power beyond what their formal role might suggest. Power without
authority is sometimes known as illegitimate or informal power. Informal power
arises because organisations cannot legislate for every contingency.

Organisational rules specify what employees can or cannot do in particular

circumstances. For example, financial regulations may stipulate which office
holders have authority to sign cheques or enter into contracts. Yet in every
organisation there is inevitably room to exercise discretion. Discretion means
that a person has the option of acting differently. Indeed without it the organisation
would run into difficulties.

Power relations are inherently dynamic and apt to change over time. For instance,
if rewards are administered regularly they may be regarded as coercion because
of the threat of withdrawal. Informal power is usually legitimated in time. Any
source or person who is regularly consulted becomes an authority.

Resistance in Organisations: The impetus to resistance in organisations stems

from the potential for tension between organisational and individual interest.
What is good for the organisation may be detrimental to its employees and vice
versa. One form of resistance is where employees try to escape managerial
domination by ‘distancing’ themselves physically or symbolically from those in
control, Another form of resistance involves demand for greater involvement in
participative decision-making and implementation in the organisation.

The dynamics of power can be studied from several angles, viz., distribution,
dependency, uncertainty, compliance, indicators, power determinants, power
consequences, and symbols and reputation.
Distribution
• There is no rational in the distribution of power among organisational
members. Some may yield more power than others. Often, the power wielded
by one member may be disproportionate to the organisational position he
holds.”
• Those in power try to grab more of it. They strongly resist any attempt to
weaken the power they wielded.
• An individual cannot have power at all places and at all times. He may be
forced to forgo his power or he may be stripped of it. He resists attempts to
weaken his power, in the event of failure he will try to form coalition. There
is strength in numbers.
Dependency
• As indicated earlier, power largely depends on dependency relationship.
The greater X depends on Y, the greater the power of Y on X.
• The greater the dependency of an organisation on a limited number of
individuals, the greater the power these individuals enjoy,
• A person who cannot be easily displaced enjoys more power than others
whose services can be easily replaced.

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Uncertainty Organisational Power and
Politics
• Organisations seek to avoid uncertainty as far as possible, People who can
absorb uncertainty wield more power,
• Uncertainty depends on the nature of the organisation. In a marketing firm,
for instance, sales executives confront uncertainty and naturally wield more
power.
Compliance
• Of all the types of power, People generally comply with legitimate power.
• People perceive reward and coercive powers as weak for complying with
manager’s requests.
Power Indicators
• It is difficult to tell when power is being used. Those who use power usually
do not want others to know about it. Indeed, power is most effective when
it is not visible.
• People tend to resist the use of power when they see themselves being
influenced in a way that is contrary to their own desires.
• Individuals who are using power frequently fail to recognise what they are
doing. They honestly feel that they are exerting rational influence that can
be justified for legitimate reasons other than their personal wishes. They
sincerely think their influence is rational rather than political.
Determinants of Power
• One method of assessing power focuses on the potential to exert influence
and consists of measuring how many determinants of power are available
to each member.
• These are five bases of personal power. One of the bases of power is expertise.
Individuals who possess better knowledge and expertise can exert higher
influence in situations where their knowledge is important.
Consequences of Power
• Since power is used to influence decision, those with the greatest power
should be the ones who obtain the most favourable outcomes.
• The relationship between power and consequences needs to be interpreted
carefully, It is also important to distinguish between the ability to influence
a situation and the ability to force at what would have occurred at any event.
Symbols
• The power of different individuals can be assessed by examining how many
symbols of power they possess.

• Symbols include such things as titles, office size and location, special parking
privileges, special eating facilities, automobiles, airplanes, and office
furnishings.

• The location of offices on different floors often reflect the relative power of
the office-holders.
69
Organisational Processes Reputation
• One way of assessing power in an organisation is to ask its members to
possess greater power or exert the greatest influence . However, potential
activities of the most powerful and influential individuals may be understated
or overlooked both by themselves and others.

• Another way of assessing power is to determine which individuals and groups

are the most heavily represented on committees and other significant
administrative position.

6.8 WHY ARE ORGANISATIONS POLITICAL?

In theory, politics have no place in organisations. Organisations are supposedly
rational entities engaged in the pursuit of particular goals. Also the decisions are
based upon the principle of optimum utility. However, in reality organisations
are typically composed of different sub-units/departments espousing different
cultures, different outlooks and priorities. Decisions are often surrounded by
considerable uncertainty.

The importance of the political aspects of power comes to the forefront in the
realistic view of organisations. Organisations, particularly large ones, are like
governments in that they are fundamentally political entities. To understand them,
one needs to understand organisational politics, just as to understand governments,
one needs to understand governmental politics (Pfeffer 1982).

6.9 POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE OF

ORGANISATIONS
If everyone in an organisation agree all the time, there will be no politics. In
other words, the potential for political activity arises wherever disagreement
exists. One factor which can prompt disagreement is diversity. Some units in an
organisation are more powerful than others and each may have different goals.
For example, software engineers may want to provide the organisation with a
highly sophisticated and technologically advanced IT system. On the other hand,
line managers may simply want a design which enables them to communicate
with one another.

Scarcity can prompt political activity if there are competing claims upon resources.
For example, the scope for conflict exists where department A requires twenty
additional items and department B the same number, but the budget is allocated
only for twenty.

A central feature of politics is the notion of interest. Interests are defined as

positions which people wish to protect or goals they seek to achieve (Miller
1962). If no one cares whether company A is awarded a contract for supplies in
preference to company B, then there is no disagreement about the matter and
potentiality, no politics. Even in such a matter like celebration of a festival, politics
plays its role in its choosing, fixing the date, time and place.

Interests may be classified into (a) task interests, (b) external interests, and (c)
career interests.
70
Task interests concern an individual’s work in the organisation. For instance, a Organisational Power and
Politics
hospital manager’s interest would be to discharge patients as quickly as possible.
On the contrary, a medical consultant’s interest would be to continue to allow
the patients to remain in hospital.

External interests include domestic pressures, obligations to professional

associations and trade unions, and relationships with subcontractors, suppliers
and customers. For instance, obligations to a trade union may compel an employer
to recruit people from a particular locality or language.

Career interests can prompt to resist change or to support decisions which are
against an organisation’s best interests. For instance, managers may appoint
mediocre candidates to subordinate positions in order to protect themselves from
challenge.

Activity 2: About thirty executives of your organisation daily travel to their

workplace by car. All are currently allocated car parking spaces. The
organisation is due to move to a new building where there are only fifteen
car parking spaces.
How would you allocate the fifteen spaces?
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6.10 POLITICS AS A MEANS OF RESOLVING

CONFLICTING INTEREST
Organisations can be seen as political cauldrons where argument, compromise
and negotiation occur constantly (Morgan 1996). Conflict requires resolution.
Politics can be seen as the means whereby conflict is resolved.

Politics, according to Aristotle, involves recognising the interplay of competing

interest. Politics is a non-coercive means of producing order out of diversity
(Crick 1976). In the words of Lasswell (1963), politics, not economics determines
who gets what, when and how in organisations. There is no political activity in a
dictatorship because disagreement is not permitted.

6.11 HOW TO PLAY POLITICS?

Power and politics are closely linked. The distinction lies in mobilisation. Control
of material assets is a fundamental source of power. In theory, organisational
funds and budgets are allocated objectively accordingly to each department’s
needs. In practice, managers can do better or worse according to their willingness
to play politics and their skill in doing so.

The most sought after resources are known as slack resources. Slack resources
are those which are not allocated to a specific purpose. Control over such resources 71
Organisational Processes implies an increase in power because they provide the manager with a margin of
discretion (Pfeffer 1982).

People in organisations may try to create dependency in order to increase their

power or protect their interest. There are basically three forms of dependence:
1) Resource dependence
2) Psychological dependence
3) The ability to manage uncertainty.
Resource dependence exists where an individual or department controls
something vital to the organisation. For instance, railway signals staff and air
traffic controllers are organisationally powerful because their knowledge is both
unique and essential. In order to work effectively, managers must delegate.
Delegation is a double-edged entity because it creates both freedom and
dependence.

Psychological dependence can be created by subordinates by making themselves

indispensible. A famous historical example is Martin Borman’s relationship with
Hitler. Anyone wishing to see Hitler was obliged to apply through Borman.

Uncertainty is closely linked to expert power. Organisations dislike uncertainty

because it makes planning difficult and implies risk and instability. Consequently
the ability to manage uncertainty is a political weapon. Organisational departments
which reduce uncertainty command particular power.

The organisation acquires greater power if knowledge is more central and difficult
to substitute. This explains why hospital consultants remain powerful despite
the creation of professional management functions.

6.12 INFLUENCING THE DECISION PROCESS AND

DESIGN
Organisations can be seen as decision making systems. The decision making
process in the epicentre of political activity. Hence people frequently try to
influence the decisions making process. In theory, decision makers gather all the
relevant data about a particular option and analyse it extensively. In practice, the
information which decision makers receive maybe highly processed and carefully
presented. As organisations grew larger, skills became increasingly fragmented
and specialised, and positions became more functionally differentiated. Strategies
were developed to steer a common path for the organisation by centralising power.
Knowledge is divided between that which is more valued (mental rather than
manual) and that which is less valued. Implicit in these distinctions is the notion
of contemporary organisation and design. Some jobs have been designated as
supervisory and managerial, while other posts exist simply to execute orders
from superiors. Hence power is structured into organisation design.

An approach to the way in which power is structured into organisation design

has been derived from the work on class structures (Clegg and Dunkerley). Marx
argued that class interests are structurally predetermined irrespective of other
bases of identity. They follow from the relations concerning the ownership and
control of the means of production.
72
Power has typically been seen as the ability to get others to do what you want Organisational Power and
Politics
them to, if necessary against their will (Weber). Weber acknowledged that power
was derived from owning and controlling the means of production but differed
with Marx’s categorisation of ownership and non-ownership of the means of
production. From Weber’s perspective, power also derived from the knowledge
of operations as much as from ownership.

6.13 HOW TO RECOGNISE POLITICAL TACTICS?

Making demands supported by threats is a crude and risky way of exercising
power. Force generally stirs resentment. Moreover, if the other party is powerful,
it may result in a conflict of interest. Demands are more likely to be met if they
appear legitimate. For example, it is easier to grant a salary claim which is based
upon the rate of inflation or comparison with similar such firms or professions.

Common Political Behaviours

1) Inducement
It occurs when a manager offers to give something to someone else in return
for that individual’s support. For example, a product manager might suggest
to another product manager that he will put in a good word with the boss if
he supports a new marketing plan that he has developed.

2) Persuasion
It relies on both emotion and logic. An operations manager wants to construct
a new plant on a certain site might persuade others to support his goal on
grounds that are objective and logical as well as subjective and personal.
For instance, when one board member attempted to remove him from his
position, he worked behind the scenes to persuade the majority of board
members to allow him to stay on.

3) Creation of an obligation
A third political behaviour involves the creation of an obligation. For
example, one manager might support a recommendation made by another
manager for a new advertising campaign. Although he might really have no
option on the new campaign, he might think that by going along, he is
incuring a debt from the other manager and will be able to “call in” that
debt when he wants to get something done and needs additional support.

4) Coercion
It is the use of force to get one’s way. For example, a manager may threaten
to withhold supports, rewards, or other resources as a way to influence
someone else.

Managing Politics
So, what are the possible steps team managers can take to manage organisational
politics and improve knowledge management in globally distributed teams? There
are three distinct approaches.

First, instead of aiming at reducing or eradicating organisational politics, managers

need to focus on activities that create a healthy political environment in order to
73
Organisational Processes improve knowledge flows and organizational performance. This means getting
employees to speak out and expose troublesome issues, vent their frustrations,
and engage with others in an open and transparent manner.

Furthermore, alongside cultural managers, companies should consider appointing

“alignment managers”, people with political competencies and connections who
can push ideas forward, steer organisational change initiatives and enrol wider
support without triggering resistance.

Second, managers need to be consistent in the way they support behaviour and
align interests, goals , and responsibilities among members of globally distributed
teams in order to increase their motivation to share and disseminate knowledge.

Finally, global teams need to renew and renegotiate norms and work habits on
an ongoing basis, and not only at the beginning of a project. Engaging in actions
to diffuse tensions and power struggles should be a continuous, not a one off,
activity.

Presently companies tend to devise elaborate training programmes and invest in

creating cultural and technical compatibility among dispersed teams at the
inception and during the early stages of an offshore or an outsource project.*

Consultants are often employed to lend support to policies and viewpoints of

certain powerful organisations. Consultants derive their authority by appearing
to be both expert and impartial. Consultants are also aware that their future work
depends upon support of the person who has invoked their services.

The agenda for meeting normally determines what gets discussed in the
organisation, when, where, and by whom. The agenda fixing tactics sometimes
become political in nature. For instance, the reluctance of some organisations to
recognise trade unions is a form of such agenda fixing. Defending interest requires
resources and skilful deployment of resources. Organisational rules sometimes
fall into abeyance and informal practices do spring up.

Another common ploy for preventing or atleast limiting discussion of an issue in

agenda is to ensure that it appears at the bottom of the list. A further variant of
the hidden agenda ploy is to introduce change gradually. For example, burdening
employees with new duties one at a time, or depriving slowly a person’s authority.
This tactic sometimes works because it seems insignificant to object to minor
changes. Eventually the changes become so institutionalised that they are difficult
to reverse.

Another manipulative tactic which is sometimes used to move ineffective

employees is to suggest that their services are no longer valued in the present
organisation, and that their talents are required elsewhere.

Organisations may be seen as systems of interdependent activity. Alliances known

as coalitions, be they internal or external, are founded upon the shared interests
of participants (Backarach and Lawler, 1980). Coalitions may be formal or
informal. The organisational management team is potentially the dominant
coalition. Managers can also seek to build coalitions through judicious use of

*Source: (http://www.universityofcalicut.info/SDE/I_MCom_Organizational_theory_and_
behaviour_on16March2016.pdf)
74
promotion opportunities to advance loyal supporters. Politics can prompt some Organisational Power and
Politics
strange alliances between managers, workers, and trade unions.

Cooperation involves drawing people into the decision process who might
otherwise stand outside it. The purpose of cooptation is to make others feel
powerful by involving them, or appearing to involve them, in decision processes.
Setting up committees is the most common form of cooptation. Committees are
sometimes supplied with detailed reports, charts, graphs, and other discussion
material to symbolise their importance, while the real decisions are actually made
elsewhere.

Symbols play an important role in politics because they are a subtle means of
exercising power. In organisations common symbols of power are office space,
office furnishings, executive car park, perks, and so on. Even language is
politically significant because it is a part of the symbol system. Sometimes
managers use sophisticated language to present their own performance in good
light.

Organisational survival is not just about manufacturing quality goods and services.
Survival is ultimately political, dependent upon an organisation’s standing in the
community. Organisations establish planning departments and strategic groups
to signify control and purposiveness. Even success and failure can be political.
Managers can find it convenient in preserving documents supportive of their
decisions and destroying those containing unfavourable decisions.

Activity 3
Based on your own experience, describe a situation in which political
behaviour seem to be excessive. Why did it occur?

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Specific Political Strategies for Power Acquisition

Once it is understood and accepted that contemporary organizations are in reality
largely political systems, some very specific strategies can be identified to help
organization members more effectively acquire power. For example, one research
study found that a supervisor- focused political strategy resulted in higher levels
of career success, whereas a job-focused political strategy resulted in lower levels
of success.

Taxonomy of political strategies included the following:

1) Information strategy— targets political decision makers by providing
information through lobbying or supplying position papers or technical
reports

2) Financial incentive strategy — targets political decision makers by

providing financial incentives such as honoraria for speaking or paid travel
75
Organisational Processes 3) Constituency building strategy —targets political decision makers
indirectly through constituent support such as grassroots mobilization of
employees, suppliers, customers, or public relations/press conferences. A
closer look at a sampling of other suggested strategies provides important
insights into power and politics in modern organizations

Maintain Alliances with Powerful People

As has already been pointed out, the formation of coalitions (alliances) is critical
to the acquisition of power in an organization. An obvious coalition would be
with members of other important departments or with members of upper-level
management. Not so obvious but equally important would be the formation of
an alliance with the boss’s secretary or staff assistant, that is, someone who is
close to the powerful person. An ethnographic study of a city bus company found
that a series of dyadic alliances went beyond the formal system and played an
important role in getting the work done both within and between departments.
For example, alliances between supervisors and certain drivers got the buses out
on the worst winter snow days and kept them running during summer vacation
periods when drivers were sparse.

Embrace or Demolish
Machiavellian principles can be applied as strategies in the power game in modern
organizations. One management writer has applied these principles to modern
corporate life. For example, for corporate takeovers, he draws on Machiavelli to
give the following advice:
The guiding principle is that senior managers in taken-over firms should either
be warmly welcomed and encouraged or sacked; because if they are sacked they
are powerless, whereas if they are simply downgraded they will remain united
and resentful and determined to get their own back.
Divide and Rule
This widely known political and military strategy can also apply to the acquisition
of power in a modern organization. The assumption, sometimes unwarranted, is
that those who are divided will not form coalitions themselves. For example, in
a business firm the head of finance may generate conflict between marketing
and operations in hopes of getting a bigger share of the limited budget from the
president of the company.
Manipulate Classified Information
The observational studies of managerial work have clearly demonstrated the
importance of obtaining and disseminating information.86 The politically astute
organization member carefully controls this information in order to gain power.
For example, the CIO (chief information officer) may reveal some new pricing
information to the design engineer before an important meeting. Now the CIO
has gained some power because the engineer owes the CIO a favor. In the
Information Age, the amount of information being generated is growing rapidly;
how it is managed can provide power. Specifically, knowledge managers such as
this CIO can become powerful in today’s firms.

Make a Quick Showing

This strategy involves looking good on some project or task right away in order
to get the right people’s attention. Once this positive attention is gained, power
76
is acquired to do other, usually more difficult and long-range, projects. For Organisational Power and
Politics
example, an important but often overlooked strategy of a manager trying to get
acceptance of a knowledge management program is to show some quick, objective
improvements in the quality of a product, service, or process.

Collect and Use IOUs

This strategy says that the power seeker should do other people favors but should
make it clear that they owe something in return and will be expected to pay up
when asked. The “Godfather” in the famous book and movie of that name and
Tony Soprano of the recent HBO TV series very effectively used this strategy to
gain power.

Avoid Decisive Engagement (Fabianism)

This is a strategy of going slow and easy—an evolutionary rather than a
revolutionary approach to change. By not “ruffling feathers,” the power seeker
can slowly but surely become entrenched and gain the cooperation and trust of
others.

Attacking and Blaming Others

A political tactic some people try is to make others “look bad” in order to make
themselves “look good.” Blaming and attacking deflects responsibility onto
others. It is unethical and unacceptable, but is also a common practice in many
organizations.

Progress One Step at a Time (Camel’s Head in the Tent)

This strategy involves taking one step at a time instead of trying to push a whole
major project or reorganization attempt. One small change can be a foothold that
the power seeker can use as a basis to get other, more major things accomplished.

Wait for a Crisis (Things Must Get Worse Before They Get Better)
This strategy uses the reverse of “no news is good news”; that is, bad news gets
attention. For example, many deans in large universities can get the attention of
central administration and the board of regents or trustees only when their college
is in trouble, for instance, if their accreditation is threatened. Only under these
crisis conditions can they get the necessary funding to move their college ahead.

Take Counsel with Caution

This suggested political strategy is concerned more with how to keep power
than with how to acquire it. Contrary to the traditional prescriptions concerning
participative management and empowerment of employees, this suggests that at
least some managers should avoid “opening up the gates” to their people in
terms of shared decision making. The idea here is that allowing subordinates to
participate and to have this expectation may erode the power of the manager.

Be Aware of Resource Dependence

The most powerful subunits and individuals are those that contribute valuable
resources. Controlling the resources other persons or departments need creates
considerable bargaining power. All of these political tactics are part of the games
and turf wars that take place in today’s organizations. On one level they are
inevitable and cannot be prevented. On another, however, they are
77
Organisational Processes counterproductive and dysfunctional. They can impede participation and
empowerment programs and cause people to waste time and resources.
Consequently, many managers believe they must take steps to stop the game
playing and turf wars through trust-building and goal-sharing programs.87 These
efforts are especially warranted in a situation in which an organization is
undergoing a crisis. Effective crisis management must, at some level, include
social-political and technological-structural interventions, mainly aimed at
disruptive dysfunctional political agendas of individuals, groups, and/or
departments in order to resolve the crisis.88 Some knowledgeable observers
have even suggested that managers would benefit from reading Shakespeare in
order to understand the intrigues and intricacies of political tactics used in today’s
organizations*.

Case Study
Joseph a plant level worker has been working in Zeal Zink Ltd, a large scale
industrial establishment in Maharashtra, India, almost twenty years. Being a
hardworking, competent, punctual and reliable employee he maintained good
relation with his superiors, co-workers and the leaders of the organization. Vice
versa, the management also had better impression on his performance as well as
commitment. Though, management had strong disappointment on his affiliation
with one of the trade unions in the organization. Management believed that trade
unions presence in organization always there to mislead and exploit the work
force and it affects the progress of the organization.

Considering his loyalty, commitment and performance, management decided to

promote him to the supervisory level. The promotion decision was beyond his
expectation. He found himself very happy and highly obliged to the management.
Only hard working, competent and skilled employees usually get promoted to
higher positions. The supervisory positions in the organization have better
compensation packages, power and authority in relation to the responsibilities.
Joseph highly inspired to work for the organization.

He acquired better acceptance and recognition in the supervisory position from

his superiors and coworkers within short span. He performed his duties in
accordance with the expectation of the management.

One day, as per the official communication, Joseph asked to meet one of the
senior level officials Mr. Kiran in his cabin. Kiran detailed new responsibilities
and tentative targets to Joseph, sharing management expectation on him. After
making some formal discussions, Kiran started informal discussion with Joseph
inquiring employee’s welfare, satisfaction level and many other topics. He
inquired about Josephs family members also. During the conversation Kiran
also inquired about Joseph’s trade union activities and his strong affiliation. He
informed Joseph that the top management is unhappy about his trade union
affiliation, as he performs a managerial role in the organization. Kiran demanded
a ‘gradual separation’ from the trade for better career. Kiran asked him to ‘think
about it’ and take a wise decision. Reserving his comment on Kiran’s demand,
Joseph returned to his work station.

*Source: https://bdpad.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/fred-luthans-organizational-behavior-_-
an-evidence-based-approach-twelfth-edition-mcgraw-hill_irwin-2010.pdf
78
Kiran’s demand to quit the trade union membership was really disappointing to Organisational Power and
Politics
Joseph. He thought, all along trade union was with him to protect his rights and
privileges. Employees always feel safe and secure in their job due to the existence
of trade union. Many questions roused in his mind.
• “Shall I quit or stay back in the trade union?
• “Is it fair to quit the trade union? They are the people supported me in many
contingent situations”.
• “Can I trust the management say? Do management follow their promises?”
• “Who am I, a Worker or a Manager?” There is wide disparity between
employees and employers.
• “Many employees have severe experience in the past, from management
who follow the path suggested. Is it safe to do so?
Many conflicting thoughts made him more confused to take appropriate decision
in this matter. Although he had better awareness on management punitive measure,
finally, he took a decision in favor of management, considering career prospects.
Slowly but steadily, he started getting aloof from many of the trade union meetings
and activities in the organization. The trade union had close observation about
their party men. They observed the changes in the behavior of Joseph. Trade
union leadership demanded clarification from him. Joseph continues to get aloof
from the trade union activities by explaining some personal grounds and engaging
into more work activities. Finally, he informed management his decision to quit
trade union membership. Management welcomed his decision and has extended
full support in his occupational career.

Ensuring a peaceful mind, as a managerial supervisor, Joseph started his newly

allocated role in the organization. His new task required more members and that
to be accomplished as a team. Supervisors form different department also took
part in the task performance. Though the members have to work as a team, they
had to follow the timely instructions of the senior managers. Members don’t
have that much of freedom and autonomy to take decision on production. Still
they tried their level best to follow senior’s instruction and engaged themselves
in achieving the target.

The annual production statistics published. The department where Joseph was
working reported low level performance. The inspectors pointed out problems
that related to testing and quality level. The top management as usual flayed
junior managers and supervisors who are in charge of the department, the blame
of low level performance. While the middle level managers, as usual, redirected
those allegations to the supervisors and members in the department, showing
their sheer negligence and lack of commitment. The supervisory members
especially Joseph, who has all along worked hard, upset with the allegation made
by the seniors. The supervisory members decided to meet top management to
inform them the real facts. They drafted a memorandum and handed over the
same to the top management officials, indicating the real situations, which resulted
poor outlay.

After two days top management asked Joseph to meet Kiran, the Senior Manager
in the organization for further discussion on the low performance issue. Kiran
informed the top management that they totally dissatisfied with the performance
79
Organisational Processes of the supervisory members. During the meeting, Kiran informed Joseph that, as
a step to curb the situation and maintain the quality of the production, top
management decided to transfer some of the supervisory members to the other
departments and some others to the sister concern.

The transfer list contains Joseph’s name also. Kiran informed Joseph that, his
knowledge and competency are not sufficient to handle new responsibilities as it
requires more training and attention that he would get it from other organization.
Kiran also informed Joseph that management decided to withdraw extra incentives
that extended to the supervisors since the nature of transfer has the nature of
training and development program.

Joseph shocked to hear management decision in this matter. He got depressed

about the management decision. Joseph felt that the management has shown
their vested interest, and partiality to protect middle level managers. They tried
to protect senior management members from top management. The management
decision to transfer him and his fellow supervisory members to different
departments and sister concerns is a measure to marginalize and victimize them.
Joseph could not find any justification on management decision. He felt that
instead of understanding the problem in an impartial way, management tried to
solve the issue by safeguarding their members. He confirmed that the attitude of
the management always as would be as ‘big bosses’ and it never going to change

Joseph became more aggressive in his stand. He has decided to continue his
membership in trade union. Trade union accepted him back. Joseph forwarded
the complaint to trade union indicating the issues for justice.

(Retrieved from (Prof.Deelip Kumar) https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/case-

study- people-management-organization-politics).
Questions
1) “Business World indulges in Organizational Politics by showing carrots of
Career Planning”. Comment.
2) Does this case reflect Joseph’s decision making ability?
3) How the ‘theory of equity’ and ‘theory of expectancy’ is related to this case
study?
4) How you evaluate the people management strategy of senior managers in
the organization?
5) Does the management’s attitude towards the trade union is well justified?

6.14 SUMMARY
The concept of power refers to the capacity to change the behaviour or attitudes
of others in a desired manner. In organisation, power derives from structure, i.e.,
the division of labour and communication system. Sources of power stem from
interpersonal and structural factors in an organisation. Interpersonal power sources
can be categorised as reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, expert
power, and referent power. Structural power differences stem from unequal access
to information, resources, decision making, and networks with others. Knowledge
is an important source of power in organisations. The dynamics of power can be
80 perceived from different dimensions. People in organisation can acquire power
informally because organisations cannot legislate for everything. Executives can Organisational Power and
Politics
use power and authority in many different, concrete and symbolic ways. However,
effective and really powerful executives tend to use power in a manner which
contributes to organisational development.

Politics play a crucial role in organisational behaviour. The essence of politics

lies in disagreement, diversity, scarcity, and interest. Politics provides a non-
coercive means of resolving conflicting interest, of producing order out of
diversity. Power and politics are closely linked. Organisational decision processes
can be the focus of intense political activity.

People use political tactics in organisations for (a) obtaining control of financial
resources, creating resource dependence, (b) influencing the decision process,
(c) unobstrusive measures, and (d) coalition building. Symbols play an important
role in politics because they are a subtle means of exercising power. Individual
and group interests also play a pivotal role in politics. Political competence may
be as important to executives as technical skills.

6.15 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Distinguish between power, authority and influence.
2) Argue for and against the statement: “The use of power in organisations is
unethical.”
3) Compare and contrast interpersonal and structural resources of power in
organisations. Define political behaviour. What are some of the factors that
can contribute to organisational politics?
4) What are the skills which an executive must possess in order to be politically
competent?

6.16 FURTHER READINGS

Drummond H., Introduction to Organizational Behavior, Oxford University Press
Inc., New York, 2002.
Gordon R.J., A Diagnostic Approach to Organizational Behavior, Allyn and
Bacon, Massachusetts, 1991.
References
https://2012books.lardbucket.org/.../an-introduction-to-organizational-behavior-
v1.1.pd
http://mu.ac.in/portal/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Management-PAPER-II-
Organizational-Behavior-final-book.pdf
ht tp:/ /www.fu. un i-lj .s i/ fi lead mi n/ us r-fi les/ Medn arod na_p is arna/
ORGANIZATIONAL- -2013.pdf
http://www.universityofcalicut.info/SDE/I_MCom_Organizational_theory_and_
behaviour_on16March2016
Kreitner, R., Kinicki, A. Orgniztional Behavior, Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Companies,1998.
Pfeffer, T., Power in Organizations, Pitman, Boston, 1982.
81