The Human Body's Energy

Metabolism
Energy metabolism is essential to sustaining life. Let's explore the various
pathways that enable our body to produce ATP, the energy currency of the cells.

HOLIFA SAHEERA BINTI ASMARA, PhD

https://byjus.com/biology/differences-between-catabolism-and-anabolism/
 Difference Between Catabolism and Anabolism
Catabolism Anabolism
Catabolism breaks down big complex molecules Anabolism builds molecules required for the body’s
into smaller, easier to absorb molecules. functionality.
The process of catabolism releases energy. Anabolic processes require energy.
Hormones involved in the processes are adrenaline, Hormones involved in the process are estrogen,
cytokine, glucagon, and cortisol. testosterone, growth hormones and insulin.
Examples of catabolic processes are proteins
Examples include the formation of polypeptides
becoming amino acids, glycogen breaking down
from amino acids, glucose forming glycogen and
into glucose and triglycerides breaking up into fatty
fatty acids forming triglycerides.
acids.
In catabolism, potential energy is changed into In anabolism, kinetic energy is converted into
kinetic energy. potential energy.
It is required to perform different activities in living
It is required for maintenance, growth, and storage.
entities.
https://byjus.com/biology/differences-between-catabolism-and-anabolism/
Biological Energy
Oxidation
 Oxidized
Reduced

Reaction Catalyzed by Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

Dehydrogenase (G3PD)
Oxidation of NADH
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ATP is composed of adenosine, a nitrogen-containing base, and three phosphate groups. High-energy
covalent bonds that hold the phosphate groups together. Breaking those bonds in ATP causes it to hydrolyze,
which releases energy that the cell can use for various purposes.
ATP Structure in Detail

• Electron transfer generates a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis.

• 32–34 ATP molecules are produced from a single glucose molecule in eukaryotes
ATP Generation

The enzyme ATP synthase uses energy from the proton gradient to make ATP. It operates like a motor, using
the energy from the gradient to rotate a shaft that binds ADP and a phosphate group.
Oxidative Phosphorylation

Mitchell’s Chemiosmotic Process

1. Intact inner mitochondrial membrane

2. Movement of electrons “pumps” protons
3. Proton gradient drives formation of ATP

Oxidative phosphorylation requirement

1. Proton Gradient
2. ADP
Oxidative
Phosphorylation

Electron
Transport
ATP Synthase (Complex V)
Oligomycin - ATP Synthase Inhibitor
Glycolysis and Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Overview

Glycolysis Pentose Phosphate Pathway

The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. Happens A parallel pathway to glycolysis. Produces NADPH
in the cytoplasm of the cell. Yields 2 ATP molecules and ribose-5-phosphate, essential for making DNA
and RNA
The HMP Shunt: An Alternate Pathway to
Energy Production
1 Overview

The HMP pathway operates simultaneously with glycolysis to generate ATP, metabolites,
and NADPH.

2 Function of the HMP Shunt (PPP)

This pathway is critical for cellular antioxidant defence, biosynthesis, and redox homeostasis.

3 Conditions that Stimulate the HMP Shunt

High-energy demands, oxidative stress, fast growth, and tissue repair stimulate HMP
pathway activity
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
The Pentose Phosphate
Pathway is a metabolic
pathway that operates
alongside glycolysis. It
produces important
molecules such as NADPH,
which is critical for cellular
processes like reductive
biosynthesis and antioxidant
defence.
important building block for
making nucleotides, which are
used to make DNA and RNA
Electron Transport Chain: The Final Step in
Cellular Respiration
Overview Location of the ETC

The ETC is a process that extracts energy from Eukaryotes: mitochondria

NADH and FADH2 and uses it to produce ATP. Prokaryotes: plasma membrane

Components of the ETC Process of ETC

The ETC contains 4 protein complexes: ATP is made when electrons are moved from
ubiquinone, cytochrome c, oxygen and ATPase. NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. This moves
protons across the inner mitochondrial
membrane and creates a gradient.
Component & process of ETC
The ETC contains four protein complexes: ubiquinone, cytochrome c, and oxygen.
Process in ETC

ATP is made when electrons are

moved from NADH and FADH2 to
oxygen. This moves protons
across the inner mitochondrial
membrane and creates a
gradient.
Electrical and Chemical Potential

The Nernst Equation

Overall,
ΔG = -nFΔE
FMN: flavin mononucleotide that is riboflavin (vitamin B2)
Q molecule: ubiquinone / coenzyme Q
Cyt C: cytochrome C
 Ubiquinone (Q)

2e- + 2H+

Electron Movement

Reaction

SD: succinate dehydrogenase (succinate: ubiquinone oxidoreductase)

Ubiquinone: Coenzyme Q Ubiquinol (QH2)
Cytochrome C
• Small, mobile peripheral protein
• Inner mitochondrial membrane
• Shuttles electrons between complexes III and IV
• Very conserved across all living systems
 Note
Note

Note
 Electron Transport Inhibitors

Complex I Complex I Complex III

 Inhibit Inhibit Inhibit

Cyanide
Rotenone
Antimycin A Carbon Monoxide
Amytal
Azide
Regulation of Energy Metabolism
1 Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways

Metabolic pathways work together either to store energy or break it down. Insulin
promotes anabolism, and glucagon promotes catabolism.

2 Feedback Mechanisms
ATP itself is a potent inhibitor of the enzymes involved in glycolysis. High
concentrations of ATP in the cell signal the pathways.

3 Hormonal Control
Hormones like adrenaline and cortisol regulate the HMP shunt and the ETC pathways.

4 Inhibitors
 action of insulin for anabolism action of glucagon for catabolism

Insulin plays a crucial role in promoting anabolism in the

body. When insulin is present, it activates signaling
pathways that lead to the synthesis of complex molecules,
such as proteins and glycogen, as well as the storage of
energy. Insulin also facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells,
allowing for its utilization in anabolic processes.
 Respiratory Control
1. Tightly coupled vs. Uncoupled
2. Requires intact mitochondrial inner membrane
3. ETC & oxidative phosphorylation are interdependent
4. Stopping either will stop the other
 Respiratory Control

The “Magic” Diet Drug That Kills

2,4 Dinitrophenol (2,4 DNP)

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