14.

^EMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
What is an electronic device?
An electronicdevice is one in which the motion of eléctrons is controlled

Explatin the formationof energy bands in solids.

Energy levels are separate single lines in an isolated When:anumber 9fatoms arc
broaden
brought together to form a solid the energy levels of individual atomsoverlap to
into bands. Hence each band consists of a large numbef of enetgy tevèls)
Rhat is energy band?
The group of very closely spaced energy leyels.is called energy band.
Hayareenergy bendsformekin,a solid?,. :
Due to the interaçtion of closely lying atoms: where discreteenergykevel:of cach atom
splits into a continuum of energy.

What is a valence band? Explain.

The bighestenergyr band-which is completeky et partially fitked at absetute zere (OK) is
called the valence band.
Electrons in this band are called valence electrons. They are loosely bound to the nucleus.
They are easily detachable fröfn the nueleus:
\What is a conduction band? Explain.
Thebansl lying nextte the valence band which may bé,partially filled.at zoom temperature
þut çonpletely empy as-0K is çalld conduction band.
Electrons in this band contribute to the, conduction process. Hence the conductiyity of a
solid depends on the availability of electrons in the conduçtiÍn band. Electrons in this
band are called conduction eectrons.
Define energy bendgapin solids.
OR
What is aforbidden energy band? Explain.
|The separation between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band is
 because electrons cann,
called energy band gap or forbidden band. This is so called
possess these energy levels in the given solid.
Which energy band determines the electrical condoctiviy of the material?
Conduction band.

How are solids classified on the basis of their conductiiaZ

solids are
"On the basis of relative values of electrical resistivity (o) or conductivity (o),
broadly classified a<
. Metals:Thèse are solids which bave very low resistivity or high conductiviy.
Resistivity ranging from. 10Qm to 10Qm
Conductivity ranging from 10Sml to 10°Sml
Example :AluiminiuYm, eöpper, silver etc
condUctivity
Semiconductors:(These are solids which háve electrical resistivity or
intermediate to metak andinsuiatôray
Resistivity ranging from 10 mto 10°Sm
Condictivity rangng fiontreSo10s awenide
Guim
Example:Germanium, Silicon, GaAs ete., GaAs
3: nsuators: These afe solids which have. high electrical resistivity or low conductivity.
Resistivity ranging from 10m to10m
Conductivity ranging from 10-11Sm to 10-19Sm-!
Example:Rubber, Plastic, Glass etc.
Classify conductors, semiconductors and insuators on the basis of energy bands

Based on the energy band gap, solids are broadly classified as:
1. Conductors (metals):(Conductors are solids in which the valence band and the
conduction band overlap (E, -0).)
In good conductors, there is no
Conduction band
physical separation between the E =0
valence and conduction bands Valence tband
 toe energy gap is zero.(Hence Jarge number of clectrons are available in the
o0 s conductivity)
Conduction band even at low temperature. These materials posses high
between the valence and
Z. Insulators:(Insulators are solids in which the energy gap
conduction bands very large Conduction band
E,>3eV).)
In insulatofs, the conduction band is E>3eV
completely empty. The electrons in the
valence band require a lot of energy to Valence band

jump to the conduction band. Hence

insulators do not conduct.
ample: Diamond (E, e
3. seicöhäiairsi(s(Semiconductors are solids in which the eietgy gap bétween the
valence and conduction bands is very small (E, <3eV).)
moderately separated. At
In semiconductors, valence band and conduction bands are
OK the valence band is completely filled and conduction barnd is completely enpty,
henee semitconductoris vialy-behaves Conducion band
as an insulator.(At room temperature a E, <3eV
fey electrons are, available in. the Valenc bánd
conduc bánd hence conduction takes
place. fi

)What is the order of the energy gap in a () conductor (i) semiconductor. and
insulator?
(i) For conductor, E =0
( For senmiconductor, Eg <3eV
(ii} For insuBator, E, a3eV (in thé range of 5 eV-10 eV).
hat is asemiconductor? Giye an eanple.
Semiconductor is a solid in which valence band and conduction bands are moderately
separated.
Example: Germanium,,Sliçon, Slenium etc.
Wh¡t is the value of energy gap for germanium and silicon?
Energy gap, E, =0.72eV for germanium and E,= 1.leV for silicon.
14. When temperature of a semiconductor is increased, what happens to us conductivi

Increases.

Name the types of semiconductors.

There are two types of semiconductors
1. Intrinsic semiconductors and
2. Extrinsic semiconductors.
VWhat is an intrinsic semiconductor? Give an example.
:Intrinsjc or a pure, semiconductor is one in which the number of electrons and holes are
equal.
i,e., ne =h
Example; Germanium, Silicon esc.
. Wh¡t kind of bondegists between atoms in germanium?:
Covalent bon. -
Name the type of seimiconductor in which conductivity is only due to breaking of
covalent bonds?
Intrinsic semiconductor.
Wh¡t is the yalue of conductivity of a semiconductor at 0K?
Zero.
.Intrinsic semiconductor is virtually behaves as an insulator.
Explain why? 2 marks)
The pure semiconductor germanium (Ge) is a tetavalent. The four
valence electrons of Ge atom forms four pairs of covalent bonds with
their neighbours (Fig). As a result, no free electrons are availabl for
electrical conductivity. Hence the pure semiconductor behave's as an
insulator at very low temperature or 0 K.
Mention any two ways ofincreasing the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor.

Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be increased by

1. Increasing temperature and
2. Doping trivalent or pentavalent impurities.
 What is a hole in a
semiconductor?
The vacancy for an electron in the valence band is called a hole ina semiconductor.
Does a hole carry any charge?
A hole carries a positive charge and moves in the direction opposite to that of an electron.
Explain how a hole in a semiconductor formed?
(2 marks) +Free electron

At room temperature, a few bonds gets broken due ’Hole

to thermal agitations. When an electron comes out
of a bonda vacancy is created (Fig). This is called a
hole.
Note:

In intinsic smiconductor, the electrons and holes are always created in pairs. Therefore the number of
electrons (n)is equal to the number of holes (n,)
i.,
where n; - intrinsic carrier contentration.
When an electric field i_ applied, çlecttons move towards positive potential while the holes move towards
negative potentia<. f I, is the current due to the movement of electrons and I, is the current due to the
movement of boles, then the net cureat I=I,+l,
!Draw the energy band diagram of intrinic
semiconducto:. * t
Conduction band

Valence band
At T =OK At T>0K
.
What is the ratio of number of holes to electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor:
One.

What is etrinsic senmiconductor? Give an cample.

Extrinsic or an imnpure semiconductor is one in which the number of electrons and holes
are not equal.

Example: n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor.

 (6
What is meant by doping?
Ine process of adding impurity atoms to a pure semiconductor is called doping.
. What is a
dopant?
The impurity added during the process of doping is called dopant.
On whatfactors does the conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor depend?
:Conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor depcnds on
1. Densities of charge carriers and
2. Mobility of charge carriers.
Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

1. It is a pure
semiconductór crystal. 1. It is'a semiconductor doped with
2. Number of electrons and holes are 2. impurities.
Number of electrons and boles are
equal. unequal.
3. Conductivity depends on temperature. 3. Conductivity depends on temperature
aid also impurities.
.4. Cond°ctivity is ue to both
and holes. electrons 4. Condactiit÷ is mainly ue to majority
charge carriers. Any Three)

Mention the types of extrinsic semiconductors.

:Extrinsic or doped semiconductors äre lassified into two types
1.p-type semiconductor and
2. n-type semiconduct¡r.
. What is a p-type semiconductor?
:A p-type semiconductor is one in which the
number of holes is more than the number of
electrons.
i.e.,
:Explain how ap-type semiconductor obtained froman
intrinsic semiconductor.
A p-type semiconductor is obtained when a
trivalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor.
When a trivalent atom like boran (B) is added to a pure
semiconductor (Ge). Since,
 electrons. These three
trivalent atoms contain three valence
covalent bonds with
valence electrons forms three pairs of +Hole
As a
its neighbours (Ge) and one bond is left incomplete.
each trivalent (B) atom
result a hole is formed. Thus,
an electroD from Ge.
added forms a hole and accepts
Hence the impurity is called an acceptor.
semiconductor.
Draw the energy band diagram of p-type
(2 marks)
T>0K, one thermally generated electron-hole pair +5 holes
: In enery band diagram, at
from acceptor atoms.
Conduction band

Eg

Valence band

when doped with a

How does the energy gap of an intrinsic semiconductor vary,
trivalent impurity?
çnergy
he RerS% 29P Afhe semicoaduetor deerea_es due, to the, creation of aÇçeptor
level just above the top of the valence band. .1

Hhich typeofimpurity must be added to make an intrinsic semiconductor into, Gppe

semiconductor?

Trivalent impurity.
What are the majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductor?
Holes.
What are the minority chargecarriers in p-type semiconductor?
Electrons.
What is a n-type semiconductor?
A n-type semiconductor is one in which the number of electrons is more than the number
of boles.
i.e., De Dh
Explain how a n-typé semiconductor obtained from an intrinsic semiconductor.
 A-type semiconductor is obtained when a
pentavalent impurity added pure
Semiconductor.
Whea a pentavalent atom like arsenic (As) is added to
a pure semiconductor (Ge). Since, pentavalent atoms
contain five valence electrons. Four of these five
valence electrons forms only four pairs of covalent
bonds with its neighbours (Ge) and fifh valence
clectron becomes a free electron. Thus, each pentavalent (As) atom added donates oe
free electron. Hence the impurity is called a donor.
Draw the energy band diagram ofn-type semiconductor.
In energy band diagram, At T>0K one thermally generated electron - bole
pair 6
electrons from donor atoms.
Conduction band

Valence band
Whick inpurity atom is added togérimantain tß make ittype semíconductor ?
Pentavalent impurity.
Wn are the najorty charge caries tn peaiicondicU*
Electrons.
What are the minority charge carriers in ntype semiconductor?
Holes.
Is n-type semiconductor negatively charged?
No.

Which charge carrier has higher mobility-electron or hole?

Eectron.
Distinguish between p-ype and n-type semiconduciors.

P-ype semiconductor -4ype semiconductor

1. It is a semiconductor oped with 1. It is a semicondüctor doped with
trivalent impurities. pentavalent impurities.
 29RS art the hajoity charge cafiers. 2. Electrons are the majority charge
carriers.
3. Eiecrons afe the minority charge 3. Holes are
carriers. the minority charge carmers.
4. The impurity atom is called acceptor 4. The
impurity atom is called donar
impurity. impurity.
5. Conductivity is relatively les. 5. Conduct1vity is more.
6. The energy level of the impurity atom
willbe close to the valence band. 6. The encrgy level of the impurity atom
willbe close to the conduction band.

Note:
(Aty Three)
1. Acceptor impurities (trivalents) are B. A. Ii, Ga cle.
2, Donot ihipirities
3.
Either ap-type (pentávalents)eP, As, Bi, Sb etc.,?
or a n-type
eggg

What is ap-n junction?

OR

Whatisgsemiconductor diode?
Aneion fomed, beweçp XRE 94 R-ype semiconduçtor such th¡t the crystal
structure remains continuous at the boundary is called a p-n junction.
Splan the onsuchon nd acthoOFaDnincioi.esta g s g;3
OR
Egplain hen a depltion zegion isformed in ajunction diode.
Construction: In a single piece of pure semiconductor, one half is doped with p-type
inpurity and the othe, halfis doped with atype impurity. The plane. separating the
regions is known as p-n junction.
Poential barrier
Action: P-region contains more boles and
n-region contains more electrons. When
|+ + + +
they are joined to make a p-n junction
(Fig), due to the concentration difference,
holes diffus fron p-region to -régioi +
+

and elettrons diffuse froá 'n-región to

++
p-region. Hence positive charge is built up
on n-side of the junction and negative
depletion region
 junction. Th:
calge bult up on pside of the junction. Thus p.d is developed at the
called the junction p.d or contact p.d. This p.d stops further diffusion of electrons an
holes. It acts as a barrier called junction barrier or potential barrier. Thus depletion region
is formed around the junction.
What is junction p.d or barrier potential?
The p.d. developed across the junction due to the diffusion of charge carriers is called a
junctiyn p.d.
What is ajunction depletion region?
A small region around the p-n junction which has no mobile charge carriers is caled a
depletion region.
Which process causes depletion region in a-n junction?
The diffusion of electrons and holes across the p-n junction causes the depletion region.
What is the order of the thickness of the depletion region?
The thickness of the depletion region is of theorder of th
10
of a micromefer:
Give the symbolic representation of semiconductor diode.
+

A semiconductor diode is synbolically represented as -

In symbol, anöw indiates the difeciüon offie oDventionäl cutent (i.e,hôle ouitent).

When is p-n junction said to be unbiased?

When there isno extertal voltae apipiÇd across the jurnction, the p-n junction is sáid to be
unbiased.

How many ways can the p-n junction be biased? Name them.
A p-n junction can be biased in two ways
1. Forward bias and
2. Reverse bias.
When is p-n junction said to beforward biased?
When p-region of a p-n junction is connected to the positive terminal and -region is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery, the p-n junction is said to be forward
biased.
arnàThis
When is p-n junction said to be reverse biased?
When p-region of a p-n junction is connçcted to the negaive terminal and n-region is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery, the p-n junction is said to be reverse
biased.

Explain the working of p-njunction when it is (a) Forvard bias and (b) Reverse bias.
Forward bias:When the external p.d is applied, holes in the p-region are repelled by the
positive terminal of the batter) atd électrons in the n-region are repelled by the negative
termînal.Thus, the wtdth of the epletion regiond is decreases. If ápplied p.d is greater than
the juhction p.d, the öfes ánd tbe etelectrons aré acquires
energy and cross the junction' e¥sily rÑm eithet side. ue to
this a large current will flovws. Thus, a pi júnction under
forward bias offers a shall resistance.
Reverse bias: (When the external p.d is applied,
holes in the
p-region are attracted by the negative terminal of the battery Ba
and electrons în the n-region are attracted by the
positive
terminal. Thus, the width of depletion region is increases and
the low of-majority charge carriers across the
junction
becomes more and more difficult. Hence no current flows
n

dcros[s? the jühctioh: Höwever uà tothe mitörity chaige

carriers a smaH current will flows and is known as reverse
current or leakage current. Thus, a p-n junction under reverse Ba
bias offers extremelý high resistance.
What happens-to the width of depletion layer of a p-n junction when it is ()
biased, () reverse biased? forward
(i) Decreases
(ii) Increases
What happens to the resistance of a junction diode in reverse bias,
as the applied
voltageis increased?
The resistance increases to a very high value tillbreakdown occurs.
What is an ideal diod?
An ideal diode is one which acts as a perfect conductor in forward bias
and perfect
insulator in reverse bias.
What is I-V characteristics of p-njunction diode?
Agraph showing the variation of current through a p-n junction with the applied voltage is
called I-V characteristics of p-n junction.
Draw the I-V characteristics of p-n junction diode and hence discuss the resistance of
the junction in both forward bias and reverse bias conditions.
In forward bias, the voltage V; across the diode is increased in small steps and the
corresponding current I, is measured. The graph of Veagainst I, is drawn. It is observed
that initially the curment increases slowly. But beyond certain voltage called threshold
voltage or cut-in voltage the current rises sharply and graph becomes almost linear. The
forward bias resistance of the diode is low.

(mA)

mA

Ba K
VE V; (volts)
In the linear part of the curve for forward bias, the dynamic forward resistance is
AV
calculated as Rf =
AI
V, (volts)
Vb
Microammeter
(uA) |(A)
Ba K

In reverse bias, the voltage V, across the diode is increased and the corresponding current
I, is measured. The graph of V, against I, is drawn. It is observed that the rever'se bias
current is very small and it remains almost constant with increase in voltage. It is called
reverse saturation current. Beyond a.certain voltage called breakdown voltage, the current
suddenly increases. The reverse bias resistance of the diode is very large.
 3)
How does the current vary with the yoltage in a junction diode in forward biast

The current through the junction increases with the increase in forward bias voltage.
How is forward biasing different from reverse biasing in ap-n junction diode:

Forward bias Reverse bias

1. Positive teminal of battery is 1. Positive terminal of battery is
connected to p-type and negative connected to n-type and negative
terminal is connected to n-type terminal is connected p-tyße
semiconductor. semiconductog.
2. Depletion layer is very thin, 2. Depletion layer is thick.
3: p-n jünction offers very low resistaDnce 3. pn junction offers veryhigh
). resistance
4. An ideal diode have zero resistance 4. An ideal diode have infinite resistance.
(Any Three)
Which one of the two diodes D, and D, in the givenfigure.
-2V
DE. Dz

() forwardbiased? ) reveise biased?

) Diode D, is in forward biased because p-type is at higher potential (0 V) as compared
to n-type
(iü) Diode D, is in reverse biased because p-type is at lower potential (-2V) as compared
to n-type.
Define the terms: (1) cut in voltage, (2) Breakdown voltage and (3) reverse saturation
Current
1. Cut-involtage: The width of depletion region reduçes to zero at a particular applied
forward voltage and is known as cut in voltage or threshold voltage.
For Ge diode about 0.2V and for Si diode about 0.7V.
2. Breakdown voltage: When reverse voltage is increased a point is reached where the
junction breaks down and the reverse current rises sharply. This critical voltage is
çalled breakdown voltage.
 3. Reverse saturation current- When the diode is in reverse biased, the Teverse bia
voltage produces a small current (10A) which is almost remains constant with bia:
voltage. This smallcurrent is called reverse saturation current.
Under what condition does a p-n junction works as () a closed switch and (i) an open
Switch?
(1) A p-n junction work as a closed switch under forward bias condition
(0) Ap-n junction work as aopen switch under reverse bias condition.
. WMhich is responsible for leakage current in reverse bias ofp-n junction?
:Minority charge carriers.
Name the application of p-njunction.
A p-n junction diode is used in the construction of rectifier.

Name thedevice which converts a. cvoltage into d.cvoltage.

Rectifier.
What isa rectifier?
Rectifier is an electronic device which converts AC into DC.
What is rectification?
The process of onversion of A C into DCis called rectification.
Which property of p-njunction used in rectification?
Unidirectional conducting property of p-n junçtion is used in rectification.
Mention the types of rectifiers.
Rectifiers are of two types
1. Half wave rectifier and
2. Full wave rectifier.
What is a half wave rectifier?
Adevice which converts only half cycles of AC into DCis known as half wave rectifier.
Describewith a circuit diagram, the working of a semiconductor diode as a half wave
rectifier. Draw input and output waveforms.
The circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier is as shown in figure. An AC voltage to be
rectified is applied to the primary P of the transfomer. A diode D and load resistor R, is
connected in series tothe free ends Aand B of the secondary Sof the transformer.
viths ersebi
ia'
((5)
During the positive half cycle of AC innut A is hositive with respect to B. The diode s
forward biased and it conducts. The output appears across KL

Vin

Vin P Vout

Vout D

During the negative half cycle of AC input A is negative with respect to B. The diodeD is
reyerse biased andit does not conducts. Hence no output voltage appears across R_.
The diode conducts only positive half cycles of AC and hence it act_ as a half wave
egtifier.
What is afull wave rectifier?
Adeyice: which converts both the half cycles of AC into DC is known as full wave
rectifier.
a.cirçuil diagram, the working of asemiconductor diode as afull wave
reçtifier. Draw input and output waveforms.

The circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier is as shown in figure. An AC voltage to be

rectified is applied to the primary Pof the transformer. The p-regions of the diodes D, and
.

DË Vin

(00000001 R.
Vin
Vou
Vont
B
D2 t

D, are connected to the free ends of Å and B of the seondary S of the transformer. The
n-regions of the diodes are connecled to the centre tap of the transformer through a load
resistance R.
Dunng thepositive half cycle of AC inmut, A is positivewith respect to B.The diode D, is
forward biased and D, is reverse biased. As a result D, conducts while D, does n
Hence a current flows through R..
During the negative half cycle of AC input Ais negative with respect to B. The diode D
does not.
IS reverse biascd and D, is forward biased. As a result D, conducts while D,
Hence a current flows through Ri.
Thus, during both the half cycles of AC input, current flows through RL in the same
direction, hence output voltage is a unidircclional.
Is the output of afull wave rectifier steady de?
No, the output of a fullwavc rcctificr is pulsating dc.
What is afilter circuit? ()
Afiltlet circuit is adevice which removes the a.c. component of rectifier output but allows
the d.c. cormponent tô reach the load.
How can the output of a rectifier be made a smooth dc? (
The output obtained from ajunction diode rectifier is unidirectional but pulsating
character (i.c., it contains ac and e components) we can obtain de voltage by fitering out
the ac components by using filter circuit.
Describe simple fihier ctreuit for sioothentng the rectifed voltage obtained from
junction diode rectifier. ()
Ashunt capacitór filter circuit is as Shown n figure.
-dc component

aç dc
C RL
input output

The capacitor has a reactance of Xc 2rvC

Ahigh capacitance C offers a low impedance path to high frequency ac component and
impedance to low frequency dc component. Hence the ac component is bypassed (or
filters) through C. Hence a _mooth de voltage appears at the load resistance.