Mixed signals and

sensors
Engr. Mark Angelo Santos
What is a signal?

 A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that carries data from one

system or network to another. In electronics, a signal is often a time-varying
voltage that is also an electromagnetic wave carrying information, though it
can take on other forms, such as current. There are two main types of signals
used in electronics: analog and digital signals. This lesson discusses the
corresponding characteristics, uses, advantages and disadvantages, and
typical applications of analog vs. digital signals.
Analog Signals

 Analog Signal An analog signal is time-varying and generally bound to a range

(e.g. +12V to -12V), but there is an infinite number of values within that
continuous range. An analog signal uses a given property of the medium to
convey the signal’s information, such as electricity moving through a wire. In
an electrical signal, the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be
varied to represent the information. Analog signals are often calculated
responses to changes in light, sound, temperature, position, pressure, or
other physical phenomena.
Digital Signal

 A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete

values. A digital signal can only take on one value from a finite set of possible
values at a given time. With digital signals, the physical quantity representing
the information can be many things:
 Variable electric current or voltage
 Phase or polarization of an electromagnetic field
 Acoustic pressure
 The magnetization of a magnetic storage media
Digital Signal

 Digital signals are used in all digital electronics, including computing

equipment and data transmission devices. When plotted on a voltage vs. time
graph, digital signals are one of two values, and are usually between 0V and
VCC (usually 1.8V, 3.3V, or 5V) (see Figure 2).
Analog Circuits
 Most of the fundamental electronic components — resistors, capacitors,
inductors, diodes, transistors, and operational amplifiers (op amps) — are all
inherently analog components. Circuits built with a combination of these
components are analog circuits (see Figure 3).
 Analog circuits can be complex designs with multiple components, or they can
be simple, such as two resistors that form a voltage divider. In general, analog
circuits are more difficult to design than digital circuits that accomplish the
same task. It would take a designer who is familiar with analog circuits to
design an analog radio receiver, or an analog battery charger, since digital
components have been adopted to simplify those designs.
 Analog circuits are usually more susceptible to noise, with “noise” being any
small, undesired variations in voltage. Small changes in the voltage level of
an analog signal can produce significant errors when being processed.
 Analog signals are commonly used in communication systems that convey voice,
data, image, signal, or video information using a continuous signal. There are
two basic kinds of analog transmission, which are both based on how they adapt
data to combine an input signal with a carrier signal. The two techniques are
amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. Amplitude modulation (AM)
adjusts the amplitude of the carrier signal. Frequency modulation (FM) adjusts
the frequency of the carrier signal. Analog transmission may be achieved via
many methods:
 Through a twisted pair or coaxial cable
 Through an optical fiber cable
 Through radio
 Through water
Digital Electronics
 Digital circuits implement components such as logic gates or more complex
digital ICs. Such ICs are represented by rectangles with pins extending from
them (see Figure 4).
 Digital circuits commonly use a binary scheme. Although data values are
represented by just two states (0s and 1s), larger values can be represented
by groups of binary bits. For example, in a 1-bit system, a 0 represents a data
value of 0, and a 1 represents a data value of 1. However, in a 2-bit system, a
00 represents a 0, a 01 represents a 1, a 10 represents a 2, and a 11
represents a 3. In a 16-bit system, the largest number that can be
represented is 216, or 65,536. These groups of bits can be captured either as a
sequence of successive bits or a parallel bus. This allows large streams of data
to be processed easily.
 Unlike analog circuits, most useful digital circuits are synchronous, meaning
there is a reference clock to coordinate the operation of the circuit blocks, so
they operate in a predictable manner. Analog electronics operate
asynchronously, meaning they process the signal as it arrives at the input.
 Most digital circuits use a digital processor to manipulate the data. This can
be in the form of a simple microcontroller (MCU) or a more complex digital
signal processor (DSP), which can filter and manipulate large streams of data
such as video.
 Digital signals are commonly used in communication systems where digital
transmission can transfer data over point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
transmission channels, such as copper wires, optical fibers, wireless
communication media, storage media, or computer buses. The transferrable
data is represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as a microwave, radio
wave, electrical voltage, or infrared signal.
Analog-to-Digital (ADC) and Digital-to-
Analog (DAC) Signal Conversion

 Many systems must process both analog and digital signals. It is common in
many communications systems to use an analog signal, which acts as an
interface for the transmission medium to transmit and receive information.
These analog signals are converted to digital signals, which filter, process,
and store the information.
ADC Operation
OP AMPS
Introduction
 Operational amplifiers, or op-amps, are critical components in analog
electronics. Developed originally for mathematical operations in analog
computers, they have become ubiquitous in various electronic applications
due to their versatile nature.
Overview

 Operational amplifiers, commonly referred to as op-amps, are fundamental

building blocks in electronics. They are versatile, high-gain amplifiers with
various applications in analog circuit design. This lesson will cover the basic
concepts of operational amplifiers, their ideal characteristics, and common
configurations.
II. What is an Operational Amplifier?
A. Definition
 An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a type of analog electronic component
that amplifies the difference in voltage between two input terminals. It has a
very high open-loop voltage gain and is used in a wide range of applications,
including amplification, filtering, signal conditioning, and mathematical
operations.
 II. Key Characteristics
 A. High Open-Loop Gain
An op-amp's primary characteristic is its exceptionally high open-loop voltage gain. This gain can be on
the order of 100,000 or more. While this characteristic makes op-amps useful for amplification, it also
implies that op-amps are generally unsuitable for open-loop operation in most practical circuits.

 B. Differential Inputs
Op-amps have two inputs: inverting (-) and non-inverting (+). The output voltage is proportional to the
difference in voltage between these inputs.

 C. Input and Output Impedances

An ideal op-amp has infinite input impedance, meaning it draws negligible current from the input
source. The output impedance is ideally zero, allowing it to drive loads without significant signal loss.

 D. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

CMRR indicates an op-amp's ability to reject common-mode signals (signals that are common to both
inputs). A high CMRR is crucial for applications where the difference between the two input voltages is
of interest.
III. OP AMP CONFIGURATION
 A. Inverting Amplifier
In the inverting amplifier configuration, the input signal is applied to the inverting terminal. The output
is inverted, and the gain is determined by the ratio of the feedback resistor to the input resistor.

 B. Non-Inverting Amplifier
In the non-inverting configuration, the input signal is applied to the non-inverting terminal. The output
is non-inverted, and the gain is determined by the feedback resistor and the input resistor.

 C. Difference Amplifier
A difference amplifier amplifies the voltage difference between two input signals. It is often used in
applications where the subtraction of two signals is necessary.

 D. Integrator and Differentiator

Op-amps can be configured as integrators and differentiators for mathematical operations. An
integrator produces an output proportional to the integral of the input signal, while a differentiator
produces an output proportional to the derivative.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 A. Power Supply Requirements
Op-amps have specific power supply requirements, and care must be taken to ensure
that the input and output voltages remain within the specified range to avoid
distortion and potential damage.

 B. Slew Rate
Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of the output voltage per unit of time. It is
crucial in applications where the input signal has rapid changes, such as in high-
frequency circuits.

 C. Temperature Stability
The performance of op-amps can be affected by temperature variations. In critical
applications, temperature-compensated or precision op-amps may be employed.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION

 D.Power Supply Limitations

Op-amps have limits on the voltages they can handle. Ensure that the input and
output voltages stay within the specified range.

 E. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

CMRR is the ability of an op-amp to reject common-mode signals (signals that are
the same at both inputs). A higher CMRR is desirable for better performance.
IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS

 1. **Infinite Input Impedance:** An ideal op-amp has infinite input impedance,

meaning it draws no current from the input sources.
 2. **Zero Output Impedance:** The output impedance is ideally zero, allowing
the op-amp to drive any load without loss of signal.
 3. **Infinite Open-Loop Gain:** The open-loop voltage gain is ideally infinite,
making the output voltage much higher than the input voltage difference.
 4. **Zero Input Offset Voltage:** The ideal op-amp has no voltage difference
between its two inputs when in an open-loop configuration.
APPLICATIONS

Op-amps find applications in a myriad of electronic circuits, including:

 - **Amplifiers:** Used for signal amplification.

 - **Filters:** Employed in active filters for frequency shaping.
 - **Oscillators:** Configured to produce oscillations.
 - **Comparators:** Used to compare two input voltages.
 - **Instrumentation Amplifiers:** Designed for precise measurement of small
signals.
 - **Voltage Regulators:** Used in voltage regulation circuits.