Controversy about the phylogenetic position of

Kyushu and Ryukyuan languages:

Current situation and future prospects

Yosuke Igarashi
（NINJAL）

The Origin and Spread of the Japonic Languages: Putting Together Linguistics, Genetics, and Archaeology
March 25, 2023

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If you have any questions or comments, please do not hesitate to contact me.

Yosuke Igarashi
y.Igarashi@ninjal.ac.jp

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１．Introduction

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Aim
 To review recent debates on the phylogenetic position of the
languages of Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands.

Kyushu

The Ryukyu Islands

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Controversy about the position of Kyushu and Ryukyuan languages

P model （Pellard 2015） H model（Hattori 1979a）

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2．Date of divergence of Japonic languages
and migration of Ryukyuan speakers

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 Standard classification (Pellard 2015)
Proto-Japonic

Proto-Ryukyuan

Japanese Hachijo
Proto-Southern Ryukyuan Proto-Northern Ryukyuan

Miyako Okinawa Amami

Yonaguni Yaeyama

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 Evidence for phylogenetic classification (Hattori 1976a; Pellard 2015)
Proto-Japonic

Proto-Ryukyuan

Japanese Hachijo
Proto-Southern Ryukyuan Proto-Northern Ryukyuan

Miyako Okinawa Amami

Yonaguni Yaeyama

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 Evidence for phylogenetic classification (Hattori 1976a; Pellard 2015)
Proto-Japonic *e,*o, *əi, …

*əi > *e Proto-Ryukyuan

*e > i1 = i
*o > u Japanese Hachijo
*əi > i2 > i
Proto-Southern Ryukyuan Proto-Northern Ryukyuan

Miyako Okinawa Amami

Yonaguni Yaeyama

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 Date of divergence: (Hattori 1976a; Pellard 2015)
Proto-Japonic *e,*o, *əi, …
Before the 7th century

*e > i1 8th-century
*əi > *e Proto-Ryukyuan *o > u Japanese (WOJ)
*əi > i2

Japanese Hachijo
Proto-Southern Ryukyuan Proto-Northern Ryukyuan

Miyako Okinawa Amami

Yonaguni Yaeyama

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Date of migration of proto-Ryukyuan speakers

 The fact that the divergence date is before the 7th century does not necessarily
mean that the Ryukyuan speakers migrated to the Ryukyu Islands before the 7th
century.
 The migration to the Ryukyu Islands is estimated to have occurred some centuries
later.
 Thus, there is a gap between the divergence of languages and the migration of
speakers.

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 Date of migration of Ryukyuan speakers Mainland Northern Southern
(According to Pellard’s 2015 linguistic archeology*) Japan Ryukyus Ryukyus
Jomon

Yayoi

3rd century Shellmound Sakishima

 10th-11th centuries: 4th century Period Pre-historic
Kofun
5th century Age
 Date of introduction of rice cultivation
6th century (hunter-gatherer
to the Ryukyus 7th century Asuka culture)
 Date of migration of Japonic speakers 8th century Nara
to the Ryukyus 9th century
10th century Heian
11th century
12th century Gusuku
13th century
Kamakura Culture
(Farming culture)

* The archaeological aspect of his work owes to archaeological findings in e.g. Asato & Doi 1999; Pearson 2001; Kinoshita 2003; Asato, Takara, et al. 12
2004; Takamiya 2005; Summerhayes & Anderson 2009.
Unified scenario (Pellard 2015)
 Japanese and Ryukyuan diverged before the 7th
century, probably at the end of the Kofun period. Until 10th century
 For the next few centuries, proto-Ryukyuan was
spoken in Kyushu

Japanese speaker
Ryukyuan speaker

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Unified scenario (Pellard 2015)
 In the 10th or 11th century, proto-Ryukyuan
speakers migrated from Kyushu to the Ryukyu 10th- 11th century
Islands.

Japanese speaker
Ryukyuan speaker

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3．Phylogenetic position of the languages
in Kyushu today

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Fate of Ryukyuan relatives in Kyushu

Still spoken in Kyushu? Replaced by Japanese?

Proto-Japonic Proto-Japonic

Kyushu-Ryukyuan Japanese Ryukyuan Japanese

Ryukyuan Kyushu
Kyushu

Japanese speaker
Ryukyuan speaker

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No trace of Ryukyuan relatives in Kyushu?

After Proto-Ryukyuan entered the Ryukyus, all its remaining relatives in Kyushu were
slowly annihilated by ongoing influence of Japanese, and no trace remains of them
today. (Pellard 2015: 28)

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There are traces of Ryukyuan in Kyushu!

 The languages in Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands are similar.

(Iha 1911, 1974; Nohara 1979-83; Uemura 1997; Karimata 2002)

 Some of the similarities may be due to their phylogenetic closeness.

(Serafim 2003; Igarashi 2016; 2017a; 2018ab, 2021, 2022a, 2022b; Karimata 2016,
2018, 2020; Jarosz 2019, Jarosz et al. 2022)

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Vocabulary exclusively shared between the languages in Kyushu
and the Ryukyus

 “Kyushu-Ryukyu cognates”
（Igarashi 2017, 2018ab; 2022b）*
 *suba ‘lip’
 *ado ‘heel’
 *ira ‘placenta’
 *podo ‘stature’
 *sone ‘fishing point’
 *obukure- ‘to be drown’
 *puke- ‘to thin out’
 *katame- ‘carry on one’s sholder’
 etc.

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* See also Jarosz (2019), Jarosz et al. (2022)
 Sound changes exclusively shared between the languages in Kyushu and
the Ryukyus (Hattori 1976) *kəi ‘tree’
*ətəi- ‘to fall’
Proto-Japonic *əkəi- ‘to get up’
*ərəi- ‘to get off’

Kyushu-Ryukyu *əi > *e Japanese *əi > i2 > i

ki2 ‘tree’
oti- ‘to fall’
Proto-Ryukyuan Kyushu oki2- ‘to get up’
ki ‘tree’ ☠exception ori- ‘to get off’
*ke ‘tree’
*ote- ‘to fall’ ote- ‘to fall’
*oke- ‘to get up’ oke- ‘to get up’ --Analogy? (Pellard 2021; Igarashi 2021)
*ore- ‘to get off’ ore- ‘to get off’ --No! (Igarashi 2023)*

* 五十嵐陽介（2013）「現代九州諸方言における旧上二段動詞の「下二段化」は九州・琉球祖語仮説を支持するか？」『言語研究』163: 1-31. https://doi.org/10.11435/gengo.163.0_1 20

Substratum?
 Pellard (2021):
 The facts purportedly supporting the Kyushu-Ryukyu clade hypothesis can be
explained by analogy, cross-linguistic tendencies, and the influence of the substrate
language.

If proto-Ryukyuan was spoken in Kyushu before moving to the Ryukyu Islands, it is

quite possible that proto-Ryukyuan formed the substrate language of the current
Kyushu dialects. (Pellard 2021: 9)

Pellard’s linguistic archeology has been revised between 2015 and 2021.

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Summary of the controversy
(Revised) P model （Pellard 2021） H model（Hattori 1979a）

The languages in Kyushu The languages in Kyushu

• Belongs to the Japanese branch • Belongs to the Kyushu-Ryukyu branch
• With Ryukyuan substratum • With Japanese influence due to contact

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Did a language shift occur in Kyushu?

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Thomason (2001)*

Borrowing
（without language shift）

Language change through contact

Shift-induced interference
(with language shift)

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*Thomason, Sarah G. (2001) Language Contact: An Introduction. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
  Quechua and Spanish spoken by the Quechua people in Peru (Thomason 2001)

Quechua spoken by the Quechua people Spanish spoken by the Quechua people
“Borrowing” “Shift-induced interference”
Basic Basic
vocabulary vocabulary
Quechua
Spanish
Vocabulary Vocabulary
Spanish
Quechua
Spanish
Structure Quechua Structure
Quechua
Spanish
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Proposed Criteria for determining the presence or absence of language
shift

 No Ryukyuan traits in the basic vocabulary → Language shift occurred

 Ryukyuan traits in the basic vocabulary → No language shift occurred

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Ryukyuan traits in the basic vocabulary of Kyushu
 Swadesh list（1952, 1971）
 ‘sea’ omi （archaism） cf. Old Japanese umi1 （< pJ *omi）
 ‘water’ mezu （archaism） cf. Old Japanese mi1du （< pJ *medu）
 ‘to fall’ ote- （innovation） cf. Old Japanese oti- （< pJ *ətəi-）
 ‘knee’ tubuɕi cf. Old Japanese pi1za
 Body and kinship terms
 ‘bridegroom’ moko （archaism） cf. Old Japanese muko1 （< pJ *moko）
 ‘lips’ suba （innovation） cf. Old Japanese kutipi1ru （pJ *tupa??）
 ‘heel’ ado cf. Old Japanese kupi1pi1su

 Ryukyuan traits in the basic vocabulary → No language shift

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4．Conclusion

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Summary
 The divergence of Ryukyuan and Japanese: before the 7th century.
 The migration of Ryukyuan speakers: the 10th or 11th century.
 Ryukyuan speakers remained in Kyushu for several centuries.
 The homeland of Ryukyuan is Kyushu.
 The fate of the Ryukyuan relatives that remained in Kyushu and the phylogenetic
position of the modern Kyushu languages are controversial.

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Summary
(Revised) P model （Pellard 2021） H model（Hattori 1979a）

The languages in Kyushu The languages in Kyushu

• Belongs to the Japanese branch • Belongs to the Kyushu-Ryukyu branch
• With Ryukyuan substratum • With Japanese influence due to contact

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Future prospects
 Further research is needed to determine if language shift has occurred in Kyushu.
 The fact that Ryukyuan traits remain in the basic vocabulary suggests that language
shift did not occur.
 However, in order to complete this debate, further research is needed to refine all
analyses and to examine various aspects.

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Acknowledgment
 This research was supported by the NINJAL Collaborative Research Projects
“Evidence-based Study on the Intonational Diversity of Japanese and
Ryukyuan”(Yosuke Igarashi) and "Research on the Conservation of Endangered
Languages" (Masahiro Yamada), and JSPS Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research
17H02332, 19H00530, 16H01933, 21K00517.

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