Napoleonic Wars

Napoleonic Wars
Part of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

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Left to right, top to bottom:
Battles of Austerlitz, Berlin, Friedland, Lisbon, Madrid,
Vienna, Moscow, Leipzig, Paris, Waterloo
Date 18 May 1803 – 20 November 1815
(12 years, 5 months and 4 weeks)
Location Atlantic Ocean, Caucasus, Europe,
French Guiana, Indian Ocean,
Mediterranean Sea, North America, North
Sea, Río de la Plata, West Indies,
Southern Africa, East Indies, Middle East,
South America, Pacific Ocean
Result Coalition victory
Congress of Vienna
Full results [show]

Second Treaty of Paris

Coalition occupation of France
Exile of Napoleon I to Saint Helena[6]
Fall of the First French Empire
Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy
Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire
and Denmark–Norway.
Decline of the Portuguese, Spanish,
and Dutch Empires.
Rise of the British Empire as the
dominant world superpower[7]
Establishment of the United Kingdoms
of Sweden and Norway,[8] and the
United Kingdom of the
Netherlands[9][10]
Rise of Prussia as a great power[11]
Beginning of Italian[12][13] and German
unifications[14]
Widespread rise of nationalism and
liberalism in Europe[15][16]
Major population loss[17]

Belligerents
Coalition forces: France and its client
United Kingdom states:
French Republic (until
Holy Roman Empire
1804)
(until 1806)
French Empire (from
Austria[a][b][c]
1804)
Prussia[d] French clients: [hide]
[e][f]
Russia Batavian Republic[x]
Spain[g][h] Bonapartist Spain[h]
Sweden[i][j] Confederation of the
[k]
Portugal Rhine[y][z][aa]
 Ottoman Empire[l][m] Bavaria
Bavaria[n] Saxony
Brunswick[o] Westphalia
French Royalists Württemberg
Hanover[p] Duchy of Warsaw[ab]
Hungary[q][r] Etruria[ac]
Liechtenstein Lithuania (1812)
[s]
Montenegro Holland[ad]
Nassau[o] Italy
[o]
Netherlands Lucca-Piombino
Baden Naples[ae]
Papal States Polish Legions[ab]
Qajar Iran[l][t] Switzerland
Sardinia
Saxony[n] Austria[b][4][af]

Sicily[u][v] Denmark–Norway[ag][ah]

Switzerland Qajar Iran[ai][t]

Tuscany[o] Ottoman Empire[l][m]

Württemberg[n] Prussia[l][4]

Denmark[w] Russia[l][f]
Spain[aj][h]
United States[5]

Commanders and leaders

Francis I Napoleon I
Frederick William III Maximilian I Joseph[ak]
Alexander I Frederick VI
George III Józef Poniatowski †
Ferdinand VII Rutger Jan
Gustav IV Adolf Schimmelpenninck

Charles John Louis Bonaparte

Maria I Eugène de
Beauharnais
Sultan Selim III
Sultan Mustafa IV Joachim Murat
Sultan Mahmud II Fath Ali Shah Qajar

William I Frederick Augustus I[ak]

Louis XVIII Joseph I

Jerôme I
Frederick I[al]
Strength
Russia: 900,000 French Empire:
regulars, cossacks and 1,200,000 regulars, sailors,
militia at peak strength marines and militia at peak
(1812)[18] strength (1813)[22]
Prussia: 320,000 French clients and allies:
regulars and militia at 500,000 regulars and militia
peak strength (1806)[4] at peak strength (1813)
United Kingdom : Total: 2,000,000 regulars
250,000 regulars, sailors, and militia at peak strength
marines and militia at (1813)
peak strength (1813)[19]
Austria: 300,000
regulars and militia at
peak strength (1809)
Spain: 198,520
regulars, guerrillas and
militia at peak strength
(1812)[20][am]
Portugal: 50,000
regulars, guerrillas and
militia at peak strength
(1809)
Sweden: 50,000
regulars and militia at
peak strength (1813)
Netherlands: 36,500
regulars and militia at
peak strength (1815)
Ottoman Empire:
350,000 regulars

Other coalition
members: 100,000
regulars and militia at
peak strength (1813)

Total: 3,000,000 regulars

and militia at peak
strength (1813)
Casualties and losses
Austria: 350,220
killed in action[23]
French Empire:
(500,000 total dead)
306,000 French killed in
Spain: more than action[29]
300,000 killed in
65,000 French allies
action[24] and more than
killed in action[30]
586,000 dead in total
800,000 French and
including civilians[25]
allies killed by wounds,
accidents or disease[30]
 Russia: 289,000 600,000 civilians
killed in action[26] killed[30]
(600,000 total dead
including civilians) Total: 2,000,000
dead[31]
Prussia: 134,000
killed in action (300,000
total dead including
civilians)
United Kingdom:
125,000[27] killed in
action (300,000 total
dead)
Portugal: up to
250,000 total dead or
missing including
civilians[27]
Italy: 120,000 total
dead or missing including
civilians[24]
Ottoman Empire:
50,000 total dead or
missing[28]

Total: 4,000,000 total

military and civilian dead
or missing

Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series
of conflicts fought between the First French
Empire under Napoleon (1804–1815) and a
fluctuating array of European coalitions. The wars
originated in political forces arising from the
French Revolution (1789–1799) and from the
French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), and
produced a period of French domination over
Continental Europe.[32] Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap

[Interactive fullscreen map + nearby articles]

The first stage of the war broke out with Britain
Key:-
declaring war on France on 18 May 1803, alongside
the Third Coalition. In December 1805, Napoleon
defeated the allied Russo-Austrian army at
Austerlitz, thus forcing Austria to make peace.
Concerned about increasing French power, Prussia
led the creation of the Fourth Coalition, which
resumed war in October 1806. Napoleon soon
defeated the Prussians at Jena-Auerstedt and the
Russians at Friedland, bringing an uneasy peace to
the continent. The treaty failed to end the tension,
1 Third Coalition: Germany 1803:...Austerlitz...
2 Fourth Coalition: Prussia 1806:...Jena...
3 Peninsular War: Portugal 1807...Torres Vedras...
4 Peninsular War: Spain 1808...Vitoria...
5 Fifth Coalition: Austria 1809:...Wagram...
6 French invasion of Russia 1812:...Moscow...
7 Sixth Coalition: Germany 1813:...Leipzig...
8 Sixth Coalition: France 1814:...Paris...
9 Hundred Days 1815:...Waterloo...
and war broke out again in 1809, with the Austrian-led Fifth Coalition. At first, the Austrians won a
significant victory at Aspern-Essling, but were quickly defeated at Wagram.

Hoping to isolate and weaken Britain economically through his Continental System, Napoleon
launched an invasion of Portugal, the only remaining British ally in continental Europe. After
occupying Lisbon in November 1807, and with the bulk of French troops present in Spain,
Napoleon seized the opportunity to turn against his former ally, depose the reigning Spanish royal
family and declare his brother King of Spain in 1808 as José I. The Spanish and Portuguese
revolted with British support and expelled the French from Iberia in 1814 after six years of fighting.

Concurrently, Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, routinely
violated the Continental System, prompting Napoleon to launch a massive invasion of Russia in
1812. The resulting campaign ended in disaster for France and the near-destruction of Napoleon's
Grande Armée.

Encouraged by the defeat, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia formed the Sixth Coalition and
began a new campaign against France, decisively defeating Napoleon at Leipzig in October 1813.
The Allies then invaded France from the east, while the Peninsular War spilled over into
southwestern France. Coalition troops captured Paris at the end of March 1814 and forced
Napoleon to abdicate in April, exiled him to the island of Elba, and restored power to the
Bourbons. However, Napoleon escaped in February 1815, and reassumed control of France for
around One Hundred Days. The allies formed the Seventh Coalition, which defeated him at
Waterloo in June 1815, and exiled him to the island of Saint Helena, where he died six years
later.[33]

The wars had profound consequences on global history, including the spread of nationalism and
liberalism, advancements in civil law, the rise of Britain as the world's foremost naval and
economic power, the appearance of independence movements in Spanish America and subsequent
decline of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires, the fundamental reorganization of German and
Italian territories into larger states, and the introduction of radically new methods of conducting
warfare. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna redrew Europe's borders
and brought a relative peace to the continent, lasting until the Crimean War in 1853.

Overview
Napoleon seized power in 1799, creating a military dictatorship.[34] There are a number of
opinions on the date to use as the formal beginning of the Napoleonic Wars; 18 May 1803 is often
used, when Britain and France ended the only short period of peace between 1792 and 1814.[35]
The Napoleonic Wars began with the War of the Third Coalition, which was the first of the
Coalition Wars against the First French Republic after Napoleon's accession as leader of France.

Britain ended the Treaty of Amiens and declared war on France in May 1803. Among the reasons
were Napoleon's changes to the international system in Western Europe, especially in Switzerland,
Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. Historian Frederick Kagan argues that Britain was irritated
in particular by Napoleon's assertion of control over Switzerland. Furthermore, Britons felt
insulted when Napoleon stated that their country deserved no voice in European affairs, even
though King George III was an elector of the Holy Roman Empire. For its part, Russia decided that
the intervention in Switzerland indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful
resolution of his differences with the other European powers.[35]

The British hastily enforced a naval blockade of France to starve it of resources. Napoleon
responded with economic embargoes against Britain, and sought to eliminate Britain's Continental
allies to break the coalitions arrayed against him. The so-called Continental System formed a
League of Armed Neutrality to disrupt the blockade and enforce free trade with France. The British
responded by capturing the Danish fleet, breaking up the league, and later secured dominance over
the seas, allowing it to freely continue its strategy.

Napoleon won the War of the Third Coalition at Austerlitz, forcing the Austrian Empire out of the
war and formally dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. Within months, Prussia declared war,
triggering a War of the Fourth Coalition. This war ended disastrously for Prussia, which was
defeated and occupied within 19 days of the beginning of the campaign. Napoleon subsequently
defeated Russia at Friedland, creating powerful client states in Eastern Europe and ending the
Fourth Coalition.

Concurrently, the refusal of Portugal to commit to the Continental System, and Spain's failure to
maintain it, led to the Peninsular War and the outbreak of the War of the Fifth Coalition. The
French occupied Spain and formed a Spanish client kingdom, ending the alliance between the two.
Heavy British involvement in the Iberian Peninsula soon followed, while a British effort to capture
Antwerp failed. Napoleon oversaw the situation in Iberia, defeating the Spanish, and expelling the
British from the Peninsula. Austria, keen to recover territory lost during the War of the Third
Coalition, invaded France's client states in Eastern Europe in April 1809. Napoleon defeated the
Fifth Coalition at Wagram.

Plans to invade British North America pushed the United States to declare war on Britain in the
War of 1812, but it did not become an ally of France. Grievances over control of Poland, and
Russia's withdrawal from the Continental System, led to Napoleon invading Russia in June 1812.
The invasion was an unmitigated disaster for Napoleon; scorched earth tactics, desertion, French
strategic failures and the onset of the Russian winter compelled Napoleon to retreat with massive
losses. Napoleon suffered further setbacks: French power in the Iberian Peninsula was broken at
the Battle of Vitoria the following summer, and a new alliance began, the War of the Sixth
Coalition.

The coalition defeated Napoleon at Leipzig, precipitating his fall from power and eventual
abdication on 6 April 1814. The victors exiled Napoleon to Elba and restored the Bourbon
monarchy. Napoleon escaped from Elba in 1815, gathering enough support to overthrow the
monarchy of Louis XVIII, triggering a seventh, and final, coalition against him. Napoleon was
decisively defeated at Waterloo, and he abdicated again on 22 June. On 15 July, he surrendered to
the British at Rochefort, and was permanently exiled to remote Saint Helena. The Treaty of Paris,
signed on 20 November 1815, formally ended the war.

The Bourbon monarchy was restored once more, and the victors began the Congress of Vienna to
restore peace to Europe. As a direct result of the war, the Kingdom of Prussia rose to become a
great power,[36] while Great Britain, with its unequalled Royal Navy and growing Empire, became
the world's dominant superpower, beginning the Pax Britannica.[37] The Holy Roman Empire was
dissolved, and the philosophy of nationalism that emerged early in the war contributed greatly to
the later unification of the German states, and those of the Italian peninsula. The war in Iberia
greatly weakened Spanish power, and the Spanish Empire began to unravel; Spain would lose
nearly all of its American possessions by 1833. The Portuguese Empire shrank, with Brazil
declaring independence in 1822.[38]

The wars revolutionised European warfare; the application of mass conscription and total war led
to campaigns of unprecedented scale, as whole nations committed all their economic and
industrial resources to a collective war effort.[39] Tactically, the French Army redefined the role of
artillery, while Napoleon emphasised mobility to offset numerical disadvantages,[40] and aerial
surveillance was used for the first time in warfare.[41] The highly successful Spanish guerrillas
demonstrated the capability of a people driven by fervent nationalism against an occupying
force.[42] Due to the longevity of the wars, the extent of Napoleon's conquests, and the popularity
of the ideals of the French Revolution, the period had a deep impact on European social culture.
Many subsequent revolutions, such as that of Russia, looked to the French as their source of
inspiration,[43] while its core founding tenets greatly expanded the arena of human rights and
shaped modern political philosophies in use today.[44]

Background
The outbreak of the French Revolution had been received with
great alarm by the rulers of Europe's continental powers,
further exacerbated by the execution of Louis XVI, and the
overthrow of the French monarchy. In 1793, Austria, the
Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of Naples, Prussia, the
Kingdom of Spain, and the Kingdom of Great Britain formed
the First Coalition to curtail the growing power of revolutionary
France. Measures such as mass conscription, military reforms, French victory over the Prussians at
and total war allowed France to defeat the coalition, despite the the Battle of Valmy in 1792
concurrent civil war in France. Napoleon, then a general in the
French Revolutionary Army, forced the Austrians to sign the
Treaty of Campo Formio, leaving only Great Britain opposed to the fledgling French Republic.

A Second Coalition was formed in 1798 by Great Britain, Austria, Naples, the Ottoman Empire, the
Papal States, Portugal, Russia, and Sweden. The French Republic, under the Directory, suffered
from heavy levels of corruption and internal strife. The new republic also lacked funds, and no
longer enjoyed the services of Lazare Carnot, the minister of war who had guided France to its
victories during the early stages of the Revolution. Bonaparte, commander of the Armée d'Italie in
the latter stages of the First Coalition, had launched a campaign in Egypt, intending to disrupt the
British control of India. Pressed from all sides, the Republic suffered a string of successive defeats
against revitalised enemies, supported by Britain's financial help.

Bonaparte returned to France from Egypt on 23 August 1799,

his campaign there having failed. He seized control of the
French government on 9 November, in a bloodless coup d'état,
replacing the Directory with the Consulate and transforming
the republic into a de facto dictatorship.[34] He further
reorganised the French military forces, establishing a large
reserve army positioned to support campaigns on the Rhine or
in Italy. Russia had already been knocked out of the war, and,
under Napoleon's leadership, the French decisively defeated
the Austrians in June 1800, crippling Austrian capabilities in
Italy. Austria was definitively defeated that December, by Bonaparte defeating the Austrians at
Moreau's forces in Bavaria. The Austrian defeat was sealed by
the Battle of Rivoli in 1797
the Treaty of Lunéville early the following year, further
compelling the British to sign the Treaty of Amiens with
France, establishing a tenuous peace.

Start date and nomenclature

No consensus exists as to when the French Revolutionary Wars ended and the Napoleonic Wars
began. Possible dates include 9 November 1799, when Bonaparte seized power on 18 Brumaire, the
date according to the Republican Calendar then in use;[45] 18 May 1803, when Britain and France
ended the one short period of peace between 1792 and 1814; or 2 December 1804, when Bonaparte
crowned himself Emperor.[46]
British historians occasionally refer to the nearly continuous period of warfare from 1792 to 1815 as
the Great French War, or as the final phase of the Anglo-French Second Hundred Years' War,
spanning the period 1689 to 1815.[47] Historian Mike Rapport (2013) suggested using the term
"French Wars" to unambiguously describe the entire period from 1792 to 1815.[48]

In France, the Napoleonic Wars are generally integrated with the French Revolutionary Wars: Les
guerres de la Révolution et de l'Empire.[49]

German historiography may count the War of the Second Coalition (1798/9–1801/2), during which
Napoleon seized power, as the Erster Napoleonischer Krieg ("First Napoleonic War").[50]

In Dutch historiography, it is common to refer to the seven major wars between 1792 and 1815 as
the Coalition Wars (coalitieoorlogen), referring to the first two as the French Revolution Wars
(Franse Revolutieoorlogen).[51]

Napoleon's tactics

Napoleon was, and remains, famous for his battlefield victories, and historians have spent
enormous attention in analysing them.[52] In 2008, Donald Sutherland wrote:

The ideal Napoleonic battle was to manipulate the enemy into an unfavourable position
through manoeuvre and deception, force him to commit his main forces and reserve to
the main battle and then undertake an enveloping attack with uncommitted or reserve
troops on the flank or rear. Such a surprise attack would either produce a devastating
effect on morale or force him to weaken his main battle line. Either way, the enemy's
own impulsiveness began the process by which even a smaller French army could
defeat the enemy's forces one by one.[53]

After 1807, Napoleon's creation of a highly mobile, well-armed artillery force gave artillery usage
increased tactical importance. Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's
defences, could now use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line. Once
that was achieved he sent in infantry and cavalry.[54]

Prelude
Britain was irritated by several French actions following the
Treaty of Amiens. Bonaparte had annexed Piedmont and Elba,
made himself President of the Italian Republic, a state in
northern Italy that France had set up, and failed to evacuate
Holland, as it had agreed to do in the treaty. France continued
to interfere with British trade despite peace having been made
and complained about Britain harbouring certain individuals
and not cracking down on the anti-French press.[55]

Malta had been captured by Britain during the war and was
subject to a complex arrangement in the 10th article of the French victory over the Austrians
Treaty of Amiens where it was to be restored to the Knights of and Russians at the Second Battle
St. John with a Neapolitan garrison and placed under the of Zürich
guarantee of third powers. The weakening of the Knights of St.
John by the confiscation of their assets in France and Spain along with delays in obtaining
guarantees prevented the British from evacuating it after three months as stipulated in the
treaty.[56]

The Helvetic Republic had been set up by France when it

invaded Switzerland in 1798. France had withdrawn its troops,
but violent strife broke out against the government, which
many Swiss saw as overly centralised. Bonaparte reoccupied
the country in October 1802 and imposed a compromise
settlement. This caused widespread outrage in Britain, which
protested that this was a violation of the Treaty of Lunéville.
Although continental powers were unprepared to act, the
British decided to send an agent to help the Swiss obtain
supplies, and also ordered their military not to return Cape The British victory over the French
Colony to Holland as they had committed to do in the Treaty of at the Battle of Alexandria, resulted
Amiens.[57] in the end of Napoleon's military
presence in Egypt.
Swiss resistance collapsed before anything could be
accomplished, and after a month Britain countermanded the
orders not to restore Cape Colony. At the same time, Russia finally joined the guarantee with
regard to Malta. Concerned that there would be hostilities when Bonaparte found out that Cape
Colony had been retained, the British began to procrastinate on the evacuation of Malta.[58] In
January 1803 a government paper in France published a report from a commercial agent which
noted the ease with which Egypt could be conquered. The British seized on this to demand
satisfaction and security before evacuating Malta, which was a convenient stepping stone to Egypt.
France disclaimed any desire to seize Egypt and asked what sort of satisfaction was required but
the British were unable to give a response.[59] There was still no thought of going to war; Prime
Minister Henry Addington publicly affirmed that Britain was in a state of peace.[60]

In early March 1803, the Addington ministry received word that Cape Colony had been reoccupied
by the British army in accordance with the orders which had subsequently been countermanded.
On 8 March they ordered military preparations to guard against possible French retaliation and
justified them by falsely claiming that it was only in response to French preparations and that they
were conducting serious negotiations with France. In a few days, it was known that Cape Colony
had been surrendered in accordance with the counter-orders, but it was too late. Bonaparte
berated the British ambassador in front of 200 spectators over the military preparations.[61]

The Addington ministry realised they would face an inquiry over their false reasons for the military
preparations, and during April unsuccessfully attempted to secure the support of William Pitt the
Younger to shield them from damage.[62] In the same month the ministry issued an ultimatum to
France demanding the retention of Malta for at least ten years, the permanent acquisition of the
island of Lampedusa from the Kingdom of Sicily, and the evacuation of Holland. They also offered
to recognise French gains in Italy if they evacuated Switzerland and compensated the King of
Sardinia for his territorial losses. France offered to place Malta in the hands of Russia to satisfy
British concerns, pull out of Holland when Malta was evacuated, and form a convention to give
satisfaction to Britain on other issues. The British falsely denied that Russia had made an offer and
their ambassador left Paris.[63] Desperate to avoid war, Bonaparte sent a secret offer where he
agreed to let Britain retain Malta if France could occupy the Otranto peninsula in Naples.[64] All
efforts were futile and Britain declared war on 18 May 1803.

War between Britain and France, 1803–1814

British motivations

Britain ended the uneasy truce created by the Treaty of Amiens when it declared war on France in
May 1803. The British were increasingly angered by Napoleon's reordering of the international
system in Western Europe, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Kagan
argues that Britain was especially alarmed by Napoleon's assertion of control over Switzerland. The
British felt insulted when Napoleon said it deserved no voice in European affairs (even though
King George was an elector of the Holy Roman Empire) and sought to restrict the London
newspapers that were vilifying him.[35]

Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss of markets,

and was worried by Napoleon's possible threat to its overseas
colonies. McLynn argues that Britain went to war in 1803 out
of a "mixture of economic motives and national neuroses—an
irrational anxiety about Napoleon's motives and intentions."
McLynn concludes that it proved to be the right choice for
Britain because, in the long run, Napoleon's intentions were
hostile to the British national interest. Napoleon was not ready
for war and so this was the best time for Britain to stop them.
"Maniac-raving's-or-Little Boney in a Britain seized upon the Malta issue, refusing to follow the
strong fit" by James Gillray. His terms of the Treaty of Amiens and evacuate the island.[66]
caricatures ridiculing Napoleon
greatly annoyed the Frenchman, The deeper British grievance was their perception that
who wanted them suppressed by Napoleon was taking personal control of Europe, making the
the British government.[65]
international system unstable, and forcing Britain to the
sidelines.[67][68][35] Numerous scholars have argued that
Napoleon's aggressive posture made him enemies and cost him
potential allies. [69] As late as 1808, the continental powers affirmed most of his gains and titles,
but the continuing conflict with Britain led him to start the Peninsular War and the invasion of
Russia, which many scholars see as a dramatic miscalculation.[70][71][72]

There was one serious attempt to negotiate peace with France

during the war, made by Charles James Fox in 1806. The
British wanted to retain their overseas conquests and have
Hanover restored to George III in exchange for accepting
French conquests on the continent. The French were willing to
cede Malta, Cape Colony, Tobago, and French Indian posts to
Britain but wanted to obtain Sicily in exchange for the
restoration of Hanover, a condition the British refused.[73]
The Battle of San Domingo, 6
Unlike its many coalition partners, Britain remained at war February 1806
throughout the period of the Napoleonic Wars. Protected by
naval supremacy (in the words of Admiral Jervis to the House
of Lords "I do not say, my Lords, that the French will not come. I say only they will not come by
sea"), Britain did not have to spend the entire war defending itself and could therefore focus on
supporting its embattled allies, maintaining low-intensity land warfare on a global scale for over a
decade. The British government paid out large sums of money to other European states so that
they could pay armies in the field against France. These
payments are colloquially known as the Golden Cavalry of St
George. The British Army provided long-term support to the
Spanish rebellion in the Peninsular War of 1808–1814, assisted
by Spanish guerrilla ('little war') tactics. Anglo-Portuguese
forces under Arthur Wellesley supported the Spanish, which
campaigned successfully against the French armies, eventually
driving them from Spain and allowing Britain to invade
southern France. By 1815, the British Army played the central
The Battle of the Pyrenees, July
role in the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo.
1813
Beyond minor naval actions against British imperial interests,
the Napoleonic Wars were much less global in scope than
preceding conflicts such as the Seven Years' War, which
historians term a "world war".

Economic warfare

In response to the naval blockade of the French coasts The British managed to occupy and take
enacted by the British government on 16 May 1806, control of Cape Colony, British Guiana,
Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 November 1806, Malta, Mauritius and Ceylon during the
which brought into effect the Continental System.[74] This Napoleonic Wars.
policy aimed to eliminate the threat from Britain by
closing French-controlled territory to its trade. Britain
maintained a standing army of 220,000 at the height of the Napoleonic Wars, of whom less than
half were available for campaigning. The rest were necessary for garrisoning Ireland and the
colonies and providing security for Britain. France's strength peaked at around 2,500,000 full-
time and part-time soldiers including several hundred thousand National Guardsmen whom
Napoleon could draft into the military if necessary. Both nations enlisted large numbers of
sedentary militia who were unsuited for campaigning and were mostly employed to release regular
forces for active duty.[75]

The Royal Navy disrupted France's extra-continental trade by seizing and threatening French
shipping and colonial possessions, but could do nothing about France's trade with the major
continental economies and posed little threat to French territory in Europe. France's population
and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of Britain. Britain had the greatest industrial capacity
in Europe, and its mastery of the seas allowed it to build up considerable economic strength
through trade. This ensured that France could never consolidate its control over Europe in peace.
Many in the French government believed that cutting Britain off from the Continent would end its
economic influence over Europe and isolate it.

Financing the war

A key element in British success was its ability to mobilise the nation's industrial and financial
resources and apply them to defeating France. Although the UK had a population of approximately
16 million against France's 30 million, the French numerical advantage was offset by British
subsidies that paid for many of the Austrian and Russian soldiers, peaking at about 450,000 men
in 1813.[75][76] Under the Anglo–Russian agreement of 1803, Britain paid a subsidy of £1.5 million
for every 100,000 Russian soldiers in the field.[77]

British national output remained strong, and the well-organised business sector channeled
products into what the military needed. Britain used its economic power to expand the Royal Navy,
doubling the number of frigates, adding 50 per cent more large ships of the line, and increasing the
number of sailors from 15,000 to 133,000 in eight years after the war began in 1793. France saw its
navy shrink by more than half.[78] The smuggling of finished products into the continent
undermined French efforts to weaken the British economy by cutting off markets. Subsidies to
Russia and Austria kept them in the war. The British budget in 1814 reached £98 million, including
£10 million for the Royal Navy, £40 million for the army, £10 million for the allies, and
£38 million as interest on the national debt, which soared to £679 million, more than double the
GDP. This debt was supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and taxpayers, despite the
higher taxes on land and a new income tax. The cost of the war came to £831 million.[an] In
contrast, the French financial system was inadequate and Napoleon's forces had to rely in part on
requisitions from conquered lands.[80][81][82]

From London in 1813 to 1815, Nathan Mayer Rothschild was instrumental in almost single-
handedly financing the British war effort, organising the shipment of bullion to the Duke of
Wellington's armies across Europe, as well as arranging the payment of British financial subsidies
to their continental allies.[83]

War of the Third Coalition, 1805

Britain gathered together allies to form the Third Coalition
against The French Empire after Napoleon self-proclaimed as
emperor.[85][86] In response, Napoleon seriously considered an
invasion of Great Britain,[87][88] massing 180,000 troops at
Boulogne. Before he could invade, he needed to achieve naval
superiority—or at least to pull the British fleet away from the
English Channel. A complex plan to distract the British by
threatening their possessions in the West Indies failed when a
The British HMS Sandwich fires at
Franco-Spanish fleet under Admiral Villeneuve turned back
the French flagship Bucentaure
after an indecisive action off Cape Finisterre on 22 July 1805.
(completely dismasted) in the battle
The Royal Navy blockaded Villeneuve in Cádiz until he left for
of Trafalgar. Bucentaure also fights
Naples on 19 October; the British squadron caught and HMS Victory (behind her) and HMS
overwhelmingly defeated the combined enemy fleet in the Temeraire (left side of the picture).
Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October (the British commander, Lord HMS Sandwich did not fight at
Nelson, died in the battle). Napoleon never again had the Trafalgar and her depiction is a
opportunity to challenge the British at sea, nor to threaten an mistake by the painter.[84]
invasion. He again turned his attention to enemies on the
Continent.

In April 1805, Britain and Russia signed a treaty with the

aim of removing the French from the Batavian Republic
(roughly present-day Netherlands) and the Swiss
Confederation. Austria joined the alliance after the
annexation of Genoa and the proclamation of Napoleon
as King of Italy on 17 March 1805. Sweden, which had
already agreed to lease Swedish Pomerania as a military
base for British troops against France, entered the
coalition on 9 August.

The Austrians began the war by invading Bavaria on 8

European strategic situation in 1805 before September[89] 1805 with an army of about 70,000 under
the War of the Third Coalition Karl Mack von Leiberich, and the French army marched
out from Boulogne in late July 1805 to confront them. At
Ulm (25 September – 20 October) Napoleon surrounded
Mack's army, forcing its surrender without significant losses.
With the main Austrian army north of the Alps defeated (another army under Archduke Charles
fought against André Masséna's French army in Italy), Napoleon occupied Vienna on 13
November. Far from his supply lines, he faced a larger Austro–Russian army under the command
of Mikhail Kutuzov, with the Emperor Alexander I of Russia personally present. On 2 December,
Napoleon crushed the Austro–Russian force in Moravia at Austerlitz (usually considered his
greatest victory). He inflicted 25,000 casualties on a numerically superior enemy army while
sustaining fewer than 7,000 in his own force.

Austria signed the Treaty of

Pressburg (26 December
1805) and left the coalition.
The treaty required the
Austrians to give up
Venetia to the French-
dominated Kingdom of
Italy and the Tyrol to
Bavaria. With the Surrender of the town of Ulm, 20
The French entering Vienna on 13 withdrawal of Austria from October 1805
November 1805 the war, stalemate ensued.
Napoleon's army had a
record of continuous unbroken victories on land, but the full
force of the Russian army had not yet come into play. Napoleon had now consolidated his hold on
France, had taken control of Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and most of Western
Germany and northern Italy. His admirers say that Napoleon wanted to stop now, but was forced
to continue in order to gain greater security from the countries that refused to accept his
conquests. Esdaile rejects that explanation and instead says that it was a good time to stop
expansion, for the major powers were ready to accept Napoleon as he was:

in 1806 both Russia and Britain had been positively eager to make peace, and they
might well have agreed to terms that would have left the Napoleonic imperium almost
completely intact. As for Austria and Prussia, they simply wanted to be left alone. To
have secured a compromise peace, then, would have been comparatively easy. But
Napoleon was prepared to make no concessions.[90]

War of the Fourth Coalition, 1806–1807

Within months of the collapse of the Third Coalition, the
Fourth Coalition (1806–1807) against France was formed by
Britain, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. In July 1806,
Napoleon formed the Confederation of the Rhine out of the
many small German states which constituted the Rhineland
and most other western parts of Germany. He amalgamated
many of the smaller states into larger electorates, duchies, and
kingdoms to make the governance of non-Prussian Germany
smoother. Napoleon elevated the rulers of the two largest After defeating Prussian forces at
Confederation states, Saxony and Bavaria, to the status of Jena, the French Army entered
kings. Berlin on 27 October 1806.

In August 1806, the Prussian king, Frederick William III,

decided to go to war independently of any other great power. The army of Russia, a Prussian ally,
in particular, was too far away to assist. On 8 October 1806, Napoleon unleashed all the French
forces east of the Rhine into Prussia. Napoleon defeated a Prussian army at Jena (14 October
1806), and Davout defeated another at Auerstädt on the same day. 160,000 French soldiers
(increasing in number as the campaign went on) attacked Prussia, moving with such speed that
they destroyed the entire Prussian Army as an effective military force. Out of 250,000 troops the
Prussians sustained 25,000 casualties, lost a further 150,000 as prisoners, 4,000 artillery pieces,
and over 100,000 muskets. At Jena, Napoleon had fought only a detachment of the Prussian force.
The battle at Auerstädt involved a single French corps defeating the bulk of the Prussian army.
Napoleon entered Berlin on 27 October 1806. He visited the tomb of Frederick the Great and
instructed his marshals to remove their hats there, saying, "If he were alive we wouldn't be here
today". Napoleon had taken only 19 days from beginning his attack on Prussia to knock it out of the
war with the capture of Berlin and the destruction of its principal armies at Jena and Auerstädt.
Saxony abandoned Prussia, and together with small states from north Germany, allied with
France.

In the next stage of the war, the French drove Russian forces
out of Poland and employed many Polish and German soldiers
in several sieges in Silesia and Pomerania, with the assistance
of Dutch and Italian soldiers in the latter case. Napoleon then
turned north to confront the remainder of the Russian army
and to try to capture the temporary Prussian capital at
Königsberg. A tactical draw at Eylau (7–8 February 1807),
Charge of the Russian Imperial followed by capitulation at Danzig (24 May 1807) and the
Guard cavalry against French Battle of Heilsberg (10 June 1807), forced the Russians to
cuirassiers at the Battle of withdraw further north. Napoleon decisively beat the Russian
Friedland, 14 June 1807 army at Friedland (14 June 1807), following which Alexander
had to make peace with Napoleon at Tilsit (7 July 1807). In
Germany and Poland, new Napoleonic client states, such as the
Kingdom of Westphalia, Duchy of Warsaw, and Republic of Danzig, were established. Early that
same year, the French besieged the fortified town of Kolberg, which resulted in a lifting of the siege
by a peace treaty on 2 July.

By September, Marshal Guillaume Brune completed the occupation of Swedish Pomerania,

allowing the Swedish army to withdraw with all its munitions of war.

Scandinavia and Finland

Britain's first response to Napoleon's Continental System was to launch a major naval attack
against Denmark. Although ostensibly neutral, Denmark was under heavy French and Russian
pressure to pledge its fleet to Napoleon. London could not take the chance of ignoring the Danish
threat. In August 1807, the Royal Navy besieged and bombarded Copenhagen, leading to the
capture of the Dano–Norwegian fleet, and assuring use of the sea lanes in the North and Baltic seas
for the British merchant fleet. Denmark joined the war on the side of France, but without a fleet it
had little to offer,[91][92] beginning an engagement in a naval guerrilla war in which small gunboats
attacking larger British ships in Danish and Norwegian waters. Denmark also committed
themselves to participate in a war against Sweden together with France and Russia.

At Tilsit, Napoleon and Alexander had agreed that Russia should force Sweden to join the
Continental System, which led to a Russian invasion of Finland in February 1808, followed by a
Danish declaration of war in March. Napoleon also sent an auxiliary corps, consisting of troops
from France, Spain and Holland, led by Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, to Denmark to
participate in the invasion of Sweden. But British naval superiority prevented the armies from
crossing the Øresund strait, and the war came mainly to be fought along the Swedish–Norwegian
border. At the Congress of Erfurt (September–October 1808), France and Russia further agreed on
the division of Sweden into two parts separated by the Gulf of Bothnia, where the eastern part
became the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland. British voluntary
attempts to assist Sweden with humanitarian aid remained
limited and did not prevent Sweden from adopting a more
Napoleon-friendly policy.[93]

The war between Denmark and Britain effectively ended with a

British victory at the Battle of Lyngør in 1812, involving the
destruction of the last large Dano–Norwegian ship—the frigate
Najaden.

Poland

In 1807, Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in

Central Europe. Poland had recently been partitioned by its
three neighbours, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of
Warsaw, which depended on France from the beginning. The The Battle of Trangen during the
duchy consisted of lands seized by Austria and Prussia; its Dano–Swedish War, 1808–1809.
Grand Duke was Napoleon's ally King Frederick Augustus I of The Norwegians fought bravely and
Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who defeated the Swedes.
administered the country. The population of 4.3 million was
released from occupation and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men
to Napoleon's armies. That included about 90,000 who
marched with him to Moscow; few marched back.[94] The
Russians strongly opposed any move towards an independent
Poland and one reason Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 was to
punish them. The Grand Duchy was absorbed into the Russian
Empire as a semi-autonomous Congress Poland in 1815;
Poland did not become a sovereign state again until 1918,
following the collapse of the neighbouring Russian, German
and Austro-Hungarian Empires in the aftermath of World War Polish cavalry at the Battle of
I. Napoleon's impact on Poland was significant, including the Somosierra in Spain, 1808
Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the
introduction of modern middle-class bureaucracies.[95][96]

Peninsular War, 1808–1814

The Iberian conflict began when Portugal continued trade with
Britain despite French restrictions. When Spain failed to
maintain the Continental System, the uneasy Spanish alliance
with France ended in all but name. French troops gradually
encroached on Spanish territory until they occupied Madrid,
and installed a client monarchy. This provoked an explosion of
popular rebellions across Spain. Heavy British involvement
soon followed.

After defeats in Spain suffered by France, Napoleon took Napoleon accepting the surrender of
charge and enjoyed success, retaking Madrid, defeating the Madrid during the Peninsular War
Spanish and forcing a withdrawal of the heavily out-numbered
British army from the Iberian Peninsula (Battle of Corunna, 16
January 1809). But when he left, the guerrilla war against his forces in the countryside continued
to tie down great numbers of troops. The outbreak of the War of the Fifth Coalition prevented
Napoleon from successfully wrapping up operations against British forces by necessitating his
departure for Austria, and he never returned to the Peninsular theatre. The British then sent in a
fresh army under Sir Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of
Wellington).[97] For a time, the British and Portuguese
remained restricted to the area around Lisbon (behind their
impregnable Lines of Torres Vedras), while their Spanish allies
were besieged in Cádiz.

The Peninsular war proved a major disaster for France.

Napoleon did well when he was in direct charge, but severe
losses followed his departure, as he severely underestimated
how much manpower would be needed. The effort in Spain was
a drain on money, manpower and prestige. Historian David The Second of May 1808: The
Gates called it the "Spanish ulcer."[98] Napoleon realised it had Charge of the Mamelukes, by
Francisco de Goya (1814)
been a disaster for his cause, writing later, "That unfortunate
war destroyed me ... All the circumstances of my disasters are
bound up in that fatal knot."[99]

The Peninsular campaigns witnessed 60 major battles and 30 major sieges, more than any other of
the Napoleonic conflicts, and lasted over six years, far longer than any of the others. France and
her allies lost at least 91,000 killed in action and 237,000 wounded in the peninsula.[100] From
1812, the Peninsular War merged with the War of the Sixth Coalition.

War of the Fifth Coalition, 1809

The Fifth Coalition (1809) of Britain and Austria against France formed as Britain engaged in the
Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal. The sea became a major theatre of war against Napoleon's
allies. Austria, previously an ally of France, took the opportunity to attempt to restore its imperial
territories in Germany as held prior to Austerlitz. During the time of the Fifth Coalition, the Royal
Navy won a succession of victories in the French colonies. On land the major battles included
Battles of Raszyn, Eckmuhl, Raab, Aspern-Essling, and Wagram.

On land, the Fifth Coalition attempted few extensive military endeavours. One, the Walcheren
Expedition of 1809, involved a dual effort by the British Army and the Royal Navy to relieve
Austrian forces under intense French pressure. It ended in disaster after the Army commander,
John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham, failed to capture the objective, the naval base of French-controlled
Antwerp. For the most part of the years of the Fifth Coalition, British military operations on land
(apart from the Iberian Peninsula) remained restricted to hit-and-run operations executed by the
Royal Navy, which dominated the sea after having beaten down almost all substantial naval
opposition from France and its allies and blockading what remained of France's naval forces in
heavily fortified French-controlled ports. These rapid-attack operations were aimed mostly at
destroying blockaded French naval and mercantile shipping and the disruption of French supplies,
communications, and military units stationed near the coasts. Often, when British allies attempted
military actions within several dozen miles or so of the sea, the Royal Navy would arrive, land
troops and supplies, and aid the coalition's land forces in a concerted operation. Royal Navy ships
even provided artillery support against French units when fighting strayed near enough to the
coastline. The ability and quality of the land forces governed these operations. For example, when
operating with inexperienced guerrilla forces in Spain, the Royal Navy sometimes failed to achieve
its objectives because of the lack of manpower that the Navy's guerrilla allies had promised to
supply.

Austria achieved some initial victories against the thinly spread army of Marshal Berthier.
Napoleon had left Berthier with only 170,000 men to defend France's entire eastern frontier (in the
1790s, 800,000 men had carried out the same task, but holding a much shorter front).
In the east, the Austrians drove into the Duchy of
Warsaw but suffered defeat at the Battle of Raszyn
on 19 April 1809. The Army of the Duchy of Warsaw
captured West Galicia following its earlier success.
Napoleon assumed personal command and
bolstered the army for a counter-attack on Austria.
After a few small battles, the well-run campaign
forced the Austrians to withdraw from Bavaria, and
Napoleon advanced into Austria. His hurried
attempt to cross the Danube resulted in the major
Battle of Aspern-Essling (22 May 1809) –
Napoleon's first significant tactical defeat. But the
Austrian commander, Archduke Charles, failed to
follow up on his indecisive victory, allowing The strategic situation in Europe in February 1809
Napoleon to prepare and seize Vienna in early July.
He defeated the Austrians at Wagram, on 5–6 July.
(It was during the middle of that battle that Marshal
Bernadotte was stripped of his command after
retreating contrary to Napoleon's orders. Shortly
thereafter, Bernadotte took up the offer from
Sweden to fill the vacant position of Crown Prince
there. Later he actively participated in wars against
his former Emperor.)

The War of the Fifth Coalition ended with the

Treaty of Schönbrunn (14 October 1809). In the
east, only the Tyrolese rebels led by Andreas Hofer The French Empire in 1812 at its greatest extent
continued to fight the French-Bavarian army until
finally defeated in November 1809. In the west, the
Peninsular War continued. Economic warfare between Britain and France continued: The British
continued a naval blockade of French-controlled territory. Due to military shortages and lack of
organisation in French territory, many breaches of the Continental System occurred and the
French Continental System was largely ineffective and did little economic damage to Great Britain.
Both sides entered further conflicts in attempts to enforce their blockade. As Napoleon realised
that extensive trade was going through Spain and Russia, he invaded those two countries.;[101] the
British fought the United States in the War of 1812 (1812–1815).

In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an
Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a more stable alliance with Austria and of
providing the Emperor with an heir (something his first wife, Joséphine, had failed to do). As well
as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the
Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw and the Kingdom of Italy. Territories allied with the French included:

the kingdoms of Denmark–Norway

the Kingdom of Spain (under Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's elder brother)
the Kingdom of Westphalia (Jérôme Bonaparte, Napoleon's younger brother)
the Kingdom of Naples (under Joachim Murat, husband of Napoleon's sister Caroline)
the Principality of Lucca and Piombino (under Elisa Bonaparte (Napoleon's sister) and her
husband Felice Baciocchi);
and Napoleon's former enemies, Sweden, Prussia and Austria.

Subsidiary wars
The Napoleonic Wars were the direct cause of wars in the Americas and elsewhere.

Serbian Revolution

The Serbian Revolution coincided with the Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812) (in which the French
diplomat, Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta played a very important role in
provoking the war), which were a proxy conflict of the Coalition Wars, having most of the time
Serbs revolutionaries the support of the Russian Empire, while the Ottoman Empire was an ally of
the French Empire.[102][103] This was due to the fact that both empires feared Napoleon's moves to
the east as the subsequent Peace of Pressburg brought France into Balkan affairs.[104] The most
radicals and liberals rebels were also inspired in some way by the French Revolution (specially the
rise of nationalism) and the autonomy of the Illyrian Provinces (Serbs initially felt that French
presence in the region could have developed into military aid in support of the insurrection against
Ottoman rule as a Sister republic, but Napoleon didn't want to increase Russian or Austrian
influence in the region).[104][105]

During the first phase, from 1804 to 1806, it was a conservative reaction to new abuses by the
Janissaries and Dahis, after they killed Hadyi Mustafa Pasha (vizier of the Sanjak of Smederevo.
He created a militia of Serb notables and realized the Slaughter of the Knezes, because the
Janissaries, expelled from Belgrade, found refuge with Osman Pazvantoğlu, governor of the Sanjak
of Vidin (in present-day Bulgaria), who pursued his own policy and sought independence, which
brought him into conflict with the Serbs and later with the Sublime Porte. Thus, the Serbs appealed
to Sultan Selim III for assistance against the Dahis, who had since rejected the authority of the
Porte. Also, Karađorđe negotiated with the Austrian captain Sajtinski. At this meeting he expressed
the wish of the Serbian people that Austrian Empire receive him as a kingdom under his protection
like in the past, as occupation of 1788–1791 was still a fresh memory. However, the Austrian
authorities, due to difficulties with Napoleon and because they wanted to maintain their neutrality,
in order to be correct with the Porte, could not accept his offers. So, the Serbs were forced to ask
for the protection of the Russians, and therefore, on May 3, 1804, the Serb leaders sent a letter to
the Russian envoy in Constantinople, in which they spoke of the problems and wishes of the
Serbian people, but they also stressed that they would continue to be loyal to the Sultan. Due to the
recent Russo-Ottoman alliance against France's expanding influence in the Balkans (the approach
of French troops to the Turkish territories, like occupation of Corfu and other Ionian islands in
1797–99, influenced the Porte to conclude an alliance with Russia in 1798), the Russian
government had a neutral policy toward the Serbian revolt until summer 1804, in which the goal
was now to having Constantinople recognize Russia as the guarantor of peace in the region.[106]

In 1806, the Serbs rejected Ičko's Peace (the Ottomans seemed ready to grant Serbia autonomy,
similar to that enjoyed by neighbouring Wallachia, in order to enter in the Napoleonic Wars as an
ally of the French) as they desired Russian support for their independence, starting a new phase of
the uprising in which the Serbs planned to create their own national state, which would also
include the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the pashaliks of Vidin, Nis, Leskovac,
and Pazar. Also, in the Traditionalist circles of Serbia rebels,[107] Petar I of Montenegro developed
a plan in 1807 to restore the medieval Serbian Empire ("Slaveno–Serb empire"), consisting on
unify Podgorica, Spuž, Žabljak, the Bay of Kotor, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Dubrovnik and Dalmatia
with Montenegro,[108] which he informed the Russian court[108][107][109][110] and was also viewed
by Habsburg Serb metropolitan Stefan Stratimirović.[111] The title of Emperor of the Serbs would
be held by the Russian emperor as Tsar,[108] but with the condition that Russians respected the
independence-autocephaly of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church. So, in February 1807, Petar I
planned an invasion of Herzegovina by montenegrin forces and asked for Karađorđe's aid,[112]
wanting to connect the territory occupied by the Serbian rebel forces and Montenegro, which
succeeded after the Battle of Suvodol in 1809.[113] This support of Montenegro for the Serbs was
reinforced due to the fact that in the war of 1807–1812, Ottoman troops, supported by French
detachments on Illyria, attacked Montenegro along the entire border, and the Montenegrins did
not have time to repel all the attacks. However, they managed to force the French troops to
withdraw from Dubrovnik and conquered the Bay of Kotor. Napoleon himself offered Petar I the
title "Patriarch of the entire Serbian nation or of the entire Illyricum" on the condition that he
cease cooperation with Russia and accept a French protectorate, which he refused for fear of an
eventual papal status jurisdiction or an Anti-clerical policy.[107][114]

However, the Treaty Of Tilsit between France and Russia against the Ottomans helped put a stop
to hostilities in the Balkans, with a truce taking place (which was perceived extremely negatively in
Serbia, despite the fact that the truce did not apply to the Serb rebels), also, there was a secret
clause that provides for the division of Turkish possessions in the Balkans between Russia and
France[115] and the cancellation of the Slaveno-Serb empire project.[108] In 1809, Karađorđe
appealed to an alliance with the Habsburgs and Napoleon, with no success,[116] even wrote
personally to Napoleon seeking military assistance, and in 1810, dispatched an emissary to French
Empire.[117] However, the French did not believe that the rebels had the military capacity to defeat
the Ottomans or expulse them from the Balkans. In 1812, under pressure from Napoleon, Russia
was forced to sign the Treaty of Bucharest, which restored peace with the Ottomans.[118] One of the
clauses of the treaty provided for the maintenance of Serbian autonomy, also, a truce was signed
according to the Article 8 of the Treaty. Then, the Russians encouraged Karađorđe and his
followers to negotiate directly with the Porte.[119][120]

War of 1812

The War of 1812 coincided with the War of the Sixth Coalition. Historians in the United States and
Canada see it as a war in its own right, while Europeans often see it as a minor theatre of the
Napoleonic Wars. The United States declared war on Britain because of British military support for
Native Americans, interference with American merchant ships, forced enlistment of American
sailors into the Royal Navy, and a desire to expand its territory. France had interfered as well, and
the United States considered declaring war on France. The war ended in a military stalemate, and
there were no boundary changes at the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect in early 1815 when
Napoleon was on Elba.[121]

Latin American Revolutions

The abdication of Kings Charles IV of Spain and Ferdinand VII of Spain and the installation of
Napoleon's brother as King José provoked civil wars and revolutions leading to the independence
of most of Spain's mainland American colonies. In Spanish America many local elites formed
juntas and set up mechanisms to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII, whom they considered the
legitimate Spanish monarch. The outbreak of the Spanish American wars of independence in most
of the empire was a result of Napoleon's destabilizing actions in Spain and led to the rise of
strongmen in the wake of these wars.[122] The defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815 caused an
exodus of French soldiers into Latin America where they joined ranks with the armies of the
independence movements.[123] While these officials had a role in various victories such as the
Capture of Valdivia (1820) some are held responsible for significant defeats at the hands of the
royalists as was the case at the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada (1818).[123]
In contrast, the Portuguese royal family escaped to Brazil and
established the court there, resulting in political stability for
Portuguese America. In 1816 Brazil was proclaimed an equal
part of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the
Algarves, paving the way to Brazilian independence six years
later.

The Haitian Revolution began in 1791, just before the French

Revolutionary Wars, and continued until 1804. France's defeat
resulted in the independence of Saint-Domingue and led
Napoleon to sell the territory making up the Louisiana
Purchase to the United States.[124]

Barbary Wars

During the Napoleonic Wars, the United States, Sweden, and Political map of the Americas in
Sicily fought against the Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean. 1794

Invasion of Russia, 1812

The Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 resulted in the Anglo–Russian War
(1807–1812). Emperor Alexander I declared war on Britain
after the British attack on Denmark in September 1807. British
men-of-war supported the Swedish fleet during the Finnish
War and won victories over the Russians in the Gulf of Finland
in July 1808 and August 1809. The success of the Russian army
on land, however, forced Sweden to sign peace treaties with
Russia in 1809 and with France in 1810, and to join the
blockade against Britain. But Franco–Russian relations became
progressively worse after 1810, and the Russian war with The Battle of Borodino as depicted
Britain effectively ended. In April 1812, Britain, Russia, and by Louis Lejeune. The battle was
Sweden signed secret agreements directed against the largest and bloodiest single-day
Napoleon.[125] action of the Napoleonic Wars.

The central issue for both Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I was
control over Poland. Each wanted a semi-independent Poland he could control. As Esdaile notes,
"Implicit in the idea of a Russian Poland was, of course, a war against Napoleon."[126] Schroeder
says Poland was "the root cause" of Napoleon's war with Russia but Russia's refusal to support the
Continental System was also a factor.[127]

In 1812, at the height of his power, Napoleon invaded Russia with a pan-European Grande Armée,
consisting of 450,000 men (200,000 Frenchmen, and many soldiers of allies or subject areas). The
French forces crossed the Niemen river on 24 June 1812. Russia proclaimed a Patriotic War, and
Napoleon proclaimed a Second Polish war. The Poles supplied almost 100,000 men for the
invasion force, but against their expectations, Napoleon avoided any concessions to Poland, having
in mind further negotiations with Russia.[128]

The Grande Armée marched through Russia, winning some relatively minor engagements and the
major Battle of Smolensk on 16–18 August. In the same days, part of the French Army led by
Marshal Nicolas Oudinot was stopped in the Battle of Polotsk by the right wing of the Russian
Army, under command of General Peter Wittgenstein. This prevented the French march on the
Russian capital, Saint Petersburg; the fate of the invasion was decided in Moscow, where Napoleon
led his forces in person.
 Russia used scorched-earth tactics, and harried the Grande
Armée with light Cossack cavalry. The Grande Armée did not
adjust its operational methods in response.[129] This led to
most of the losses of the main column of the Grande Armée,
which in one case amounted to 95,000 men, including
deserters, in a week.[130]

The main Russian army retreated for almost three months.

This constant retreat led to the unpopularity of Field Marshal
Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly and a veteran, Prince Mikhail
Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia,
Kutuzov, was made the new Commander-in-Chief by Tsar
a painting by Adolph Northen
Alexander. Finally, the two armies engaged in the Battle of
Borodino on 7 September,[131] in the vicinity of Moscow. The
battle was the largest and bloodiest single-day action of the Napoleonic Wars, involving more than
250,000 men and resulting in at least 70,000 casualties. It was indecisive; the French captured the
main positions on the battlefield but failed to destroy the Russian army. Logistical difficulties
meant that French casualties could not be replaced, unlike Russian ones.

Napoleon entered Moscow on 14 September, after the Russian Army had retreated yet again.[132]
By then, the Russians had largely evacuated the city and released criminals from the prisons to
inconvenience the French; the governor, Count Fyodor Rostopchin, ordered the city to be
burnt.[133] Alexander I refused to capitulate, and the peace talks attempted by Napoleon failed. In
October, with no sign of clear victory in sight, Napoleon began the disastrous Great Retreat from
Moscow.

At the Battle of Maloyaroslavets the French tried to

reach Kaluga, where they could find food and forage
supplies. The replenished Russian Army blocked
the road, and Napoleon was forced to retreat the
same way he had come to Moscow, through the
heavily ravaged areas along the Smolensk road. In
the following weeks, the Grande Armée was dealt a
catastrophic blow by the onset of the Russian
Winter, the lack of supplies and constant guerrilla Charles Joseph Minard's graph of the decreasing
warfare by Russian peasants and irregular troops. size of the Grande Armée represented by the
width of the line as it marches to Moscow (tan)
When the remnants of Napoleon's army crossed the and back (black)
Berezina River in November, only 27,000 fit
soldiers survived, with 380,000 men dead or
missing and 100,000 captured.[134] Napoleon then left his men and returned to Paris to prepare
the defence against the advancing Russians. The campaign effectively ended on 14 December 1812,
when the last enemy troops left Russia. The Russians had lost around 210,000 men, but with their
shorter supply lines, they soon replenished their armies. For every six soldiers of the Grande
Armée that entered Russia, only one would make it out in fighting condition.

War of the Sixth Coalition, 1812–1814

Seeing an opportunity in Napoleon's historic defeat, Prussia, Sweden and several other German
states switched sides joining Russia, the United Kingdom and others opposing Napoleon.[136]
Napoleon vowed that he would create a new army as large as the one he had sent into Russia, and
quickly built up his forces in the east from 30,000 to 130,000 and eventually to 400,000.
Napoleon inflicted 40,000 casualties on the Allies at Lützen (2 May 1813) and Bautzen (20–21 May
1813). Both battles involved forces of over 250,000, making them some of the largest conflicts of
the wars so far. Klemens von Metternich in November 1813 offered Napoleon the Frankfurt
 proposals. They would allow Napoleon to remain Emperor but
France would be reduced to its "natural frontiers" and lose
control of most of Italy and Germany and the Netherlands.
Napoleon still expected to win the wars, and rejected the terms.
By 1814, as the Allies were closing in on Paris, Napoleon did
agree to the Frankfurt proposals, but it was too late and he
rejected the new harsher terms proposed by the Allies.[137]

In the Peninsular War,

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke
of Wellington, renewed the
Anglo-Portuguese advance
into Spain just after New
Year in 1812, besieging and
capturing the fortified
towns of Ciudad Rodrigo, The Battle of Leipzig involved over
Badajoz, and crushing a 600,000 soldiers, making it the
French army at the Battle of largest battle in Europe prior to
World War I.
Salamanca. As the French
regrouped, the Anglo-
Fragment from the manuscript
Portuguese entered Madrid
"Memoires on Napoleon's
and advanced towards Burgos, before retreating all the way to
campaigns, experienced as a
Portugal when renewed French concentrations threatened to
soldier of the second regiment".
trap them. As a consequence of the Salamanca campaign, the
Written by Joseph Abbeel, a soldier
participating in the War of the Sixth
French were forced to end their long siege of Cádiz and to
permanently evacuate the provinces of Andalusia and
Coalition, 1805–1815.[135]
Asturias.[138]

In a strategic move, Wellesley planned to move his supply base

from Lisbon to Santander. The Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May and seized
Burgos. On 21 June, at Vitoria, the combined Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish armies won against
Joseph Bonaparte, finally breaking French power in Spain. The French had to retreat from the
Iberian peninsula, over the Pyrenees.[139]

The belligerents declared an armistice from 4 June 1813 (continuing until 13 August) during which
time both sides attempted to recover from the loss of approximately a quarter of a million men in
the preceding two months. During this time coalition negotiations finally brought Austria out in
open opposition to France. Two principal Austrian armies took the field, adding 300,000 men to
the coalition armies in Germany. The Allies now had around 800,000 front-line soldiers in the
German theatre, with a strategic reserve of 350,000 formed to support the front-line
operations.[137]

Napoleon succeeded in bringing the imperial forces in the

The Battle of Hanau (30–31 October
1813), took part between Austro-
Bavarian and French forces.
region to around 650,000—although only 250,000 came under
his direct command, with another 120,000 under Nicolas
Charles Oudinot and 30,000 under Davout. The remainder of
imperial forces came mostly from the Confederation of the
Rhine, especially Saxony and Bavaria. In addition, to the south,
Murat's Kingdom of Naples and Eugène de Beauharnais's
Kingdom of Italy had 100,000 armed men. In Spain, another
150,000 to 200,000 French troops steadily retreated before
Anglo-Portuguese forces numbering around 100,000. Thus
around 900,000 Frenchmen in all theatres faced around
1,800,000 coalition soldiers (including the strategic reserve
under formation in Germany). The gross figures may mislead
slightly, as most of the German troops fighting on the side of the French fought at best unreliably
and stood on the verge of defecting to the Allies. One can reasonably say that Napoleon could count
on no more than 450,000 men in Germany—which left him outnumbered about four to one.[137]

Following the end of the armistice, Napoleon seemed to have regained the initiative at Dresden
(August 1813), where he once again defeated a numerically superior coalition army and inflicted
enormous casualties, while sustaining relatively few. The failures of his marshals and a slow
resumption of the offensive on his part cost him any advantage that this victory might have
secured. At the Battle of Leipzig in Saxony (16–19 October 1813), also called the "Battle of the
Nations", 191,000 French fought more than 300,000 Allies, and the defeated French had to retreat
into France. After the French withdrawal from Germany, Napoleon's remaining ally, Denmark–
Norway, became isolated and fell to the coalition.[140]

Napoleon then fought a series of battles in France, including

the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, but the overwhelming numbers of
the Allies steadily forced him back. The Allies entered Paris on
30 March 1814. During this time Napoleon fought his Six Days'
Campaign, in which he won many battles against the enemy
forces advancing towards Paris. During this entire campaign,
he never managed to field more than 70,000 men against more
than half a million coalition soldiers. At the Treaty of
Chaumont (9 March 1814), the Allies agreed to preserve the Russian army enters Paris, 31
coalition until Napoleon's total defeat.[141] March 1814

Napoleon determined to fight on, even now, incapable of

fathoming his fall from power. During the campaign, he had issued a decree for 900,000 fresh
conscripts, but only a fraction of these materialised, and Napoleon's schemes for victory eventually
gave way to the reality of his hopeless situation. Napoleon abdicated on 6 April. Occasional
military actions continued in Italy, Spain, and Holland in early 1814.[141] An armistice was signed
with the Allied Powers on 23 April 1814. The First Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, officially
ended the War of the Sixth Coalition.

The victors exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba and restored the French Bourbon monarchy in
the person of Louis XVIII. They signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau (11 April 1814) and initiated the
Congress of Vienna to redraw the map of Europe.[141]

War of the Seventh Coalition, 1815

The Seventh Coalition (1815) pitted Britain, Russia, Prussia,
Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, the Netherlands and several
smaller German states against France. The period known as the
Hundred Days began after Napoleon escaped from Elba and
landed at Cannes (1 March 1815). Travelling to Paris, picking
up support as he went, he eventually overthrew Louis XVIII.
The Allies rapidly gathered their armies to meet him again.
Napoleon raised 280,000 men, whom he distributed among
Wellington at Waterloo by Robert several armies. To add to the 90,000-strong standing army, he
Alexander Hillingford recalled well over a quarter of a million veterans from past
campaigns and issued a decree for the eventual draft of around
2.5 million new men into the French army, which was never
achieved. This faced an initial coalition force of about 700,000—although coalition campaign plans
provided for one million front-line soldiers, supported by around 200,000 garrison, logistics and
other auxiliary personnel.
Napoleon took about 124,000 men of the Army of the North on a pre-emptive strike against the
Allies in Belgium.[142] He intended to attack the coalition armies before they combined, in hope of
driving the British into the sea and the Prussians out of the war. His march to the frontier achieved
the surprise he had planned, catching the Anglo-Dutch Army in a dispersed arrangement. The
Prussians had been more wary, concentrating 75 per cent of their army in and around Ligny. The
Prussians forced the Armée du Nord to fight all the day of the 15th to reach Ligny in a delaying
action by the Prussian 1st Corps. He forced Prussia to fight at Ligny on 16 June 1815, and the
defeated Prussians retreated in disorder. On the same day, the left wing of the Armée du Nord,
under the command of Marshal Michel Ney, succeeded in stopping any of Wellington's forces
going to aid Blücher's Prussians by fighting a blocking action at Quatre Bras. Ney failed to clear the
cross-roads and Wellington reinforced the position. But with the Prussian retreat, Wellington too
had to retreat. He fell back to a previously reconnoitred position on an escarpment at Mont St
Jean, a few miles south of the village of Waterloo.

Napoleon took the reserve of the Army of the North,

and reunited his forces with those of Ney to pursue
Wellington's army, after he ordered Marshal
Grouchy to take the right wing of the Army of the
North and stop the Prussians regrouping. In the
first of a series of miscalculations, both Grouchy
and Napoleon failed to realise that the Prussian
forces were already reorganised and were
assembling at the city of Wavre. The French army
did nothing to stop a rather leisurely retreat that
took place throughout the night and into the early
morning by the Prussians. As the 4th, 1st, and 2nd
Prussian Corps marched through the town towards
Waterloo, the 3rd Prussian Corps took up blocking
positions across the river, and although Grouchy
engaged and defeated the Prussian rearguard under
the command of Lt-Gen von Thielmann in the
Battle of Wavre (18–19 June) it was 12 hours too
late. In the end, 17,000 Prussians had kept 33,000
Map of the Waterloo campaign
badly needed French reinforcements off the field.

Napoleon delayed the start of fighting at the Battle

of Waterloo on the morning of 18 June for several hours while he waited for the ground to dry after
the previous night's rain. By late afternoon, the French army had not succeeded in driving
Wellington's forces from the escarpment on which they stood. When the Prussians arrived and
attacked the French right flank in ever-increasing numbers, Napoleon's strategy of keeping the
coalition armies divided had failed and a combined coalition general advance drove his army from
the field in confusion.[143]

Grouchy organised a successful and well-ordered retreat towards Paris, where Marshal Davout had
117,000 men ready to turn back the 116,000 men of Blücher and Wellington. General Vandamme
was defeated at the Battle of Issy and negotiations for surrender had begun.

On arriving at Paris three days after Waterloo, Napoleon still clung to the hope of a concerted
national resistance; but the temper of the legislative chambers, and of the public generally, did not
favour his view. Lacking support Napoleon abdicated again on 22 June 1815, and on 15 July he
surrendered to the British squadron at Rochefort. The Allies exiled him to the remote South
Atlantic island of Saint Helena, where he died on 5 May 1821.
In Italy, Joachim Murat, whom the Allies had allowed to
remain King of Naples after Napoleon's initial defeat, once
again allied with his brother-in-law, triggering the
Neapolitan War (March to May 1815). Hoping to find
support among Italian nationalists fearing the increasing
influence of the Habsburgs in Italy, Murat issued the
Rimini Proclamation inciting them to war. The
proclamation failed and the Austrians soon crushed Murat
at the Battle of Tolentino (2–3 May 1815), forcing him to
flee. The Bourbons returned to the throne of Naples on 20 The charge of the French Cuirassiers at
May 1815. Murat tried to regain his throne, but after that the Battle of Waterloo against a square of
failed, he was executed by firing squad on 13 October 1815. Scottish Highlanders

The Second Treaty of Paris, signed on 20 November 1815,

officially marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

Political effects
The Napoleonic Wars brought radical changes to Europe, but the reactionary forces returned and
restored the Bourbon house to the French throne. Napoleon had succeeded in bringing most of
Western Europe under one rule. In most European countries, subjugation in the French Empire
brought with it many liberal features of the French Revolution including democracy, due process in
courts, abolition of serfdom, reduction of the power of the Catholic Church, and demand for
constitutional limits on monarchs. The increasing voice of the middle classes with rising commerce
and industry meant that restored European monarchs found it difficult to restore pre-
revolutionary absolutism and had to retain many of the reforms enacted during Napoleon's rule.
Institutional legacies remain to this day in the form of civil law, with clearly defined codes of law—
an enduring legacy of the Napoleonic Code.

France's constant warfare with the combined

forces of different combinations of, and eventually
all, of the other major powers of Europe for over
two decades finally took its toll. By the end of the
Napoleonic Wars, France no longer held the role
of the dominant power in Continental Europe, as
it had since the times of Louis XIV, as the
Congress of Vienna produced a "balance of power"
by resizing the main powers so they could balance
each other and remain at peace. In this regard,
Prussia was restored in its former borders, and
also received large chunks of Poland and Saxony. The national boundaries within Europe set by the
Greatly enlarged, Prussia became a permanent Congress of Vienna, 1815
Great Power. In order to drag Prussia's attention
towards the west and France, the Congress also
gave the Rhineland and Westphalia to Prussia. These industrial regions transformed agrarian
Prussia into an industrial leader in the nineteenth century.[36] Britain emerged as the most
important economic power, and its Royal Navy held unquestioned naval superiority across the
globe well into the 20th century.[7]

After the Napoleonic period, nationalism, a relatively new movement, became increasingly
significant. This shaped much of the course of future European history. Its growth spelled the
beginning of some states and the end of others, as the map of Europe changed dramatically in the
hundred years following the Napoleonic Era. Rule by fiefdoms and aristocracy was widely replaced
by national ideologies based on shared origins and culture. Bonaparte's reign over Europe sowed
the seeds for the founding of the nation-states of Germany and Italy by starting the process of
consolidating city-states, kingdoms and principalities. At the end of the war, Denmark was forced
to cede Norway to Sweden mainly as a compensation for the loss of Finland which the other
coalition members agreed to, but because Norway had signed its own constitution on 17 May 1814
Sweden initiated the Swedish–Norwegian War (1814). The war was a short one taking place
between 26 July – 14 August 1814 and was a Swedish victory that put Norway into a personal
union with Sweden. The union was peacefully dissolved in 1905. The United Kingdom of the
Netherlands created as a buffer state against France dissolved rapidly with the independence of
Belgium in 1830.[144]

The Napoleonic wars also played a key role in the independence of the Latin American colonies
from Spain and Portugal. The conflict weakened the authority and military power of Spain,
especially after the Battle of Trafalgar. There were many uprisings in Spanish America, leading to
the wars of independence. In Portuguese America, Brazil experienced greater autonomy as it now
served as seat of the Portuguese Empire and ascended politically to the status of Kingdom. These
events also contributed to the Portuguese Liberal Revolution in 1820 and the Independence of
Brazil in 1822.[38]

The century of relative transatlantic peace, after the Congress of Vienna, enabled the "greatest
intercontinental migration in human history"[145] beginning with "a big spurt of immigration after
the release of the dam erected by the Napoleonic Wars."[146] Immigration inflows relative to the US
population rose to record levels (peaking at 1.6 per cent in 1850–51)[147] as 30 million Europeans
relocated to the United States between 1815 and 1914.[148]

Another concept emerged from the Congress of Vienna—that of a unified Europe. After his defeat,
Napoleon deplored the fact that his dream of a free and peaceful "European association" remained
unaccomplished. Such a European association would share the same principles of government,
system of measurement, currency and Civil Code. One-and-a-half centuries later, and after two
world wars several of these ideals re-emerged in the form of the European Union.

Military legacy

Enlarged scope

Until the time of Napoleon, European states employed

relatively small armies, made up of both national soldiers and
mercenaries. These regulars were highly drilled, professional
soldiers. Ancien Régime armies could only deploy small field
armies due to rudimentary staffs and comprehensive yet
cumbersome logistics. Both issues combined to limit field
forces to approximately 30,000 men under a single
commander.
In 1800, Bonaparte took the French
Military innovators in the mid-18th century began to recognise
Army across the Alps, eventually
the potential of an entire nation at war: a "nation in arms".[149]
defeating the Austrians at Marengo.

The scale of warfare dramatically enlarged during the

Revolutionary and subsequent Napoleonic Wars. During
Europe's major pre-revolutionary war, the Seven Years' War of 1756–1763, few armies ever
numbered more than 200,000 with field forces often numbering less than 30,000. The French
innovations of separate corps (allowing a single commander to efficiently command more than the
traditional command span of 30,000 men) and living off the land (which allowed field armies to
deploy more men without requiring an equal increase in supply arrangements such as depots and
supply trains) allowed the French republic to field much larger armies than their opponents.
Napoleon ensured during the time of the French republic that separate French field armies
operated as a single army under his control, often allowing him to substantially outnumber his
opponents. This forced his continental opponents to also increase the size of their armies, moving
away from the traditional small, well-drilled Ancien Régime armies of the 18th century to mass
conscript armies.

The Battle of Marengo, which largely ended the War of the

Second Coalition, was fought with fewer than 60,000 men on
both sides. The Battle of Austerlitz which ended the War of the
Third Coalition involved fewer than 160,000 men. The Battle of
Friedland which led to peace with Russia in 1807 involved
about 150,000 men.

After these defeats, the continental powers developed various

Napoleon on the field of Eylau
wounded.
forms of mass conscription to allow them to face France on
even terms, and the size of field armies increased rapidly. The
Battle of Wagram of 1809 involved 300,000 men, and 500,000
fought at Leipzig in 1813, of whom 150,000 were killed or

About a million French soldiers became casualties (wounded, invalided or killed), a higher
proportion than in the First World War. The European total may have reached 5,000,000 military
deaths, including disease.[150][151]

France had the second-largest population in Europe by the end of the 18th century (28 million, as
compared to Britain's 12 million and Russia's 35 to 40 million).[152] It was well poised to take
advantage of the levée en masse. Before Napoleon's efforts, Lazare Carnot played a large part in the
reorganisation of the French Revolutionary Army from 1793 to 1794—a time which saw previous
French misfortunes reversed, with Republican armies advancing on all fronts.

The French army peaked in size in the 1790s with 1.5 million
Frenchmen enlisted although battlefield strength was much
less. Haphazard bookkeeping, rudimentary medical support
and lax recruitment standards ensured that many soldiers
either never existed, fell ill or were unable to withstand the
physical demands of soldiering.

About 2.8 million Frenchmen fought on land and about

150,000 at sea, bringing the total for France to almost 3 million
combatants during almost 25 years of warfare.[22] Napoleon's retreat from Russia in
1812. His Grande Armée had lost
Britain had 750,000 men under arms between 1792 and 1815
about half a million men.
as its army expanded from 40,000 men in 1793[153] to a peak of
250,000 men in 1813.[19] Over 250,000 sailors served in the
Royal Navy. In September 1812, Russia had 900,000 enlisted men in its army, and between 1799
and 1815 2.1 million men served in its army. Another 200,000 served in the Imperial Russian
Navy. Out of the 900,000 men, the field armies deployed against France numbered less than
250,000.

There are no consistent statistics for other major combatants. Austria's forces peaked at about
576,000 (during the War of the Sixth Coalition) and had little or no naval component yet never
fielded more than 250,000 men in field armies. After Britain, Austria proved the most persistent
enemy of France; more than a million Austrians served during the long wars. Its large army was
overall quite homogeneous and solid and in 1813 operated in Germany (140,000 men), Italy and
the Balkans (90,000 men at its peak, about 50,000 men during
most of the campaigning on these fronts). Austria's manpower
was becoming quite limited towards the end of the wars,
leading its generals to favour cautious and conservative
strategies, to limit their losses.

Prussia never had more than 320,000 men under arms at any
time. In 1813–1815, the core of its army (about 100,000 men)
was characterised by competence and determination, but the
bulk of its forces consisted of second- and third-line troops, as The Battle of Trafalgar
well as militiamen of variable strength. Many of these troops
performed reasonably well and often displayed considerable
bravery but lacked the professionalism of their regular
counterparts and were not as well equipped. Others were
largely unfit for operations, except sieges. During the 1813
campaign, 130,000 men were used in the military operations,
with 100,000 effectively participating in the main German
campaign, and about 30,000 being used to besiege isolated
French garrisons.[4]

Spain's armies also peaked at around 200,000 men, not

French soldiers in skirmish with
including more than 50,000 guerrillas scattered over Spain. In
Bashkirs and Cossacks in 1813
addition the Maratha Empire, the Ottoman Empire, Italy,
Naples and the Duchy of Warsaw each had more than 100,000
men under arms. Even small nations now had armies rivalling
the size of the Great Powers' forces of past wars but most of these were poor quality forces only
suitable for garrison duties. The size of their combat forces remained modest yet they could still
provide a welcome addition to the major powers. The percentage of French troops in the Grande
Armée which Napoleon led into Russia was about 50 per cent while the French allies also provided
a significant contribution to the French forces in Spain. As these small nations joined the coalition
forces in 1813–1814, they provided a useful addition to the coalition while depriving Napoleon of
much-needed manpower.

Innovations

The initial stages of the Industrial Revolution had much to do with larger military forces—it
became easy to mass-produce weapons and thus to equip larger forces. Britain was the largest
single manufacturer of armaments in this period. It supplied most of the weapons used by the
coalition powers throughout the conflicts. France produced the second-largest total of armaments,
equipping its own huge forces as well as those of the Confederation of the Rhine and other
allies.[154]

Napoleon showed innovative tendencies in his use of mobility to offset numerical disadvantages, as
demonstrated in the rout of the Austro–Russian forces in 1805 in the Battle of Austerlitz. The
French Army redefined the role of artillery, forming independent, mobile units, as opposed to the
previous tradition of attaching artillery pieces in support of troops.[40]
The semaphore system had allowed the French War-Minister, Carnot, to communicate with
French forces on the frontiers throughout the 1790s. The French continued to use this system
throughout the Napoleonic wars. Aerial surveillance was used for the first time when the French
used a hot-air balloon to survey coalition positions before the Battle of Fleurus, on 26 June
1794.[41]

Total war

Historians have explored how the Napoleonic wars became

total wars. Most historians argue that the escalation in size and
scope came from two sources. First was the ideological clash
between revolutionary/egalitarian and
conservative/hierarchical belief systems. Second was the
emergence of nationalism in France, Germany, Spain, and
elsewhere that made these "people's wars" instead of contests
between monarchs.[155] Bell has argued that even more
important than ideology and nationalism were the intellectual Goya's The Disasters of War,
transformations in the culture of war that came about through showing French atrocities against
the Age of Enlightenment. [156] One factor, he says, is that war Spanish civilians
was no longer a routine event but a transforming experience for
societies—a total experience. Secondly, the military emerged in
its own right as a separate sphere of society distinct from the ordinary civilian world. The French
Revolution made every civilian a part of the war machine, either as a soldier through universal
conscription, or as a vital cog in the home front machinery supporting and supplying the army. Out
of that, says Bell, came "militarism", the belief that the military role was morally superior to the
civilian role in times of great national crisis. The fighting army represented the essence of the
nation's soul.[ao] As Napoleon proclaimed, "It is the soldier who founds a Republic and it is the
soldier who maintains it."[157] Napoleon said on his career "I closed the gulf of anarchy and
brought order out of chaos. I rewarded merit regardless of birth or wealth, wherever I found it. I
abolished feudalism and restored equality to all religion and before the law. I fought the decrepit
monarchies of the Old Regime because the alternative was the destruction of all this. I purified the
Revolution."[158]

Use of military intelligence

Intelligence played a pivotal factor throughout the Napoleonic Wars and could very well have
changed the tide of war. The use and misuse of military intelligence dictated the course of many
major battles during the Napoleonic Wars. Some of the major battles that were dictated by the use
of intelligence include: The Battle of Waterloo, Battle of Leipzig, Battle of Salamanca, and the
Battle of Vitoria. A major exception to the greater use of superior military intelligence to claim
victory was the Battle of Jena in 1806. At the Battle of Jena even Prussian superior military
intelligence was not enough to counter the sheer military force of Napoleons' armies.

The use of intelligence varied greatly across the major world powers of the war. Napoleon at this
time had more supply of intelligence given to him than any French general before him. However,
Napoleon was not an advocate of military intelligence at this time as he often found it unreliable
and inaccurate when compared to his own preconceived notions of the enemy. Napoleon rather
studied his enemy via domestic newspapers, diplomatic publications, maps, and prior documents
of military engagements in the theaters of war in which he would operate. It was this stout and
constant study of the enemy which made Napoleon the military mastermind of his time. Whereas,
his opponents—Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia—were much more reliant on traditional
intelligence-gathering methods and were much more quickly and willing to act on them.
The methods of Intelligence during these wars were to include the formation of vast and complex
networks of corresponding agents, codebreaking, and cryptanalysis. The greatest cipher to be used
to hide military operations during this time was known as the Great Paris Cipher used by the
French. However, thanks to the hard work of British codebreakers like George Scovell, the British
were able to crack French ciphers and gain vast amounts of military intelligence on Napoleon and
his armies.[159]

Diplomatic espionage

French diplomat Talleyrand served as a source of intelligence for the Coalition powers against
Napoleon.[160][161] At the Congress of Erfurt in September–October 1808, Talleyrand secretly
counseled Tsar Alexander. Alexander's attitude towards Napoleon was one of apprehensive
opposition. Talleyrand believed Napoleon would eventually destroy the empire he had worked to
build across multiple rulers.[162] After his resignation in 1807 from the ministry, Talleyrand began
to accept bribes from hostile powers (mainly Austria, but also Russia), to betray Napoleon's
secrets.[163]

Various agents of Napoleon were known such as Madame d'Oettlinger.

In fiction
The Napoleonic Wars were a defining event of the early 19th century, and inspired many works of
fiction, from then until the present day.

Leo Tolstoy's epic novel War and Peace recounts Napoleon's wars between 1805 and 1812
(especially the disastrous 1812 invasion of Russia and subsequent retreat) from a Russian
perspective.
Stendhal's novel The Charterhouse of Parma opens with a ground-level recounting of the
Battle of Waterloo and the subsequent chaotic retreat of French forces.
Les Misérables by Victor Hugo takes place against the backdrop of the Napoleonic Wars and
subsequent decades, and in its unabridged form contains an epic telling of the Battle of
Waterloo.
Adieu is a novella by Honoré de Balzac in which can be found a short description of the French
retreat from Russia, particularly the battle of Berezina, where the fictional couple of the story
are tragically separated. Years later after imprisonment, the husband returns to find his wife still
in a state of utter shock and amnesia. He has the battle and their separation reenacted, hoping
the memory will heal her state.
William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair takes place during the 1815 Napoleonic
War – one of its protagonists dies at the Battle of Waterloo. Thackeray states in Chapter XXX
"We do not claim to rank among the military novelists. Our place is with the non-combatants.
When the decks are cleared for action we go below and wait meekly." And indeed he presents
no descriptions of military leaders, strategy, or combat; he describes anxious non-combatants
waiting in Brussels for news.
Sylvia's Lovers by Elizabeth Gaskell is set in the English home-front during the Napoleonic
Wars and depicts the impressment of sailors by roving press gangs.
The Duel, a short story by Joseph Conrad, recounts the story based on true events of two
French Hussar officers who carry a long grudge and fight in duels each time they meet during
the Napoleonic wars. The short story was adapted by director Ridley Scott into the 1977
Cannes Film Festival's Best First Work award-winning film The Duellists.
"Mr Midshipman Easy" (1836), semi-autobiographical novel by Captain Frederick Marryat, who
served as a Royal Navy officer (1806–1830) including during Napoleonic Wars, and who wrote
many novels, and who was a pioneer of the Napoleonic wars sea story about the experiences
of British naval officers.
Le Colonel Chabert by Honoré de Balzac. After being severely wounded during the Battle of
Eylau (1807), Chabert, a famous colonel of the cuirassiers, was erroneously recorded as dead
and buried unconscious with French casualties. After extricating himself from his grave and
being nursed back to health by local peasants, it takes several years for him to recover. When
he returns to the Paris of the Bourbon Restoration, he discovers that his "widow", a former
prostitute that Chabert made rich and honourable, has married the wealthy Count Ferraud. She
has also liquidated all of Chabert's belongings and pretends not to recognise her first husband.
Seeking to regain his name and monies that were wrongly given away as inheritance, he hires
Derville, an attorney, to win back his money and his honour.
A poem Borodino by Mikhail Lermontov describes the Battle of Borodino from the perspective
of poet's uncle, a Russian officer.
The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas, père starts during the tail-end of the
Napoleonic Wars. The main character, Edmond Dantès, suffers imprisonment following false
accusations of Bonapartist leanings.
The novelist Jane Austen lived much of her life during the French Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars, and two of her brothers served in the Royal Navy. Austen almost never
refers to specific dates or historical events in her novels, but wartime England forms part of the
general backdrop to several of them: in Pride and Prejudice (1813, but possibly written during
the 1790s), the local militia (civilian volunteers) has been called up for home defence and its
officers play an important role in the plot; in Mansfield Park (1814), Fanny Price's brother
William is a midshipman (officer in training) in the Royal Navy; and in Persuasion (1818),
Frederick Wentworth and several other characters are naval officers recently returned from
service.
Charlotte Brontë's novel Shirley (1849), set during the Napoleonic Wars, explores some of the
economic effects of war on rural Yorkshire.
Arthur Conan Doyle's Brigadier Gerard serves as a French soldier during the Napoleonic Wars
Fyodor Dostoevsky's book The Idiot had a character, General Ivolgin, who witnessed and
recounted his relationship with Napoleon during the Campaign of Russia.
Roger Brook is a fictional secret agent and Napoleonic Wars Era gallant, later identified as the
Chevalier de Breuc, in a series of twelve novels by Dennis Wheatley
The Hornblower books by C.S. Forester follow the naval career of Horatio Hornblower during
the Napoleonic Wars. The 1951 film "Captain Horatio Hornblower" starring Gregory Peck and
Virginia Mayo and directed by Raoul Walsh is a film adaption based on Forester's series of
novels. Also by C.S. Forester two novels of the Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal: "Death
to the French" (1932, published in the United States under the title "Rifleman Dodd"), and "The
Gun" (1933), later made into a 1957 film, "The Pride and the Passion", with Cary Grant, Frank
Sinatra, Sophia Loren, directed by Stanley Kramer.
R. F. Delderfield, two novels about the Napoleonic Wars; Seven Men of Gascony (1949) about
seven French infantrymen serving in a succession of Napoleonic campaigns, and Too Few For
Drums (1964) about British soldiers cut off behind the French lines in Portugal in 1810, during
the Peninsular War.
The Aubrey–Maturin series of novels is a sequence of 20 historical novels by Patrick O'Brian
portraying the rise of Jack Aubrey from Lieutenant to Rear Admiral during the Napoleonic
Wars. The film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World starring Russell Crowe and
directed by Peter Weir is based on this series of books.
The Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell stars the character Richard Sharpe, a soldier in the
British Army, who fights throughout the Napoleonic Wars. It was adapted into the Sharpe TV
Series starring Sean Bean.
The Bloody Jack book series by Louis A. Meyer is set during the Second Coalition of the
Napoleonic Wars, and retells many famous battles of the age. The heroine, Jacky, meets
Bonaparte.
The Napoleonic Wars provide the backdrop for The Emperor, The Victory, The Regency and
The Campaigners, Volumes 11, 12, 13 and 14 respectively of The Morland Dynasty, a series of
historical novels by the author Cynthia Harrod-Eagles.
 The Richard Bolitho series by Alexander Kent novels portray this period of history from a naval
perspective.
G.S. Beard, author of two novels (2010) about John Fury, British naval officer during the
Napoleonic Wars.
Napoleon's Blackguards, a novel by Stephen McGarry, set in Spain during the Napoleonic
Wars about the travails of an elite unit of Napoleon's Irish Legion.
Robert Challoner, author of three novels in the series about Charles Oakshott, British naval
officer in Napoleonic Wars.
David Donachie's John Pearce series about a pressed seaman who becomes a British naval
officer during the French Revolution wars and Napoleonic Wars.
Julian Stockwin's Thomas Kydd series portrays one man's journey from pressed man to
Admiral in the time of the French and Napoleonic Wars
Simon Scarrow – Napoleonic series. Rise of Napoleon and Wellington from humble beginnings
to history's most remarkable and notable leaders. Four books in the series.
The Lord Ramage series by Dudley Pope takes place during the Napoleonic Wars.
Jeanette Winterson's 1987 novel The Passion
Georgette Heyer's 1937 novel An Infamous Army recounts the fortunes of a family in the run-
up to and during the course of, the Battle of Waterloo. Heyer's novel is noted for its meticulous
research on the progress of the battle, combining her noted period romance writing with her
detailed research into regency history.
The Battle (French: La Bataille) is a historical novel by the French author Patrick Rambaud that
was first published in 1997 and again in English in 2000. The book describes the 1809 Battle of
Aspern-Essling between the French Empire under Napoleon and the Austrian Empire. The
novel was awarded the Prix Goncourt and the Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française
for 1997.
In Jasper Kent's novel Twelve, 1812 Russian Invasion serves as a base story for the book. In
later books from The Danilov Quintet, this war is constantly mentioned.
The Fighting Sail series by Alaric Bond portrays life and action aboard Royal Naval vessels
during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. From the lower decks to the quarterdeck
Bond's detailed settings are realistic. Narratives are told not just from a commissioned officer's
point of view but include varied perspectives, including warranted officers, ordinary and able
seamen, marines, supernumeraries, and women aboard presenting a broader, more complete
picture of the Georgian Navy.[164]

See also
France portal
 Serbian Revolution
Austro-Polish War
British Army during the Napoleonic Wars
British invasions of the River Plate
Haitian Revolution
Imperial and Royal Army during the Napoleonic Wars
International relations (1648–1814), for diplomacy
Lists of battles of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars
Royal Prussian Army of the Napoleonic Wars
Spanish American wars of independence
Uniforms of La Grande Armée
War of 1812
World war

Notes
a. 1805, 1809, 1813–1815
b. The term Austrian Empire came into use after Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the
French in 1804, by which Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor took the title Emperor of Austria
(Kaiser von Österreich) in response. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, and
consequently Emperor of Austria became Francis' primary title. For this reason, Austrian
Empire is often used instead of Holy Roman Empire for brevity's sake when speaking of the
Napoleonic Wars, even though the two entities are not synonymous.
c. Both Austria and Prussia briefly became allies of France and contributed forces to the French
Invasion of Russia in 1812.
d. 1806–1807, 1813–1815
e. 1804–1807, 1812–1815
f. Russia became an ally of France following the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. The alliance broke down
in 1810, which led to the French invasion in 1812. During that time Russia waged war against
Sweden (1808–1809) and the Ottoman Empire (1806–1812), and nominally against Britain
(1807–1812).
g. 1808–1815
h. Spain was an ally of France until a stealthy French invasion in 1808, then fought France in the
Peninsular War.
i. 1804–1809, 1812–1815
j. Nominally, Sweden declared war against Great Britain after its defeat by Russia in the Finnish
War (1808–1809).
k. 1800–1807, 1809–1815
l. 1807–1812
m. The Ottoman Empire fought against Napoleon in the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria as
part of the French Revolutionary Wars. During the Napoleonic era of 1803 to 1815, the Empire
participated in two wars against the Allies: against Britain in the Anglo-Turkish War (1807–
1809) and against Russia in the Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812). Russia was allied with
Napoleon 1807–1810.
n. 1813–1815
o. 1815
p. Hanover was in a personal union with Great Britain
q. 1809
 r. The Kingdom of Hungary participated in the war with separate Hungarian regiments[1][2] in the
Imperial and Royal Army, and also by a traditional army ("insurrectio").[3] The Hungarian Diet
voted to join in war and agreed to pay one third of the war expenses.
s. 1806–1807, 1813–1814
t. Qajar dynasty fought against Russia from 1804 to 1813; the Russians were allied with
Napoleon 1807–1812.
u. 1806–1815
v. Sicily remained in personal union with Naples until Naples became a French client-republic
following the Battle of Campo Tenese in 1806.
w. 1814
x. From 1803 till 1806, when it became the Kingdom of Holland
y. 1808–1813
z. Sixteen of France's allies among the German states (including Bavaria and Württemberg)
established the Confederation of the Rhine in July 1806 following the Battle of Austerlitz
(December 1805). Following the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (October 1806), various other
German states that had previously fought alongside the anti-French allies, including Saxony
and Westphalia, also allied with France and joined the Confederation. Saxony changed sides
again in 1813 during the Battle of Leipzig, causing most other member-states to quickly follow
suit and declare war on France.
aa. These four states were the leading nations of the Confederation, but the Confederation was
made up of a total of 43 principalities, kingdoms, and duchies.
ab. Napoleon established the Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by the Kingdom of Saxony in 1807. Polish
Legions had already been serving in the French armies beforehand.
ac. The French Empire annexed the Kingdom of Etruria in 1807.
ad. The French Empire annexed the Kingdom of Holland in 1810. Dutch troops fought against
Napoleon during the Hundred Days in 1815.
ae. Naples, briefly allied with Austria in 1814, allied with France again and fought against Austria
during the Neapolitan War in 1815.
af. 1809–1813
ag. Denmark–Norway remained neutral until the Battle of Copenhagen (1807). Denmark was
compelled to cede Norway to Sweden by the Treaty of Kiel in 1814. Following a brief Swedish
campaign against Norway, Norway entered a personal union with Sweden.
ah. 1807–1814
ai. 1804–1807, 1812–1813
aj. 1803–1808
ak. until the eve of the Battle of Leipzig, 1813
al. until 1813
am. 38,520 of which being irregulars (guerillas, militias)[21]
an. £3 trillion in modern economic cost terms.[79]
ao. Many historians say it was not the "first" total war; for a critique of Bell see Frederick C.
Schneid (2012). Napoleonic Wars (https://books.google.com/books?id=V086MVIushMC&pg=P
A1802). Potomac Books. p. 1802. ISBN 978-1-59797-578-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20150930174847/https://books.google.com/books?id=V086MVIushMC&pg=PA1802) from
the original on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2015.

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Sherwig, John M. (1969). Guineas and Gunpowder: British Foreign Aid in the Wars with
France, 1793–1815 (https://books.google.com/books?id=OInxvgEACAAJ). Harvard University
Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36775-3.
Shlapentokh, Dmitry (1997). The French Revolution and the Russian Anti-Democratic Tradition:
A Case of False Consciousness (https://books.google.com/books?id=eVKOSX0E2bUC).
Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-2397-5.
Stoker, Donald; Schneid, Frederick C.; Blanton, Harold D. (2008). Conscription in the
Napoleonic Era: A Revolution in Military Affairs? (https://books.google.com/books?id=iks6rVhT
HrwC&pg=PA38). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-67404-8.
 Sutherland, Donald M. G. (2008). The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic
Order (https://books.google.com/books?id=DuwHSN9QTroC). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-
0-470-75826-7.
Tone, John Lawrence (1996). "Napoleon's uncongenial sea: Guerrilla warfare in Navarre during
the Peninsular War, 1808–14". European History Quarterly. 26 (3): 355–382.
doi:10.1177/026569149602600302 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F026569149602600302).
S2CID 144885121 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144885121).
Tone, John Lawrence (2010). "Partisan Warfare in Spain and Total War" (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=E2WtMq4LF90C&pg=PA243). In Chickering, Roger; Förster, Stig (eds.). War in
an Age of Revolution, 1775–1815. Cambridge UP. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-521-89996-3.
Tulard, Jean (1984). Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour (https://books.google.com/books?id=w
UDiAAAACAAJ). Methuen. ISBN 978-0-416-39510-5.
Upshall, Michael, ed. (1993). The Wordsworth Pocket Encyclopedia (https://books.google.com/
books?id=IeQ5AAAACAAJ). Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 978-1-85326-301-9.
White, Matthew (2014), Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth
Century (http://necrometrics.com/wars19c.htm#Napoleonic), retrieved 3 May 2017. This source
references:
Bodart, Gaston (1916), Losses of Life in Modern Wars
Dumas, Samuel (1923), Losses of Life Caused By War
Urlanis, Boris (1971), Wars and Population
Payne, Stanley G., A History of Spain and Portugal, vol. 2
Danzer, Arme-Zeitun (in German)
Clodfelter, Micheal, Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and
Other Figures, 1618–1991
Young, Peter; Lawford, J. P. (2015). Wellington's Masterpiece: The Battle and Campaign of
Salamanca (https://books.google.com/books?id=tOOoCgAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-
317-39728-1.

Further reading

General and reference books

Bruun, Geoffrey. Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 (1938) online (https://archive.or
g/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.183653/2015.183653.Europe-And-The-French-Imperium-1799-18
14_text.pdf), political and diplomatic context
Bruce, Robert B. et al. Fighting Techniques of the Napoleonic Age 1792–1815: Equipment,
Combat Skills, and Tactics (2008) excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/Fighting-T
echniques-Napoleonic-Age-1792%C2%96/dp/0312375875/)
Clausewitz, Carl von (2018). Napoleon's 1796 Italian Campaign. Trans and ed. Nicholas
Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-
2676-2
Clausewitz, Carl von (2020). Napoleon Absent, Coalition Ascendant: The 1799 Campaign in
Italy and Switzerland, Volume 1. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle.
Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-3025-7
Clausewitz, Carl von (2021). The Coalition Crumbles, Napoleon Returns: The 1799 Campaign
in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 2. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle.
Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-3034-9
Gates, David. The Napoleonic Wars 1803–1815 (NY: Random House, 2011)
Gulick, E.V. "The final coalition and the Congress of Vienna, 1813–15," in C.W. Crawley, ed.
The New Cambridge Modern History: IX. War and Peace in an age of upheaval 1793–1830
 (Cambridge University Press, 1965) pp. 629–668; online (https://archive.org/details/newcambri
dgemode0009unse).
Markham, Felix. "The Napoleonic Adventure" in C.W. Crawley, ed. The New Cambridge
Modern History: IX. War and Peace in an age of upheaval 1793–1830 (Cambridge University
Press, 1965) pp. 307–336; online (https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemode0009unse).
Pope, Stephen (1999). The Cassel Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. Cassel. ISBN 0-304-
35229-2.
Ross, Steven T. European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe (1969)
Ross, Steven T. The A to Z of the Wars of the French Revolution (Rowman & Littlefield, 2010);
1st ed. was Historical dictionary of the wars of the French Revolution (Scarecrow Press, 1998)
Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1988). "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the
French Revolution and Napoleon". Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 18 (4): 771–793.
doi:10.2307/204824 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F204824). JSTOR 204824 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/204824).
Rothenberg, E. Gunther. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon (1977)
Schneid, Frederick C. (2011). The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (http://nbn-resol
ving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20101025334). Mainz: Institute of European History.
Schneid, Frederick C. Napoleon's Conquest of Europe: The War of the Third Coalition (2005)
excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Conquest-Europe-Coalition-Inter
national-ebook/dp/B000VI5O02/)
Schneid, Frederick C. Napoleonic Wars: The Essential Bibliography (2012) excerpt and text
search (https://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Essential-Bibliography/dp/1597972096/)
121 pp. online review in H-FRANCE (http://www.h-france.net/vol13reviews/vol13no26ashby.pd
f)
Smith, Digby George. The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book: Actions and Losses in
Personnel, Colours, Standards, and Artillery (1998)
Stirk, Peter. "The concept of military occupation in the era of the French Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars." Comparative Legal History 3#1 (2015): 60–84.

Napoleon and French

Chandler, David G., ed. Napoleon's Marshals (1987) short scholarly biographies
Dwyer, Philip. Napoleon: The Path to Power (2008) excerpt vol 1 (https://www.amazon.com/Na
poleon-Path-Power-Philip-Dwyer-ebook/dp/B00280LN5G/)
Elting, John R. Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grand Armée (1988).
Forrest, Alan I. Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Empire Revolution and Empire (2002).
Forrest, Alan. Conscripts and Deserters: The Army and French Society during Revolution and
the Empire (1989) excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/Conscripts-Deserters-Fre
nch-Society-Revolution/dp/0195059379/)
Gallaher, John G. Napoleon's Enfant Terrible: General Dominique Vandamme (2008). excerpt
(https://www.amazon.com/Napoleon%C2%92s-Enfant-Terrible-Dominique-Commanders/dp/08
06138750/)
Griffith, Paddy. The Art of War of Revolutionary France, 1789–1802 (1998) excerpt and text
search (https://www.amazon.com/Art-War-Revolutionary-France-1789-1802/dp/1853673358/)
Haythornthwaite, Philip J. Napoleon's Military Machine (1995) excerpt and text search (https://
www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Military-Machine-Philip-Haythornthwaite/dp/1885119186/)
Hazen, Charles Downer. The French Revolution and Napoleon (1917) online free (https://www.
questia.com/library/16519/the-french-revolution-and-napoleon)
Nester, William R. Napoleon and the Art of Diplomacy: How War and Hubris Determined the
Rise and Fall of the French Empire (2011). excerpt (https://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Art-Di
plomacy-Hubris-Determined-ebook/dp/B006P7PV9W/)
 Parker, Harold T. "Why Did Napoleon Invade Russia? A Study in Motivation and the
Interrelations of Personality and Social Structure," Journal of Military History (1990) 54#2
pp. 131–146 in JSTOR (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1986039).
Riley, Jonathon P. Napoleon as a General (Hambledon Press, 2007)
Mikaberidze, Alexander. The Napoleonic Wars: A Global History (Oxford University Press)
February 2020
Wilkin Bernard and Wilkin René: Fighting for Napoleon: French Soldiers’ Letters 1799–1815
Pen and Sword Military (2016)
Wilkin Bernard and Wilkin René: Fighting the British: French Eyewitness Accounts from the
Napoleonic Wars Pen and Sword Military (2018)
Geerts, Gérard A. Samenwerking en Confrontatie: De Frans-Nederlandse militaire
betrekkingen, voornamelijk in Franse tijd (Bataafschse Leeuw, 2002)

Austrian, Prussian and Russian roles

Haythornthwaite, Philip J. The Russian Army of the Napoleonic Wars (1987) vol 1: Infantry
1799–1814; vol 2: Cavalry, 1799–1814
Lieven, D. C. "Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon (1812–14)," Kritika: Explorations in Russian
and Eurasian History (2006) 7#2 pp. 283–308.
Rothenberg, Gunther E. Napoleon's Great Adversaries: The Archduke Charles and the Austrian
Army 1792–1814 (1982)
Schneid, Frederick C. ed. European Armies of the French Revolution, 1789–1802 (2015) Nine
essays by leading scholars.

Historiography and memory

Esdaile, Charles. "The Napoleonic Period: Some Thoughts on Recent Historiography,"
European History Quarterly, (1993) 23: 415–432 online (https://archive.today/2013020204314
8/http://ehq.sagepub.com/content/23/3/415.extract)
Forrest, Alan et al. eds. War Memories: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in Modern
European Culture (2013)
Gill, John H. "From Great Captains to Common Grognards: research opportunities in
Napoleonic military history." War & Society 41.1 (2022): 69–84.
doi:10.1080/07292473.2022.2021752 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07292473.2022.2021752)
Hyatt, Albert M.J. "The Origins of Napoleonic Warfare: A Survey of Interpretations." Military
Affairs (1966) 30#4 pp. 177–185.
Linch, Kevin. "War Memories: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in Modern European
Culture." Social History 40#2 (2015): 253–254.
Martin, Jean-Clément. "War Memories. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in Modern
European Culture." Annales Historiques De La Revolution Francaise. (2015) No. 381.
Messenger, Charles, ed. (2001). Reader's Guide to Military History (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=VT7fAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA391). Routledge. pp. 391–427. ISBN 978-1-135-95970-8.
evaluation of the major books on Napoleon and his wars published by 2001.
Mikaberidze, Alexander. "Recent Trends in the Russian Historiography of the Napoleonic
Wars," Journal of Military History (2010) 74#1 pp. 189–194.

Primary sources
Dwyer, Philip G. "Public remembering, private reminiscing: French military memoirs and the
revolutionary and Napoleonic wars," French Historical Studies (2010) 33#2 pp. 231–258 online
(http://fhs.dukejournals.org/content/33/2/231.short)
 Kennedy, Catriona. Narratives of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: Military and Civilian
Experience in Britain and Ireland (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013)
Leighton, James. Witnessing the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in German Central
Europe (2013), diaries, letters and accounts by civilians Online review (https://wayback.archive
-it.org/all/20171020101956/https://academic.oup.com/gh/article-abstract/33/1/142/2726747/Wit
nessing-the-Revolutionary-and-Napoleonic-Wars)

External links
Texts on Wikisource:
Beck, Archibald Frank (1911). "Waterloo Campaign, 1815". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Vol. 28 (11th ed.). pp. 371–381.
Maude, Frederic Natusch (1911). "Napoleonic Campaigns". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Vol. 19 (11th ed.). pp. 212–236.
Robinson, Charles Walker (1911). "Peninsular War". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21
(11th ed.). pp. 90–98.
Rose, John Holland (1911). "Napoleon I.". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.).
pp. 190–211.
"A new scholarly journal in 2023: European Review of Studies on the Napoleonic and
Restoration Periods " (https://networks.h-net.org/group/73374/announcements/20000645/new-j
ournal-napoleonic-and-restorations-periods-born)
The Legend of Bonaparte (https://web.archive.org/web/20111009051911/http://www.thailisting.c
om/epic/)
The Napoleonic Wars Exhibition held by The European Library (https://www.theeuropeanlibrar
y.org/exhibition/napoleonic_wars/index.HTML)
15th Kings Light Dragoons (Hussars) Re-enactment Regiment (https://web.archive.org/web/20
140108104011/http://xvld.org/)
2nd Bt. 95th Rifles (https://web.archive.org/web/20090831063254/http://www.95th-rifles.co.uk/
main.html) Reenactment and Living History Society
The Napoleonic Wars Collection Website (http://www.militaryheritage.com/napoleon.htm)
Napoleon, His Army and Enemies (http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/)
Napoleonic Guide (http://www.napoleonguide.com/)
War and Peace (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2600) by Leo Tolstoy at Project Gutenberg
Napoleonic Wars (http://british-history.co.uk/napoleonic)
Fondation Napoléon (https://www.napoleon.org/en/)
The Napoleon Series (https://www.napoleon-series.org/)

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