THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Module – 1
Diodes, Power Supplies & Bipolar Junction Transistors

Course Instructor
Mrs.SHRUTHI K S
Assistant Professor
Dept. of ECE
NIE, Mysuru

DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU 10/6/2023 1

Course Structure: Module – 1: Diodes, Power Supplies & Bipolar Junction Transistors
Diodes Power Supplies Bipolar Junction Transistors
 PN junction diodes  Block diagram  BJT as an amplifier
 Zener Diodes  Half-wave rectifier  BJT as a switch
 Full-wave rectifiers and filters
 Voltage regulators

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About Semiconductors
 Matter is made up of molecules which consists of ATOMS.
 According to Bohr’s theory, “the atom consists of positively charged nucleus and a number of negatively
charged electrons which revolve round the nucleus in various orbits”.

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 About Semiconductors
 A semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between the conductors and insulators.
 The property of resistivity is not the only one that decides a material as a semiconductor, but it has few
properties as follows:
 Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than insulators and more than conductors.
 Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient.
 The resistance in semiconductors, increases with the decrease in temperature and vice versa.
 The Conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when a suitable metallic impurity is added to it,
which is a very important property.

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 About Semiconductors

Semiconductors

Extrinsic
Intrinsic
or
or
Impure
Pure Semiconductor
Semiconductor

P-Type N-Type

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 About Semiconductors

 Intrinsic Semiconductor
A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor is called as an extrinsic
semiconductor.
 Doping
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as doping. The impurities added,
are generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities.
 Pentavalent Impurities
 The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons in the outer most orbit.
Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus
 The pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it donates one electron to the conduction band of
pure semiconductor atom.
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 About Semiconductors
 Trivalent Impurities
The trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence electrons in the outer most orbit.
Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, Boron.
 The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the
semiconductor atom.
 N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
 A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in N-type
extrinsic semiconductor.
 The added impurity has 5 valence electrons.
 For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the valence electrons get
attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains as a free electron. This is as shown in the
following figure.
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 About Semiconductors

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 About Semiconductors

 P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

 A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in P-type extrinsic
semiconductor.
 The added impurity has 3 valence electrons.
 For example, if Boron atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the valence electrons get
attached with the Ge atoms, to form three covalent bonds.
 But, one more electron in germanium remains without forming any bond.
 As there is no electron in boron remaining to form a covalent bond, the space is treated as a hole.
This is as shown in the following figure.

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 About Semiconductors

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 About Semiconductors

 Why Silicon is Preferred in Semiconductors?

 Among the semiconductor materials like germanium and silicon, the extensively used material for
manufacturing various electronic components is Silicon Si.
 Silicon is preferred over germanium for many reasons such as −:
• The energy band gap is 0.7ev, whereas it is 0.2ev for germanium.
• The thermal pair generation is smaller.
• The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in the manufacture of many components
along with integration technology.
• Si is easily found in nature than Ge.
• Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.

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 Diodes – PN Junction Diodes

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 PN Junction Diodes

 A semiconductor diode is a two terminal electronic component with a PN junction.

 This is also called as a Rectifier.
 The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and the cathode, which
is the negative terminal is represented with K.

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 PN Junction Diodes

 Formation of a Diode
 If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to form a
junction

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 PN Junction Diodes
 Biasing of a Diode
 When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased conditions
with the given supply.
 They are Forward biased condition and Reverse biased condition.

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 BIASING OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE

 A. Forward Biasing

Figure 1.7: Forward Biasing of diode

16
 BIASING OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE-FORWARD
 P-side is connected to positive of battery N-side is connected to negative of the battery.
 The holes on the p-side, being positively charged particles, are repelled from the positive
terminal and driven toward the junction.
 The electrons on the n-side are repelled from the negative terminal toward the junction.
 The result is that the width of the depletion region and the barrier potential are both
reduced.
 When the applied bias voltage is increased from zero, the barrier voltage gets smaller until
charge carriers flow across the junction.
 Electrons from the n-side are now attracted across to the positive bias terminal on the p-
side.
 Holes from the p-side flow across to the negative terminal on the n-side.
 A majority carrier current flows, and the junction is said to be forward biased 17
 BIASING OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE

 B. Reverse Biasing

Figure 1.8: Reverse Biasing of diode

18
 BIASING OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE-REVERSE
 P-side is connected to negative of battery, N-side is connected to positive of the battery.
 Electrons from the n-side are attracted to the positive terminal, and holes from the p-side
are attracted to the negative terminal.
 Holes on the p-side of the junction are attracted away from the junction
 Electrons are attracted away from the junction on the n-side.
 This causes the depletion region to be widened and the barrier voltage to be increased.
 With the barrier voltage increase, there is no possibility of a majority charge carrier
current flow across the junction,
 The junction is said to be reverse biased.
 There is only a very small reverse current.
 Reverse-biased pn-junction has a high resistance.
19
 PN Junction Diodes – Working Principle

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 PN Junction Diodes – Working Principle

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 V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE

Figure 1.10: V-I Characteristics of Si diode

 Forward current IF remains very low till forward voltage VF exceeds 0.7V.
 At VF levels greater than 0.7V, IF increases linearly.
 Reverse current IR is typically in 100nA and independent of reverse voltage.
 IR is usually minority charge carrier reverse saturation current. 22
 PN Junction Diodes

 P-N Junction Formula

The p-n junction formula, which is based on the built-in potential difference generated by the electric field, is as
follows:
Eo= VTln [ ND – NA / ni2 ]
where,
 The zero-bias junction voltage is E0.
 At room temperature, VT is the thermal voltage.
 The impurity concentrations are denoted by the letters ND and NA.
 The intrinsic concentration is denoted by ni

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 PN Junction Diodes

 Applications of PN Junction Diode

 When the p-n junction diode’s arrangement is reverse-biased, the diode may be utilized as a photodiode since
it is sensitive to light.
 It has the potential to be utilized as a solar cell.
 The diode can be utilized in LED lighting applications when it is forward-biased.
 Many electric circuits utilized it as a rectifier, while varactors employ it as a voltage-controlled oscillator.

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 PN Junction Diodes

 Applications of PN Junction Diode: LED

All LEDs emit light of a specific color. Some examples of

materials used to make diodes are: aluminum gallium arsenide
(red), gallium (III) nitride (green), and zinc selenide (blue).

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 PN Junction Diodes

 Applications of PN Junction Diode: Photo Diode

 PN Photodiode
 Schottky Photo Diode
 PIN Photodiode
 Avalanche Photodiode

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 Diodes – Zener Diodes

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 Zener Diodes

 A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode

 Heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed to operate in the reverse direction.
 Zener Effect
 The voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode is reversed and
 The potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the junction breaks down and
the current flows in the reverse direction.
 History of Zener Diodes
 Clarence Melvin Zener was the first person to describe the electrical properties of Zener
Diode.
 Clarence Zener was a theoretical physicist who worked at Bell Labs.
 As a result of his work, the Zener diode was named after him.
 He first postulated the breakdown effect that bears his name in a paper that was
published in 1934.
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 Zener Diodes

 There are two types of breakdowns for a Zener Diode:

i. Avalanche Breakdown
ii. Zener Breakdown
 Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode
 Avalanche breakdown occurs in normal diode and Zener Diode at high reverse voltage.
 When a high value of reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the free electrons gain sufficient energy and
accelerate at high velocities.
 These free electrons moving at high velocity collide with other atoms and knock off more electrons.
 Due to this continuous collision, a large number of free electrons are generated as a result of electric current
in the diode rapidly increases.
 This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroy the normal diode.
 However, a Zener diode is designed to operate under avalanche breakdown and can sustain the sudden spike
of current.
 Avalanche breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.
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 Zener Diodes

 Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode

 When the applied reverse bias voltage reaches closer to the Zener voltage, the electric field in the depletion
region gets strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band.
 The valence electrons that gain sufficient energy from the strong electric field of the depletion region break
free from the parent atom.
 At the Zener breakdown region, a small increase in the voltage results in the rapid increase of the electric
current.

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 Zener Diodes

 Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown

 The Zener effect is dominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts and the avalanche effect takes over above that.
 The Zener effect is a quantum phenomenon and the avalanche effect is the movement of electrons in the
valence band like in any electric current.
 Avalanche effect also allows a larger current through the diode than what a Zener breakdown would allow.
 Circuit Symbol of Zener Diode

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 Zener Diodes

 V-I Characteristics of Zener

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 Zener Diodes

 Differences

Parameters Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

The breakdown in a PN junction diode
The breakdown in a PN junction diode that occurs due to impact ionization,
occurs due to the tunneling effect (or i.e. increase in the number of free
Definition
field ionization) is known as Zener electrons flowing in the reverse
breakdown. direction is called avalanche
breakdown.
The reverse voltage at which
The reverse voltage at which the Zener avalanche breakdown takes place is
breakdown occurs is called Zener called avalanche breakdown
Breakdown voltage (In reverse
voltage. It is denoted by VZ and its voltage. The value of avalanche
direction)
value typically varies from 5 to 8 breakdown voltage is usually more
volts. than 8 volts, which is always greater
than Zener voltage.

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 Zener Diodes

 Differences

Parameters Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

The Zener breakdown occurs in the PN Avalanche breakdown occurs in such
Depletion region junction diodes having comparatively PN junction diodes that have thick
thin depletion region. depletion region.
The avalanche breakdown
The Zener breakdown does destroy
Destruction of junction permanently destroys the PN
the PN junction of the diode.
junction of the diode.
In case of avalanche breakdown, the
In the Zener breakdown, the electric
Electric field electric field across the junction is
field across the junction is strong.
relatively weak.
Zener breakdown occurs in heavily Avalanche breakdown can occur in the
Doping level
doped PN junction diodes. diode having any level of doping.
Avalanche breakdown occurs at a
Zener breakdown takes place at
Reverse voltage reverse voltage more than Zener
relatively lower reverse voltage.
voltage.
DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU 10/6/2023 34

 Differences
Parameters
Ionization
Relation between breakdown
voltage & temperature
Change in voltage after breakdown
Temperature coefficient of voltage
DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU
Zener Breakdown
In case of Zener breakdown, the
ionization is due to electric field.
The Zener breakdown voltage is
inversely proportional to the
temperature.
In case of Zener breakdown, once the
breakdown occurs, the reverse voltage
across the diode becomes constant.
Zener breakdown has a negative
temperature coefficient of voltage,
i.e. Zener voltage decreases with the
increase in temperature.
Zener Diodes
Avalanche Breakdown
In case of avalanche breakdown, the
ionization is due to collision between
charge carries and atoms.
The avalanche breakdown voltage is
directly proportional to the
temperature.
The voltage across the diode may
vary even after the occurrence of
avalanche breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown has a positive
temperature coefficient of voltage,
which means the avalanche
breakdown voltage increases when the
temperature decreases.
10/6/2023 35
 Zener Diodes

 Differences

Parameters Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

Avalanche breakdown generates hole
Charge carriers Zener breakdown generates electrons.
electrons pairs.
In case of avalanche breakdown, the
In case of Zener breakdown, the PN
Effect on junction PN junction does not regain its
junction regains its original state.
original state.

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 Zener Diodes

 Application of Zener Diode

1. Zener diode as a voltage regulator:
 Zener diode is used as a Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage across small loads.
 The Zener diode is connected parallel to the load to make it reverse bias, and once the Zener diode exceeds
knee voltage, the voltage across the load will become constant.
 The breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of currents.
2. Zener diode in over-voltage protection:
 When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the resistor drops
resulting in a short circuit, this can be avoided by using the Zener diode.
3. Zener diode in clipping circuits:
 Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting the parts of either one or both the
half cycles of an AC waveform.

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 Power Supplies – Block Diagram

DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU 10/6/2023 38

 Power Supplies- Block Diagram

 Power Supplies- Block Diagram

Fig. Block diagram of a d.c. power supply

Fig. Block diagram of a d.c. power supply showing principal components

DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU 10/6/2023 39

 Power Supplies- Block Diagram

 Power Supplies- Block Diagram

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 Power Supplies – Rectifiers – Half Wave

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 Power Supplies - Rectifier

Rectifiers

Halfwave Fullwave
Rectifier Rectifier

Bi-Phase
Bridge Rectifier
Rectifier

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 Rectifiers:
 Semiconductor diodes are commonly used to convert alternating current (a.c.) to direct current (d.c), they
are referred to as rectifiers.
 The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single diode and, since it operates on only either positive
or negative half-cycles of the supply, it is known as a half-wave rectifier.

Fig. A simple half-wave rectifier circuit

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 Rectifiers:

Fig.(a) Half-wave rectifier circuit with D1 conducting (positive-going half-cycles of secondary voltage);
(b) Half-wave rectifier with D1 not conducting (negative-going half-cycles of secondary voltage)

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 OPERATION OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER :

D FWD Biased
Vin T1 1
+
+A
+ VL

RL t
t Current Flow
- -
B
-

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 OPERATION OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER :

D REV Biased
1
Vin T1
-
- A
VL

RL t
t

+B
+

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers
 WAVEFORMS OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER :
Vin

VL D1 FWD D1 REV D1 FWD D1 REV

Biased Biased Biased Biased

Pulsating Output Voltage

t

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

Fig. A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with

reservoir capacitor
Fig. A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with
reservoir capacitor

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

Fig. Half-wave rectifier circuit with R–C Fig. Half-wave rectifier circuit with L–C
smoothing filter smoothing filter

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Simple circuit with less number of components
 Economical at initial state. Although there is a higher cost over time due to more power losses
 Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
 Converts only one cycle of the sinusoidal input given to it and the other cycle gets wasted. Thus, giving more
power loss.
 HWR produces lower output voltage.
 The output current thus obtained is not purely DC and it still contains a lot of ripple (i.e. it has a high ripple
factor)

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

 Appliances
 Used with transformers
 Soldering
 AM radio
 Pulse generated circuits
 Single demodulation
 Voltage multiplier

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 Problem 1:
A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is connected to a 220 Vr.m.s. mains supply. If the secondary
output is applied to a half-wave rectifier, determine the peak voltage that will appear across a load.
 Solution:
The r.m.s. secondary voltage will be given by:
Vs=VP / 44 = 220 / 44 = 5 V
The peak voltage developed after rectification will be given by:
VPK = 1.414 * 5 V = 7.07 V
Assuming that the diode is a silicon device with a forward voltage drop of 0.6 V, the actual peak voltage dropped
across the load will be:
VL = 7.07 V - 0.6 V = 6.47 V

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 Problem 2:
The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 = 100 Ω and C2 =
1,000 μF. If 1V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of ripple appearing at the
output.
 Solution:
The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor equal to:

𝑿𝒄
𝑹𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐𝒄

Xc=1/2πfC
Xc= 1/(2 π * 50 * 1000 *10^-6)
Xc= 3.18 Ω

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 Problem 2:
The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 = 100 Ω and C2 =
1,000 μF. If 1V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of ripple appearing at the
output.
 Solution:
The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor equal to:

𝑿𝒄
Vripple = 1 *
𝑹𝟐 +𝒙𝟐𝒄

Vripple = 0.032V or 32mV

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 Problem 3:
The L–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of L1 = 10 H and C2 =
1,000 μF. If 1V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of ripple appearing at the
output.
Solution:
The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor equal to:
V= (XC) / ( XC + XL)

Xc=1/2πfC
Xc= 1/(2 π * 50 * 1000 *10^-6)
Xc= 3.18 Ω

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 Power Supplies- Rectifiers

 Problem 3:
The L–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of L1 = 10 H and C2 =
1,000 μF. If 1V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of ripple appearing at the
output.
Solution:
The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor equal to:
XL = 2πfL
XL= (2 π * 50 * 10)
XL= 3,140 Ω
Vripple = 1 * (XC) / ( XC + XL)
Vripple = 0.001 V or 1mV

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 Power Supplies – Rectifiers – Full Wave

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 Full Wave Rectifiers

 Unfortunately, the half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient as conduction takes place only on
alternate half-cycles.
 A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both positive and negative half-cycles.
 These full-wave rectifier circuits offer a considerable improvement over their half-wave counterparts.
 They are not only more efficient but are significantly less demanding in terms of the reservoir and
smoothing components.
 There are two basic forms of full-wave rectifier:
1. The bi-phase type and
2. The bridge rectifier type.

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 Full Wave Rectifiers

 The Bi-Phase Type

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 Full Wave Rectifiers

 The Bi-Phase Type

D FWD Biased
1

Vin T
A + + VL
1 R
L
B -
-
t +

C
-

D2 REV Biased
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 Full Wave Rectifiers

 The Bi-Phase Type

D REV Biased
1

Vin T
A - + Vout
1 R
L
B + -
t -

C
+

D2 FWD Biased
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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 The Bi-Phase Type
Vin

D1 FWD D1 FWD
D2 REV D2 REV

VL D2 FWD D2 FWD
D1 REV D1 REV

Pulsating Output Voltage

t

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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 The Bi-Phase Type

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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge rectifier circuits

Fig: Four diodes connected as a bridge

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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge rectifier circuits

Fig: Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge rectifier circuits

Fig: Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge rectifier circuits

+
vin T1 A
D +
REV
4 D FWD
1

t + vout
B D
FWD
2 - D
- REV
3 RL t

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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge rectifier circuits

Fig: Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge rectifier circuits

A -
vin T1 FWD
D
4 D REV
1

t + vout
D
REV
2 D
B+ FWD
3 RL

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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge rectifier circuits

Fig: Bridge rectifier with reservoir capacitor

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 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge rectifier circuits

DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU Fig: Waveforms for the bridge rectifier 10/6/2023 71
 Voltage regulators
 Voltage regulators

Fig: A simple shunt zener voltage

regulator

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 Voltage regulators
 Voltage regulators
𝒗𝑰𝑵 − 𝒗𝒛
𝑹𝑳 𝑹𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝒗𝒛 = 𝒗𝑰𝑵 × 𝐈𝒛
𝑹𝑳 + 𝑹𝒔
𝒗𝑰𝑵 − 𝒗𝒛
𝒗𝑰𝑵 𝑹𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝑹𝒔 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝑹𝑳 −𝟏 𝑷𝒛 𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒗ℤ 𝒗𝒛
𝑷𝒛 = 𝑰𝒛 ∗ 𝒗𝒛 𝒗𝑰𝑵 − 𝒗𝒛 𝒗𝒛
𝑹𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝑷𝒛 𝐦𝐚𝐱
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 Voltage regulators
 Problem 4
A 5 V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in a
simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5 V to a load having a resistance of 400 Ω, determine a
suitable value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9 V.

 Solution

𝒗𝑰𝑵
𝑹𝒔 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝑹𝑳 −𝟏 Rs max = 400 [ 9/5 -1] = 320Ω
𝒗ℤ

𝒗𝑰𝑵 − 𝒗𝒛 𝒗𝒛
𝑹𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 = Rs min = [((9-5)* 5)/ 0.5] = 40Ω
𝑷𝒛 𝐦𝐚𝐱

Hence a suitable value for RS would be 150 Ω

(roughly mid-way between the two extremes)

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 Standard resistor values in ohms (±5%)

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 Transistors

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 Transistors

 After having a good knowledge on the working of the diode, which is a single PN junction, let us try to
connect two PN junctions which make a new component called Transistor.
 A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as
a switch or gate for signals.
 Why Do We Need Transistors?
 Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want.
 The received signal will obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face during its journey.
 Now if this signal is read as it is, you cannot get a fair output.
 Hence we need to amplify the signal. Amplification means increasing the signal strength.
 Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be increased.
 This is done by a transistor.
 A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between available options.
 It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.
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 Transistors

 Introduction
 Transistor – TRANSfer – resISTOR
 The concept of “transferring” a current from low resistance to a high resistance circuit is one version of
“transfer of resistance”.
 Transistors make our electronics world go 'round.
 They're critical as a control source in just about every modern circuit.
 Sometimes you see them, but more-often-than-not they're hidden deep within the die of an integrated
circuit (IC).
 Developed in the year 1947 by three American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William
Shockley, the transistor is considered as one of the most important inventions in the history of science.

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 Transistors

 Types of Transistors
Transistors

BJT FET IGBT

NPN PNP JFET MOSFET PT IGBT NPT IGBT

Enhancement
N Type P Type Depletion Mode
Mode

N Channel P Channel N Channel P Channel

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 Transistors

 Transistors Today

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 Transistors

 Transistors Today

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 Transistors

 Transistors Today
Number of MOSFETs
Year Component Name
(in trillions)

Micron's V-
2022 Flash memory 5.3
NAND chip

2020 Any processor Wafer Scale Engine 2 2.6

2023 GPU MI300X 0.153

microprocessor
2023 M2 Ultra 0.134
(commercial)

2020 DLP Colossus Mk2 GC200 0.059

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 Transistors

 Transistors Today
MOSFET scaling
(process nodes)
•10 µm – 1971 •90 nm – 2003
•6 µm – 1974 •65 nm – 2005
•3 µm – 1977 •45 nm – 2007
• 1.5 µm – 1981 •32 nm – 2009
•1 µm – 1984 •22 nm – 2012
•800 nm – 1987 •14 nm – 2014
•600 nm – 1990 •10 nm – 2016
•350 nm – 1993 •7 nm – 2018
•250 nm – 1996 •5 nm – 2020
•180 nm – 1999 •3 nm – 2022
•130 nm – 2001
DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU
•Future2 nm ~ 2024 10/6/2023 83
 Transistors

 Constructional Details of a Transistor

 The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two diodes back to back.
 Hence it has got two PN junctions.
 Three terminals are drawn out of the three semiconductor materials present in it.
 This type of connection offers two types of transistors.
 They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two P types and the other is a P-type
material between two N-types respectively.

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 Transistors

 Constructional Details of a Transistor

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 Transistors

 Constructional Details of a Transistor

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 Transistors

 Constructional Details of a Transistor - Emitter

 The left hand side of the shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
 This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number of majority carriers,
i.e. either electrons or holes.
 As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
 This is simply indicated with the letter E.

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 Transistors

 Constructional Details of a Transistor - Base

 The middle material in the figure is the Base.
 This is thin and lightly doped.
 Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
 This is indicated by the letter B.

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 Transistors

 Constructional Details of a Transistor - Collector

 The right side material in the figure can be understood as a Collector.
 Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
 This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
 This is indicated by the letter C.

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Transistor Structure

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Operation PNP Transistor

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Operation NPN Transistor

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Operation NPN & PNP Transistor

𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑪 + 𝑰𝑩
IE – Emitter Current
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜶ⅆ𝑪 𝑰𝑬 = +𝑰𝑪𝑩𝑶
IC – Collector Current
𝑰𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪𝑩𝑶 IB – Base Current
𝜶ⅆ𝑪 =
𝑰𝑬 αdc – Common Base current gain (0.96 to 0.99)
ICBO = Collector to Base Leakage Current
𝑰𝑪
𝜶ⅆ𝑪 =
𝑰𝑬

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 3 different possible configurations

 The three types of configurations are:
1. Common Base
2. Common Emitter and
3. Common Collector configurations.
 In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse
biased.

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Common Base configuration

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Common Base configuration

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Common Emitter configuration

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Common Emitter configuration

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Common Collector configuration

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Common Collector configuration

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 DC Load Line & Q point

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 BJT as an VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER : CE Configuration

a.c Voltage Gain
𝒗𝟎
𝑨𝒗 =
𝒗𝒊

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 BJT as an Current AMPLIFIER : CE Configuration

a.c Current Gain

βac = ∆IC / ∆IB

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

 BJT as a SWITCH : CE Configuration

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 Thank You

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