Section-B

Experiments
Experiment No. lI
To fnd the value of v for different values ofu in case of aconcave
mleror and to flnd the focai length,
Apparatus:
Optical bench. given concave mirror, optical needles, knitting needle, half netre rod
Theory :
uis the distance of object and vthe distanee of its image from the mirror. Focal length (is given by the relation

+ye
+
f

f =

Procedure : Fig. 11.1. Ray diagram

1. Turn the reflecting surface of the mirror towards a distant object and obtain inage of that object on asheet of note book
o
Measure distance of image from the mirror by holding half metre rod along the two. This is rough focal length
Concave mirror.
Image of O

150
Raulyalunluakuauahukuluumukua4att
Fig 11.2. Optical bench
them cl
optical needles in two uprights on the optical bench. Place
2. Clamp mirror holder in one upright and fix two same heigtht as
their heights so that tips of the needles are at the
toeach other at one end of optical bench. Adjust paper is
the tip of the needle near the mirror. This piece of
centre of the mirror. Pierce a small piece of paper into
indication that this one is our object needle.
rough t
uprights carrying needles away from the mirror onthe optical bench to distance about 2 times the
3. Slide both
length.

19
 4 Side o t e e i e tors the mirror and look for its inverted image from the other end of optical bench
5 Secoai needle is rage nesle Pull the image needle away towards yourself and place it in such a position that when
see l g he prinpel aris of he mirot, tip of inverted image of object needle coincides with tip of image needle
í Loncn srig a rs DoVE your head siieways. As you move your head sideways the distance between two tips

Puü ot pust he image eeile tozris or zway from the object needle so that on moving your head sideways the two tips
re ooiaciding ihcach oher. When it isachieved the image needle is in exact position of image of the object
Deede. zd his is bo perallax is removed between the rwo.
& Noce he positions of a miTOr. object needle and image needle on the optical bench.
9. Take re nore rradings by sliding object needle by 2-3 cm towards the mirror and by repeating the steps 5 to 8.
14 ndve the distances from the poie of the mirrTOr to the tips of the needies, but we are noting the position of index
mark of pnghts. The istance beraeen index marks on uprights may not be same: because index marks may not be in
eract vertical plane of pole of the mirror and the tips of the needles. Error due to this is called index error (i) Take a
iing needie. Measure is length on ametre rod. Let it be x. i) Hold the kniting needle in your hand horizontally so
har ins one ead toucbes the centre of the mirtOr and the other end touches the tip of object needle. Read the index marks
of these raO uprights on the optical bench. Let the difference of the two be y, then x- y is the index correction to be
pplied to istance u. (üü) Remove the upright from the optical bench carrying object needle. Bring image needle a litle
closer so tha miror and tip of image needle touch the ends of knitting needle. Read the index marks of these two on the
opical beach. Let thei difference be ¿. then x-zis the index correction for v.
Observations and calculations :
Rough focal length of the mirror Cm

Length of knitting needle =....... cm

Length of kniting needle when beld between mirror and object needle }=...... cm

Length of knitting needle when hold between mirror and image needle Z=..... cm

Index oorection for u: X-y =..... Cm

Index correction for v: X-7 =...... Cm

Note : Inder correction is to be added as it is, along with its sign.

S.No. Positions of uprights (cm) Observed distances Corrected distances

f= Utu
(cm) (cm)

Mirror Object Image PO = u' PI = v' (cm)

-
P
1
2
3.
4

Resut : Mean focal length = .....cm

Precautions :
cm.
1. While removing parallax, distance of our eye from image needle should be at least 30
tip to tip.
2 Uprights can be slided along the optical bench or perpendicular to it so as to remove parallax
VINESH Practical PhysicsXII 21

3. End correction is to be applied for uand vseparately.

4 Plane of concave mirror should be vertical.
 EsperimentNo. 12
To find the focal length of convex mirror, using a convex lens.

Pparatus :
with optical needies.
oreA nirror, convex lens,optical bench lens halder mirror bolder. twouprights
Theory:
Rays starting froman object; pass through a convex lens. After passing through convex lens, the rays are incident On acon
mirror. In case the rays retrace their path the image is formed at the position of the objeot:

Fig. 12.1. Ray diagram with mirror.

Kays rOm convex lens to convex mirror can retrace their path only if these are incident normally on the mirror. Norn
means along the radius of curvature. Therefore C is centre of curvature of the mirror. PC is Ri.e.,
radius of Curvature
therefore focal length of convex mirror is R/2 or PC/2.

Fig. 12.2. Ray diagram without mirror.

To find position C, mirror is removed. A needle is placed at C. Image I of
object O is formed. Now look along principal
keeping your eye on the side of needle C. Remove parallax between image of 0 and the
needle.
rocedre :
1. Using convex lens obtain sharp image of adistant object on a white sheet.
Hold half metre rod along the sheet an
lens and measure the distance between the two. It is rough focal length of convex lens.
Place a needle, convex lens and a convex mirror on optical bench as shown in fig 12.1. Look for image of the
needle
the side of the needle. Adjust positions so that needle lies between F and 2F of
convex lens. An inverted image of ne
is formed.
Remove parallax between object needle and its image tip to tip. Note the positions of needle, convex lens and co
mirror.

3. Remove the mirror from optical bench. Place another needle on the side of the mirror. Do not
change the positio
first needle and the lens. Adjust only the position of second needle. Look from the side of second needle and rer
parallax between the second needle and the image of the first needle. Note position of second needle.
Thus in first part as in fig 12.1 any distance can be changed but in second part as in fig 12.2 the
positions of o
needle O and position of lens are fixed. These are not to be changed.
4. Take in all four sets of readings by changing distance between O and O' in each set.
 23
VINESH Practieal Physics--XII
other disunit eis needvd Su indez correction
5. As it is clear from theory the distance PCgives the radius of curature. No horiztally
knitting needle
is to be applied only to distance PC. Measure the length of koiting needle: then hold the
between convex mirror and the needle Iat C. Note their po0sitions on optical hench

Observations and calculations :

Rough focal length of convex lens
Actual length of knitting needle
needle
Length of knitting needle between convex mirror & image
Cm
Index correction for PI.
Observed radius of Corrected radis of
S. No. Position of uprights (cm)
curvature Curvature
Object convex convex image
needle PI =R'(cm) R (em)
needle lens mirror

(0) (0) (P) )

1.
2.
3
4
R=...... Cm.
Mean radius of curvature of convex mirror
R
-..Cm.
Result: Therefore focal length of convex mirror 2

Precautions :
1. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.
to be removed.
the optical bench from the position where the parallax is
2. Keep eye at a distance of at least 30 cm along
image of object needle O: positions of object needle and the lens
3. While removing parallax between image needle I and
should not be changed.

Experiment No. 13
1
between u andv and between - and
To find the focal length of aconvex lens by plotting graphs

Apparatus :
Optical bench, optical needles, knitting needle, half metre rod.
Theory :
other side of the lens. Direction of ray incident
When the object is between Fand 2F, image is formed away from 2F. on the
Therefore graph between u andu lies in
from the object to the lens is +ve. Therefore u i.e., CO is -ve and v i.e., CI is + ve.
OA OB
ftherefore.. f= and f =
second quadrant. As explained in a note 1in experiment II, co-ordinates ofP are -2 fand 2
 and -is ast.
line andIintercepts
24
between on two
11 it s
is explainedthat graph
and we find mean f. In note 2 of experiment

N (0, 1/)

1h

(-2f, 2) P B

45 1/u
XM(-1If, 0)
A
X

1 and
between
Fig. 13.3. Graph
Fig. 13.2. Graph between u and v

1 1 focal length.
are reciprocal of focal lengths.f = andf = OM then we find mean
ON

Procedure :
1. Find rough focal length of convex lens as in step l of experiment 12. same level as th
between two needles on the optical bench. Tips of the two needles should be in the remoy
Place a lens in of the lens. Look from the side ofI needle and
2
Object needle should be between F and 2F
centre of the lens.
parallax between I needle and the image of object needle.

I
F F 2F

Fig. 13.1. Ray diagram

3. By changing the distance of object needle from the lens, take six readings.
4 Measure the actual length of knitting needle on a metre rod. Hold the knitting needle
in your hand horizontally so th
marks of the
Read the index
its one end touches the centre of the lens and the other end touches the tip of object needle.
two uprights on the optical bench. Similarly do it for image needle and the lens.
Observations and calculations :
Rough focal length of convex lens f= cm

X=...... . Cm
Length of knitting needle using half metre rod
Length of knitting needle between convex lens &object needle y=...... cm

Length of knitting needle between convex leus and image needle 7 = . . .... Cm

Index correction for u X-y =..... cm

Index correction for u X-Z =...... Cm
 25
VINESH Practical Physics-XII
Observed distances Crrected distances (em-) l (em)
S. No. Positions of uprights (cm)
CO=u' Cl=v' u(cm) v(cm)
Object convex image
needle lens needle (cm) (cm)
(0) (C) ()

1.
2.
3.
4
5.
6.
along X-axis and v along Y-axis. Plot different points. Join these points by a free
Graph I: Plot the points u andvtaking u of ZX'OY. It meets the curve at point P. From P draw two perpendiculars
curve as shown in fig. 13.2. Draw the bisector
hand
PA and PB. ...... Cm
cm
OB (on graph)
OA (on graph) = OB
OA f= 2
f= 2 =........ CIm
.... Cmn
Meanf = ....cm

Result :
X-axis and along Y-axis. Plot different points and join them using a scale so that
Graph II : Plot the points l/u and 1/v along
intercepts on this axis; then
almost all the points lie on a straight line. Find..... cml ON (on graph)
Cm-!
OM (on graph)
1
1 f= ON
OM =.....Cm
=..... Cm
Meanf=......cm
Result :

Precautions :

1. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.

2. Eye should be placed at least 30 cm away from
the needle from where the parallax is removed.
 VINESH Practical Physics--XI
27

To determine angle of Experiment

minimum deviation for
No. 15
a given prism by
angle of deviation plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and
Apparatus :
Glass prism, drawing board, drawing pins,
protractor and a half metre rod.
sheet of paper, paper pins,

Theory:
For a particular angle of incidence, path of ray of
traced and angle of deviation is measured. Same light through a prism is
D
process
different angles of incidence. Graph is drawn between angle of
is repeated with
angle of deviation. From the graph we find that for any of incidence and
two angles of incidence Zi and Ze (fig. 15.1) deviation, there are
i=e
For incident ray PQ, angle of deviation is MTX =
D,.
emergent ray is incident normally on amirror and retraces its path; When the
the angle
Fig. 15.1.
Graph between i and D
of incidence is
e (fig. 15.2) and the angle of
=
deviation is NTP = ZD, and D,
D, = D(say) (vertically opposite
D, M incidence iand e angle of deviation Dangles).
is same.
Thus, for angles of
Again from graph we find that as D decreases, iand e
closer and when i = e the angle of deviation come
is minimum.
p
At minimum deviation i = e and D = m.
the prism becomes symmetrical. Same type of Refraction through
pattern of
equal angles are obtained on the two sides of the prism. rays and
Fig. 15.2. Ray diagram A horizontal tangent from the lowest point of
the graph gives
ô, the angle of minimum deviation.

Procedure :
1. Fix a sheet of paper on a drawing board with
drawing pins.
2. Place prism in the middle of the paper
with its base parallel to
Remove the prism. Mark a point Q at the centre of one face aslength of the paper. Mark its boundary with a pencil.
in fig 15.3. At Q draw a normal and i = 30°
protractor. Fix two pins on the line PQ vertically so that distance between these pins is using
more than 10 cm.

N M

30 D
P. I II E
III
X

Fig. 15.3.Refraction through prism

3. Put the prism back in its position. Look
through the other refracting face of the prism for the images of
Fix a third pin in line with images of first two pins. first two pins.
Looking through this face fix fourth pin in line
distance between 3rd and 4th pin on this side of thewithprism
the images of first two pins taking care that the the third pin and
than 10 cm. is also more
 Dysics
28
Remove the prism.
Remove the pins, encircling their positions.
5. Join positions of 3rd&4th pin togive line EX. Join QE. of deviation.
angle
6. Produce PQ to Mand XE to T. Measure ZMTX; he 55°.
angles of incidence 35°, 40°, 45°,50° and
Repeat steps 2to 6for
Observations and calculations : ZA =60°
Angle of prism 6
4
S.No. 1 2 3
450 50° 550
400
Angle of incidencei 30° 350

Angle of deviation D
Grap : Taking angle of incidence iialong X-axis and angle of deviation Dalong Y-axis plot different poin
taking suitable scales. Join these points by a free hand, smooth curve as in fig 15.1
Draw horizontaltangent from the lowest point on the graph and read the value Om
Result : (ô,) Angle of minimum deviation =
Precautions :
1. Angle of incidence should not be taken less than 30° or more than 60°.
2. Distance between the pins should be more than 10 cm.
3. Prism should not be changed while performing experiment.
4. Pin-pricks should be sharp.
5. Measure the angles accurately.
Note for verification 1. For first 3-4 readings Ddecreases and for last 1-2 readings D increases.
2. For each reading, measure Ze the angle of emergence and see thati+e= A + D
Note for determining refractive index : 1. Refractive index of material of prism can be found by applying
relation :

sin A+Óm
2
sin 2

Experiment No. 16
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus :
Glass slab, travelling microscope, spirit level, lycopodium powder.
Theory :
An ink mark touching lower surface of the slab when seen from top appears to be raised and refractive index.
real depth
apparent depth
VINESH Practical Physics-XII 29

Procedure :
1. Find vernier constant of vertical scale of travelling microscope.
2, Level the base of travelling microscope using levelling screws and spirit level.
3. Set the microscope tube vertical.
Put a cross mark on the horizontal platform of microscope using an ink pen; just in vertical line with the microscope.
4
5. Look through the microscope tube. Use rack and pinion arrangement, raise or lower the microscope tube till the cross
mark is visible through the microscope. Fix the screw of rack and pinion arrangement. Make fine adjustment with screw
provided for the purpose; till the cross mark is well in focus and there is no parallax between cross mark on horizontal
platform and cross wires of the microscope.
6 Note the reading on the vertical scale.
visitble or it
7. Place glass slab on the cross mark. Now look through the microscope tube. The cross mark is in either not
is blurred.
in focus. Make fine
8. Raise the microscope tube without using rack and pinion arrangement till the cross mark is
adjustment for sharp focus. Note the reading on the vertical scale of microscope.
microscope tube. Fine powder particles
9. Sprinkle a little lycopodium powder on the glass slab top surface. Look through rack
are either not seen and if seen, there is blurred image. Now without using and pinion arrangement raise the
till these particles
microscope gradually and slowly till these powder particles are visible. Make fine adjustment
sparkle white. Note the reading on the vertical scale of the microscope.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 two times more.
Rg
t
R2 R2
R4
R4

X
X

Fig. 16.1
slab.
Note.; R - R, measures real depth of cross mark, i.e., the real thickness t of the
R3- R, measures apparent depth of cross mark i.e., the depth of crosS mark when seen through the slab.
Observations and calculations :
:
Calculate vernier constant of travelling microscope. Note: Do not simply write vernier constant, properly calculate it
Reading of microscope when focussed at Real Apparent Refractive
S.No.
depth depth index
cross mark X image ofX Iycopodium
powder
R R2 R3 Ry-R1 Ry-R2 R3-RË
Ry -Rz
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3

Result : Mean refractive index =

Refractive index of glass from constant tables

 Y% error =
x 100
Ha

Precautions
1. Microscope tube should be vertical.
2. Microscope base should be levelled.
3. When focussed there should be no parallax between cross
mark and cross wires of microscope.
may be used only for first reading.
4. For a given setof observations, rack and pinion arrangement
5. Very few particles of lycopodiumn powder to be used.
 Experiment No. 18
-njunction in (O forward bias and (i) reverse bias.
1o drawl-Vcharacteristic curve for ap
Apparatus :
milliammeter, microammeter, rheostat, one way key.
njunctOn diode, 3V battery, 15 V power supply, two voltmetres,
connecting wires.
 vINESH Practical Physies XH
Theory :
when voltage is inreased rie it
() In torward bias circuit, positive pole of battery is connected top section Initially
current is slow, till knee vollage after which current increase is rapid anl linear
OA type junction diode are highly
Current is in milliamperes. BY (VDe junction diode cai withstand large current but
icreasing the forward bias when curent starts
temperature sensitive. Forward bias should not be increased beyond 2V Stop juwtion.e., upto this voltage the
pn
increasing rapidly. Potential barrier is 0-3 Vfor Ge p-n junction and 07Vfo Si
current is almost zero in respective junction.

0-30 ms
mA

Kneo
0-3V 2
Voltage

-wwww 08 10 12
X

02 0 4 06
K

3V Forward Blas (V)

blas-characteristic
Fig. 18.2. Forward
Fig. 18.1. Forward bias characteristic curcuit. obained when
circuit, negative pole of battery is connected to p-section. Initially a small current is till break down
(i) In reverse bias saturated current
negligibly with increase in voltage hence is called
voltage is increased. This current increases This large reverse current is called Zener current and respective voltage is
current is observed.
after which sharp increase in in microamperes.
called Zener voltage. Reverse bias current is very smallcurrent
Reverse Bias

4
-(V) -2
0-250 A
M
uA Reverse
Curent(uA)
10 %

0-15 V 20

ww.www. 30

15V

circuit Fig. 18.4. Reverse bias characteristic

Fig. 18.3. Reverse bias Characteristic

Procedure : p-n junction diode

() Forward Bias : OA -70
OR OR
1. Draw circuit diagram as in figure 18.1. OA -71 BY - 125
2. Place on the table difterent components in order
as shown. OR OR
BY -127
3. Clean the ends of connecting wires using sand paper. OA -72
 . Make neat and tight connections, but do not close the key.
5. Note least count of voltmeter and milliammeter.

6. Make zero error nil, if any in voltmeter and milliammeter.

K. See that both milliam.
I" Slide, sliding contact of rheostat towards -ve terminal ofthe battery. Close the key
meter and voltmeter read zero.
and
Þ. Slide the sliding contact of rheostat there by keep on increasing forward bias in small steps each time
note the voltmeter and milliammeter readings.
(i) Reverse Bias:
I. Replace 3 Vbattery by 15 Vpower supply in opposite order so that -ve pole of the power supply is in contact
with p-section ofp - n junction.
2. Replace 0 - 3 volt voltmeter by 0 - 15 volt voltmeter vith its -ve towards -ve of power supply.
3. Replace 0 - 30 mA milliammeter by 0 - 250 microammeter with its -ve connecting terminal to -ve of the
power supply.
4. Slide the sliding contact of rheostat towards +ve terminal of power supply and close the key, see that volt
meter reads zero and ammeter reads a few microamperes.
S. Increase the reverse bias in suitable steps by sliding the sliding contact of rheostat each time and note the volt
meter and microammeter readings, till the current increases abruptly.
Observations and calculations :
() Forward bias :
Least count of voltmeter V

Least count of milliammeter MA

Zero correction of voltmeter = nil
Zero correction of milliammeter = nil

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Voltmeter
reading (V)
Milliameter
reading (mA)
Graph : Plot different points : taking voltage along X-axis and
axes. Join these points by a free handsmooth curve. We get a graph (Icurrent along Y-axis, taking suitable scales along the two
V characteristic) forward bias as shown in figure 18.2.
() Reverse Bias :
Least count of voltmeter V
Least count of microammeter
=..... A
Zero correction of voltmeter = nil
Zero corection of
microammeter = nil
S. No.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Voltmeter
reading (V)
Microammeter
reading (uA)
 along -ve Y axis, taking suitable scales along the
Graph : Plot different points taking voltage along -ve X-axis and currentcharacteristic) reverse hias as shown in figure 18.4.
two axes. Join these points by a free hand smooth curve. We get a graph (| - V
Precautions :

1. Use voltmeter and ammeter of suitable ranges.

2. Zero error should be nil, if not make it.
be connected to tve of the battery.
3. Positive connecting terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are to
4. Connections should be neat and tight.
5. Voltage should be increased in suitable regular steps.
6. Key should be closed onlywhen the reading is being taken.
forward bias tve pole of battery is to be connected to p-section ofp-n junction. In reverse bias -ve pole
7. In
of battery is to be connected to p-section ofp-n junction.
point P from where the graph is a straight line (linear).
*Note : 1. To find knee voltage. In forward bias graph mark the
point M. This voltage is knee voltage.
From P draw a perpendicular PM on X-axis. Read the voltage at draw a
find Zener voltage. In reverse bias graph mark the point P where the curve becomes almnostvertical. From P
2. To Zener voltage.
perpendicular PM on X-axis. Read the voltage at point M. This voltage is
static d.c. resistance : In forward bias graph take any point A on linear part of the graph. Find points B and C
3. To find
is given by
corresponding to point A on the two axes, then static d.c. resistance
V

reading at B
.ohm
reading at C
points A and A' on linear part of the graph. Finc
4. Tofind dynamic a.c. resistance :In forward bias graph takeany two dynamic a.c. resistance is given by
then
points B, B' ,Cand C' corresponding to points A and A' on the two axes,
AV
Ra =
AI

OB - OB'
.ohm
OC - 0C'