experiment in thoughts

PHILOSOPHY
philosophy
UNDERSTANDING THE nature
GENERAL CONCEPT OF
1. FOR US TO HAVE PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY
-Philosophy is a set of views/beliefs about
Philosophy- is all about inquiry
life and the universe which are often held
"when you're venturing into inquiry, you're
uncritically.
already venturing into philosophy
2. Philosophy is a process
QUESTIONING AND ANSWERING
-Philosophy is a process of reflecting and
-most important thing in philosophy
criticizing our most deeply held thoughts,
conception and beliefs
philosophy
.
-from two Greek words 3.Presents philosophical perspective
 Philia- love -Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at
 Sophia- wisdom the world as a whole
“love of wisdom”
-originated in Greece or ancient civilization "PHILOSOPHY DOES NOT
DISCRIMINATE"
Love (in philosophy)
-strong desire for something 4. Philosophy Is a language

Wisdom (in philosophy) - it is a logical analysis of language and

- correct application of knowledge
"Philosophy is a strong desire for knowledge
that is correctly applied"
philosophy
- the science that studies beings and in their
ultimate causes, reason, and principles under
the light of human reason alone.
+ questions can lead you to its branches
+ you're not asking questions for nothing
you're asking questions for answer
“PHILOSOPHY HELPS US TO LIVE
PROFOUNDLY”
NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
PHILOSOPHY
clarification of the meaning of the words
and concept.
5. Philosophy a subject topic
- Set of Perennial problems that interest
people and for which have always sought to
answer.
“PHILOSOPHERS WERE THE FIRST
PEOPLE TO SHAPE AN IDEA OF WHAT
THE WORLD IS.”
6. Philosophy as an inquiry
-presses its Inquiry to the deepest core
problems in of human existence and tries to
draw solutions for them.
importance
+It enables us to think carefully and clearly
about important issues.
+in studying philosophy, we learn take a
step back from our everyday thinking to
explore deeper and bigger question which
underpin our thoughts.
+The focus is to learn what not to believe,
but how you think.
+it sharpens your analytical abilities,
enabling to identify and evaluate the
strengths and weaknesses in any position.
+ It hones your ability to construct and
articulate your cogent arguments of your
own.
+ it prompts you to work across disciplinary
boundaries and to think flexibly and
creatively about problems which do not
present immediate solution.
+Develops your ability to think and work
independently.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Metaphysics
-first branch of philosophy (ARISTOTLE)
- study of the nature of reality.
Meta- beyond
phy sika- physical
STUDY OF THINGS BEYOND THE
PHYSICAL; CONCEPT OR THINGS
THAT CANNOT BE EXPERIENCE.
•General metaphysics/ontology
-studies the essence of all things.
- what is being?
- why do things exist, rather than not exist at
all?
- what is the meaning and nature of reality?
- What is existence itself?
- is there nothing?
• Special Metaphysics
a. Cosmology - studies the world (universe)
including its origin, dynamics and
characteristics as well as the laws that
govern its order.
b. Psychology- study the nature and
dynamics of the human person as a whole
with emphasis on the way the person's mind
functions and his/her behavior.
c. Theodicy - study of god; justification the
face of the goodness of God in the face of
existence of evil.
2. Logic
-science of correct thinking/ reasoning and
rules of validity.
Logos - Science of correct thinking
study of the principles and criteria of a valid
argument; it distinguishes sound or good
reasoning from unsound or bad reasoning.
IF YOU DON'T HAVE HUMAN
REASON, WE CANNOT ENGAGE TO
PHILOSOPHY
SOUL (reason, spirit, appetite)
3. Epistemology
-theory of the nature and grounds of
knowledge especially with reference to its
limits and validity
(How do we know?)
Episteme- knowledge
Logos- study
STUDY OF THE NATURE AND SCOPE
OF KNOWLEDGE AND JUSTIFIED
BELIEFS.
4. Ethic
-study that deals with morality
Ethos- custom/habit
Morality of human actions; how human
persons ought to act, and the search for a
definition of a right conduct, and good life.
Ethics ≠Morality
theory ≠ practice
Value Theory
a. Aesthetics -study related to arts and
beauty.
b. social and political philosophy
-relationship of an individual to the state.
THE PROCESS OF DOING
PHILOSOPHY
1. Methodic Doubt
"a philosopher Is not cynical, but rather
skeptical"-Rene DesCartes
-systematic process of being skeptical about
the truth of one's belief
2.Formulation of questions and problems
-the working assumption.is that the more
clearly the question or problem is stated the
easier it is to identify critical issues.
3. Enunciating solution
-enunciate a theory, or offer a definition/
analysis which constitutes an attempt to
solve a problem.
4. Justifying the solution
-use arguments. Offer them for the different
claims you make.
5. Do dialectics/ philosophical criticism
Dialectics- ancient tool for philosophers to
arrive questions
Dialectics- philosophical criticism
-philosophers offer definitions and
explanations in solution to problems; they
argue for those solutions to other
philosophers, provide counter arguments
expecting to eventually come up with better
solution.
THE PROCESS OF PHILOSOPHY
IN PRACTICE
Geocentricism - earth is the center
(1660)
Heliocentrism- Sun is the center
Ptolemy Of Alexandria
- he proposed that the earth was the center of
the solar system.
-the whole population, generally accepted
this idea as the true nature and position of
our planet, hence their belief in
geocentricism.
Nicolaus Copernicus
methodic doubts
-Copernicus was skeptical about the theory
of Ptolemy because of his observation on rh
movement of the earth and the sun's pattern.
formulation of questions and
answers
-he questioned the positioning of Ptolemy’s
theory and answers tried to find some
relevant answers and explanations.
enunciating a solution
-Debunking Ptolemy’s original idea, he
created a new way of Solving the
positioning of the earth by creating another
theory.
justifying the solution
- in 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus detailed his
radical theory of the universe in which the
earth along with the other planets, rotated
around the sun. His theory took more than a
century to become widely accepted.
"WE REVOLVE AROUND THE SUN
LIKE ANY AROUND OTHER PLANET"
doing dialectics
-because of Galileo Galilei the theory was
accepted.
he pointed out his telescope into the night
sky in time into the 1610, he saw for the first
time in the human history that moons
orbited Jupiter, proving Copernicus' initial
theory that the sun is the center of the solar
system.
Cosmological and metaphysical speculation
Vs.
Moral problems (Socrates)
PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS
the milesians
1. THALES OF MILETUS
• He is remembered primarily for his cosmology
based on water as the essence of all matter, with
the Earth, a flat disk floating on a vast sea.
"Everything came from water"
• HYLOZOISM- animation/vivification of
matter.
2. ANAXIMANDER
WITHOUT THE PROCESS OF
PHILOSOPHY, WE WOULD'VE STILL
BELIEVE THAT THE EARTH WAS THE
CENTER OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM.
Relevance of applying philosophy in our day
to day existence.
Philosophy is like a guide book to our lives.
- it teaches us how to live
Philosophy helps you understand the world
better.
Philosophy helps you understand yourself.
MAN, AND HIS
WORLD
: A Survey of Metaphysical
Perspectives
• In his thinking about Earth, he regarded the
inhabited portion as flat, consisting of the top
face of a cylinder whose thickness is one third
its diameter.
• In his cosmogony, he held that everything
originated from the apeiron (the "infinite,"
"unlimited," or "indefinite")
3. ANAXIMENES
• Anaximenes' assumption that air is
everlastingly in motion suggests that he thought
it also possessed life. Because it was eternally
alive, air took on qualities of the divine and
became the cause of other gods as well as of all
matter.
the pythagoreans
4.) PYTHAGORAS
• Musician
• Came from the island of Samos, and settled in
• Croton, Magna Graceia Founder of the
Pythagoreans
• Famous for this theorem
 School of thought was divided into two:
the akousmatikoi and the mathematikoi
AKOUSMATIKOI- listeners, ideological
MATHEMATIKOI- practical, persecuted
• Persecuted because of their submission to
taboos and other strange rules like: not eating of
meat and beans, not wearing of clothes made of
wool, not picking up anything that has fallen,
stir a fire with iron and others.
"Human meat has the same animal meat" -
reason why vegetarian
the eleatic school
5.) XENOPHANES
• From Colophon, Asia Minor
• Lived in the second half of 6th Century
• He looked at the gods of Homer and Hesiod as
something absurd and irrelevant
• He is linked to the doctrine of PANTHEISM or
doctrine of oneness
"We are link as one"
6. PARMENIDES
• From Elia who lived in the 6th Century
• Discovered metaphysics/ontology or the
ENTITY
"nothing cannot be thought, there is nothing,
there is only being"
• Such being is uncreated, indestructible, eternal,
and indivisible
7. ZENO
• Zeno was famous for the paradoxes whereby,
in order to recommend the Parmenidean doctrine
of the existence of "the one" (i.e., indivisible
reality), he sought to controvert the
commonsense belief in the existence of "the
many"
• Zeno made use of three premises:
first, that any unit has magnitude;
second, that it is infinitely divisible; and
third, that it is indivisible.
• First to discover Dialectics
"Everything differs from each other"
weeping philosophers
8. HERACLITUS
• Born in Ephesus, Asia Minor (6th-5th BC)
• Developed the Theory of Flux and Unity of
Opposites
Flux- constant movement.
• For him, the source of everything is fire the
world is an eternal fire which transforms itself
• One of the last pre-Socratic philosophers to
establish a monistic viewpoint.
"One cannot step on the same river twice"
The only constant thing in this world is • For him, even the soul, is composed of atoms
change. which are indestructible and indivisible

9. EMPEDOCLES Importance of Studying the Pre-

• was the first person to establish a pluralistic Socratics
viewpoint
THINKING IS NOT SO MUCH AS AN
Fire- authentic sun ACTIVITY AS IT IS A CALLING

• From Agrigentum, Sicily • We are called to thinking, as some people are

called to church or to a particular profession
• Author of the Poems on Nature and (such as a doctor or nurse)
Purification
• Reason itself calls us to THOUGHT.
• Developed theory of 2 suns: one authentic
(fire) and one reflected (actual) If you are thinking carefully, you are
reasoning better
• For him, the root of all things is from the 4
elements (air, fire, water, and earth)- the coming
together of all these things is called "love"
battling theos
Strife- separation of all these things
• The pre-Socratic were conscious of how
important it is to go beyond the old religion of
When something is being created along the gods which has served the Greeks for so long;
way something is also being destroyed. not that they disparaged these gods; rather, they
all agreed that the gods were a set of metaphors
that had outlived their use.
Maybe something is being destroyed in order
for something to be created.
"When you understand the world and you only
owe it up to the gods, you are slave of your own
mind"
10. ANAXAGORAS
• From Clazomenae, Asia Minor (5th Century)
• They wanted to find a way to penetrate into the
• Discovered the theory of HOMOIOMEREIAI
heart of being through abstract reasoning, rather
• For him, there are not 4 elements but an than through often paradoxical activities of Zeus
infinite number of elements "There is everything and Athena.
in everything"
• According to him, there are "SEEDS" in all
• Thinking demanded its own set of imperatives
other things
that allowed the mind to remove the fetters of
• Nous- Human mind customary thinking, indeed the idea of Belief as
a theological activity.
11. DEMOCRITUS
• Founder of the ATOMISTS
understanding being
"One should say and think that Being is."
(Parmenides)
• Being in this sense is the whole of things, the
mightiness of the cosmos, the very substance of
atom, the indubitable notion of oneness that lies
beneath our understanding of the Universe.
• Being, however, is determined in the world by
the emergence of a duality: that things come into
being and then pass away. (life and death, night
and day, hot and cold)
• A paradox, perhaps. Being, or the One as
Xenophanes called it, in its eternal stability
longs to show itself in the world if an agitation,
of instability. Hence, its recourse to duality as a
prelude to manifestation. (give and take, ebb and
flow, attack and retreat)
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the students are
expected to:
1. Know the main philosophical thoughts
in their different historical perspectives
2. Distinguish the key difference between
Universal and Particular
3. Understand the essence of Human
Freedom by engaging in truths and
dialectics
4. Have an in-depth understanding of
Wonder, Knowledge, and Ignorance
with the views of Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle
I. PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS IN THREE VIEWS
a.) COSMOCENTRIC
 Ancient Philosophy (600 B.C.-600 A.D)
• Movement is thus an aspect of time, no more.
Things show themselves in time in the act of
movement, of passing from one state to another,
so that life is death and death, life.
Being (unity)
to
being (multiplicity)
The true delight of thinking is not to 'discover'
something new in nature, or anything at all for
that matter, but to explore where thought
might lead as an intellectual adventure.
UNDERSTANDING
REALITY IN A BIGGER
PICTURE
 The question that concerned them was
the origin of the universe– the arche
(Greek for ‘starting point’)
 They wanted to understand the world
for they found themselves ignorant
about the workings of the universe.
 They thought that SUBSTANCE is
responsible for the multiplicity of
things.
b.) THEOCENTRIC
 Resorted back to understanding Theos.
 Medieval Period (when the Church
sustained man’s intellect)
 Avicenna (980-1037) a Muslim
Philosopher, argued that the existence
of beings can be traced to another
being responsible for its existence (God)
  Religions were also curated/born out of
this philosophical period.
c.) ANTHROPOCENTRIC
 It focuses to people.
 Modern Period (1500-1900)
 Characterized by Subjectivity and
Individualism, hence, centered on man
(Anthropos)
 Result of both the rise of modern
science and the diminished authority of
the Church in the 17th Century.
o RATIONALISM
-Committed to the view that
knowledge is acquired through
season independent of sense
experience.
-Clear and distinct ideas cannot
be doubted unlike the data of
senses (DesCartes)
-Unlocking knowledge
o EMPIRICISM
-Holds that all knowledge is
ultimately derived from sense
experience.
-Tabula rasa (John Locke)
- Putting knowledge
II. The Universal and the Particular
To clarify the nature of philosophical questions,
we distinguish between the PARTICULAR and
the UNIVERSAL.
Particular = refers to a part of a whole
Universal= pertains to the whole
To philosophize then is to look at life from a
holistic perspective, such is precisely what
makes philosophy different from science
according to German Philosopher Martin
Heidegger. For him, a scientific question is
always confined to the Particular, whereas a
philosophical question “leads into the totality of
beings” and “inquiries to the whole”
If the question is particular, the answer will also
be particular. Also, with universal. Particular
questions can’t be answered by universal
answer.
III. ESSENCE OF HUMAN FREEDOM
-When we ask the essence of Human Freedom,
the problem is not limited to man and freedom.
Instead, we find that we cannot avoid asking
about the essence of man, the essence of the
world, and the essence of God.
Essence can be defined in many ways; it can be:
1. the core nature or most important
qualities of a person or thing.
- Your most purpose
2. the intrinsic nature or indispensable
quality of something, especially
something abstract, that determines its
character.
3. the true nature of anything,
not accidental or illusory
- because your essence cannot be a
joke as your essence is what defines
you as a human person that will
eventually lead you on
understanding your human
freedom.
4. something that exists, especially a
spiritual or immaterial entity
5. the basic, real, and invariable nature of
a things or its significant feature or
features
-When we ask philosophically about freedom
then, we venture into an inquiry about the
whole. It is no longer a particular problem, but
a universal problem.
 was very important); he served in the military
during the Peloponnesian War; he had three
Truths and Dialectics -Philosophers rely on the
sons with a much younger woman; and he lived
human faculty of reason as they philosophize.
in poverty. He might have worked as a stone
Through this rational capacity, they arrived at
mason before turning to philosophy.
the technique to resolve philosophical
questions called DIALECTICS.

-Through dialogues, dialectics is an effective The Socratic Problem

means of examining and evaluating truth claim.
-While Socrates is widely regarded as one of the
Errors and inconsistencies of a claim are
wisest men to have ever lived, he never wrote
demonstrated using rational abilities.
down any of his thoughts, and all that we know
about him is based on the written works of his
students and contemporaries (mainly the works
IV. THE FIRST STAGE IN A RATIONAL
of Plato, Xenophon, and Aristophanes).
SYNTHESIS: SOCRATES- gadfly
-Because everything that we know about
Socrates is based on accounts from others
-THE FIRST LESSON WHICH SOCRATES SET OUT
(which were often fictionalized) and these
TO TEACH, IN OPPOSTION TO THE SOPHISTS,
accounts differ, we do not actually know much
WAS THAT THE HUMAN MIND CAN BE
about him or his teachings. This is known as the
SATISFIED BY NOTHING LESS THAN
"Socratic problem."
UNCHANGING, AND OBJECTIVE TRUTH.
-SOCRATES HELD THAT IF YOU COULD NOT
MAKE GENERAL STATEMENTS THAT WERE
REALLY FOUNDED IN THE FACTS OF REALITY,
YOU COULD NOT REASON AT ALL.

The life of Socrates The Death of Socrates

-Socrates was born in Athens, Greece, around -The one detail that has been well documented,
469 B.C. and died in 399B.c. however, is Socrates death. While Socrates was
alive, the state of Athens began to decline.
-Whereas pre-Socratic philosophers examined
Having embarrassingly lost to Sparta in the
the natural world, Socrates placed emphasis on
Peloponnesian War, Athens had an identity
the human experience. He focused on individual
crisis of sorts and became fixated on physical
morality, questioned what made a good life,
beauty, ideas of wealth, and romanticizing the
and discussed social and political questions.
past.
-His work and his ideas became the foundation
-Because Socrates was an outspoken critic of
of Western philosophy, making him the Father
this way of life (or a Gadfly), he grew to have
of Western Philosophy.
many enemies. In 399 B.C. Socrates was
From the texts of others, we are able to gather arrested and brought to trial with charges of
that he was the son of a stone mason and a being unreligious and corrupting the city's
midwife; he most likely had a basic Greek youth.
education; he was not aesthetically good-
looking (during a time when external beauty
-Socrates was found guilty and was sentenced
to death by poisonous drink. Rather than flee
into exile (which he had the chance to do).
Socrates drank the poison without any
hesitation.
“Death is only another part of our lives”
His Contribution to Philosophy
-A quote often attributed to Socrates is, "The
unexamined life is not worth living”.
-Socrates believed that in order for a person to
be wise, that individual must be able to
understand himself. To Socrates, an individual's
actions were directly related to his intelligence
and ignorance.
-He believed people should develop their self,
rather than concentrate on material objects,
and he sought to understand the difference
between acting good and being good.
-It was in the new and unique way that he
approached knowledge, consciousness, and
morality that Socrates would forever change
philosophy.
"It is better to change an opinion than to persist
in a wrong one.”
IV. Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis (modern
dialectics)
-The Dialectics of the ancients later developed
in the modern era as Thesis, Anthesis, and
Synthesis. The exchange or confrontation
between differing positions (one as thesis and
the other as antithesis) culminates to synthesis
that is a resolution of opposing views.
-Thus, the interplay of opposing views is
necessary for progress. Confrontations of this
kind must to be avoided at all. People need this
exchange of ideas so they can grow.
-The first idea, the THESIS- is a formal
statement illustrating a point; it is followed by
the second idea, the ANTITHESIS, that
contradicts or negates the first; and lastly, the
third idea, the SYNTHESIS, resolves the conflict
between the thesis and antithesis.
WONDER, KNOWLEDGE, AND IGNORANCE
Human Beings want to understand the world
and to know the truth for there are so many
things we have not yet figured out.
Plato, one of the first philosophers, claimed that
“philosophy begins in wonder.” Wonder is the
beginning for it stimulates us to venture into
philosophy.
Where does wonder begin?
-The qualification according to Plato - to
Wonder to ever happen is perplexity/
confusion.
V. WISDOM
For Aristotle, there are two kinds of Wisdom:
1.) THEORETICAL (SOPHIA)- the wisdom within;
our assumptions within that leads us to know
necessary truths and their logical
consequences. (by visioning)
- concerned with unchanging truth.
-from the Greek word “theoros” meaning a
spectator at the theatre. Therefore, theoretical
knowledge is a knowledge that comes from
standing back.
2.) PRACTICAL (PHRONESIS)- the wisdom that
deals with knowledge in the realm of action. (by
experiencing)
-is about things we can change.
-Aristotle says that when choosing how to act
wisely, the particular circumstances are always
more important than general theories. Aristotle
says that practical wisdom is like the art of
navigation: You need to get to know the winds
and the tides, you need to know where you
want to go, and you need to be responsive to
the changing circumstances in which you find
yourself.
Using Wisdom
Of course, to be an experienced navigator,
theory may help: you can study meteorology or
the movements of the tides. But theory-the
business of standing back, being a spectator-is
no substitute for experience. What makes the
idea of phronesis interesting is it clarifies that a
large part of acting wisely is becoming
experienced in how to act. There is no
substitute for experience.
Emulating the Virtuous
But you don't have to experience everything
yourself. One way you can know what it means
to be wise is to study those who are wise and to
act in the way that they would act. For Aristotle,
it is not a matter of, "What ought I do in this
situation?", and looking around for a theoretical
answer. Instead, it is a matter of asking, "What
would a wise (or good) person do in this
situation?" This is sometimes called virtue
ethics, and it is still an important area of
philosophy today.
Taking advantage of Philosophy
1. Ignorance - the stage of doubt,
confusion, perplexity.
2. Wonder- the start of venturing into
philosophy.
3. Wisdom- acquiring knowledge to be
passed on.
VI. PLATO’S THEORY OF FORMS:
What is 'real?' Is the physical world the 'real'
world? Or is there a deeper reality beyond the
physical world? Plato offered an answer in his
Theory of Forms.
In basic terms, Plato's Theory of Forms asserts
that the physical world is not really the 'real'
world; instead, ultimate reality exists beyond
our physical world. Plato discusses this theory in
a few different dialogues, including the most
famous one, called 'The Republic.' It is also
likely that Plato inherited some of this theory
from his mentor, Socrates.
Plato's philosophy asserts that there are two
realms: the physical realm and the spiritual
realm.
Physical realm- is the material stuff we see and
interact with on a daily basis; this physical realm
is changing and imperfect, as we know all too
well.
Spiritual realm, however, exists beyond the
physical realm. Plato calls this spiritual realm
the Realm of Forms (also called the Realm of
Ideas or Realm of Ideals).
Plato's Theory of Forms asserts that the physical
realm is only a shadow, or image, of the true
reality of the Realm of Forms.
VII. The Tripartite Theory of the Soul
In the Republic, and his dialogues with
Phaedrus, Plato discusses his understanding of
rationality and the soul. The soul, according to
Plato, can be broken down into three parts:
reason, spirit, and appetite.
1. Reason (Logistikon)
• This is the part of the soul that loves
logic, thought, and rational learning.
Plato equated this part of the soul with
 the temperament associated with
Athenians.
• When the logical part of the soul is
dominant, the person is able to
distinguish well between fantasy and
reality. The logical part of the soul is
also wise and able to make decisions
that are just; in fact, much of Plato's
understanding of justice comes from
valorizing the logical part of the soul.
2. Spirit (Thymoeides)
• This is usually thought of as the most
spirited of the three parts. It is this part
of the soul that causes people to
experience strong emotions,
particularly anger and temper.
• Plato associated thymoeides with the
desire to do good and to be good,
because in his view, it was spirit that
enabled courage and passionate
principle. He considered this part of the
soul to be partnered with the logical
part, since both of them ultimately
work in favor of righteousness and
justice.
OBJECTIVES
-Understanding the main difference between Opinion
and Knowledge
-Know the Main differences of the Philosophies
between the Ancient Roots to the Modern Era
-Have an in-depth Knowledge on Logic, Reason, and
Truth by engaging in Syllogisms
-Create your own understanding on how to
understand Thought and Existence of Man and God
-Understand the Correspondence Theory, Linguistic
Turn, Phenomenology and Existentialism
Is opinion a knowledge?
3. Appetite (Epithymetikon)
• This is the part of the soul where very
basic cravings and desires come from.
• Plato associated epithymetikon with the
desire to do to be pleasured with
something good. It may be plausible like
hunger and thirst yet it can also be
excessive and unnecessary like
overeating and sexual excess.
To explain the different parts of the soul, Plato
first looked at the three different classes in a
just society. Guardian, Auxiliary, and Laborers.
-According to Plato, reason should rule an
individual’s decisions, spirit must be able to aid
reason, and appetite should be able to obey.
-By maintaining the relationship among these
three parts in the correct way, and individual
will achieve individual justice.
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHY: JOURNEY TO
TRUTH
NO. As we understand the difference between
opinion and knowledge, our philosophers would tell
us that our opinion is something that is sure and not
sure while knowledge is something that is sure. And
only it will be knowledge if it is not concerned itself
with an opinion.
Doxa and Episteme
Understanding Opinion and Knowledge
 There is a variety of sources whenever views are
discussed
 Illusions should then be distinguished from what
is reality.
 When we talk about knowledge (episteme), we
are not concerned with mere belief or opinion
SYLLOGISM
(doxa).
 To know then is to be able to give rational  The most famous syllogism in philosophy is this:
justification
All men are mortal (major premise)

Socrates is a man (minor premise)

Socrates is mortal (conclusion)

The Ancient Roots

What did the Post-Socratic think?

 Notice that the major premise provides the
PLATO'S VIEWS ON KNOWLEDGE AND predicate, while the minor premise provides the
OPINION subject. As long as both premises are true, the
conclusion must be true as well.
 He was often considered as the first to
differentiate knowledge from opinion.
 That first syllogism was pretty easy, since no one
 For him, knowledge is certain whereas opinion is
would ever argue with its premises. But
uncertain.
syllogisms become more difficult when the
-We remain ignorant when we rely on
premises are more complicated or debatable. For
opinions for, they are based on appearance
example:
and not reality.
Cats make good pets (major premise)
-Appearances are unreliable and deceptive
Dogs and cats are equally good as pets (minor
 His dialogues are activities directed toward
premise)
discovering truths and acquiring knowledge.
 He dialectics as learned from his teacher dogs make good pets (conclusion)
Socrates.

 Is this argument true? It depends! Some people

ARISTOTLE'S SYLLOGISM might disagree with the premises, or with the
conclusion. It's a matter of opinion. However, the
 In demonstrating truth claim and opinion he
logical validity of the syllogism is not a matter of
developed SYLLOGISM:
opinion, because the conclusion really does
 A systematic representation of a single logical
follow from the premises. That is, if the
inference. It has three parts: a major premise, a
premises are true, then the conclusion must be
minor premise, and a conclusion. The parts are
true as well. That makes it a logically valid
defined this way.
syllogism regardless of whether or not you agree
with the premises or the conclusion!
-The major premise contains a term from the
 You can also have cases where syllogism is
predicate of the conclusion
logically sound, but factually incorrect. For
-The minor premise contains a term from the
example:
subject of the conclusion
-The conclusion combines major and minor
premise with a "therefore symbol ()

 When all the premises are true and the syllogism This car is expensive (minor premise)
is correctly constructed, a syllogism is an
ironclad logical argument. All expensive cars are Ferraris. (major premise)

this car is a Ferrari. (conclusion)


 The major premise in this syllogism, of course, is
wrong. In terms of its logical structure, there's
nothing wrong with the syllogism. But it's based
on a faulty assumption, and therefore the
argument doesn't work. If the major premise
were true, then the conclusion would follow,
which means the syllogism is perfectly logical. It
just so happens that the premise isn't true.
RULES TO ALL VALID THOUGHTS
As proposed by Aristotle
RULE 1: THE LAW OF IDENTITY
This law states that X is X, and this holds true
because X has certain characteristics. A tree is a
tree because we can see the leaves, the trunk, the
branches, and so on. A tree does not have another
identity other than a tree. Therefore, everything that
exists has its own characteristics to itself.
RULE 2: THE LAW OF
NONCONTRADICTION
This law states that X can't be X, and X
simultaneously. A statement can never be true and
false at the same time. If this were the case, a
contradiction would arise. If you were to say that the
tree is green, then say the tree is not green at the same
time, there is contradiction.
RULE 3: THE LAW OF THE EXCLUDED
MIDDLE
This law claims that a statement can be either true
or false; there cannot be a middle ground. This law
also claims that something has to either be true or
false. If the first is a tree, then it is true, and cannot be
false, and if the second is false, then it cannot be true.
The Modern Legacy
How modernized was their opinions?
1. Rene Descartes
Early life
 Born in 1596 in the small French town in La
Haye.
 Earned his law degree at the age of 22 and
began studying medicine and theology but never
finished.
 On Nov. 19, 1619, he had vivid dreams or
visions, that would change the course of his life-
devoting it to reforming knowledge based on
Mathematics and Science.
 He began with Philosophy because it was to root
of all Sciences.
 In his first writing, he wrote Rules for the
Direction of the Mind which outlined his method
of thought.
Descartes' Views on Knowledge and Opinion
 He is considered as the Father of Modern
Philosophy.
 For him, statements that are false, doubtful, or
uncertain cannot be used as basis for knowledge.
 "Dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum."
 Clear and distinct ideas alone can become the
foundation of all knowledge.
 Opinions are those that can be doubted and their
lack of clarity makes them dubious whereas
Knowledge is indubitable hence, certain.
The second stages of rational synthesis:
DESCARTES
He is a rationalist
He became hero of French revolution because of his
ideas
He said we need individualism and reason. And
sometimes authority and tradition are not really in
because they can limit you.
Discourse in the method
"A long time ago, I have learned how to abandon the
study of letters"

COGITO ERGO SUM (I think therefore I am)

You rely on your senses. Senses can be distorted for

time to time and they can be unreliable. State of aporia

-impasse or puzzlement

Tautological trick -Derrida acknowledges that aporia is a state that we

should feel proud to know and to visit on a regular
He trusts that he is actually thinking basis

He could not be thinking and wondering if he's - A necessary feeling that we must have in order for
existing, if he did not all existence us to progress as human beings.

Thinking= being

Logocentrism

Contemporary Period -It refers to the tradition of Western science and

philosophy that regards words and language as a
Jacques Derrida fundamental expression of an external reality.
Derrida's Views on Knowledge and Opinion - People are only logic when they are logic.
 He developed the theory of deconstruction. - A step for us to become even better person
 For him, non-essential elements or
appearances is the basis of everything that
can be spoken or written. (opposing Plato's
Questions of Truth and Opinion
concept of essence as knowledge)
 Derrida's approach consisted of conducting Understanding Correspondence Theory, Coherence,
readings of texts looking for things that run Linguistic Term, Phenomenology and Pragmatism
counter to the intended meaning or structural
unity of a particular text. Clear and distinct
ideas alone can become the foundation of all Correspondence Theory (Bertrand Russel)
knowledge.
 The purpose of deconstruction is to show that the
usage of language in a given text, and language
as a whole, are irreducibly complex unstable, or This is the theory most people are brought up to
impossible. believe but it has too many problems with it to be the
complete answer.

A claim is made about the universe. We go and check

Jacq Derrida was a contemporary philosopher who out the claim with observations and physical
challenged the thinking of previous philosophers. measuring devices. This is understood by many
people in the simplest way.

The theory is based on the belief that a proposition is

LINKED TO THREE TENETS true when it conforms with some fact or situation.
Theory of deconstruction While this theory properly emphasizes the notion
that propositions are true when they correspond
-dismantling our excessive loyalty to any idea, and to reality, its proponents often have difficulty
learning to see the aspects of the truth that might lie explaining what facts are and how propositions
buried in its opposite. are related to them.
Something is only true if it corresponds to the
actual things that are happening in this world.
The truth or falsity of a statement is determined
only by how it relates to the world and whether it
accurately describes that world.
For example, "There is a table in a room" is true if,
and only if, there is in the world a table and the room,
and the table is related to the room by virtue of being
in it.
Coherence Theory (Brand Blanshard)
This explains how scientists can make claims about
the very large and small objects using a system of
claims already accepted to be true.
The theory is the belief that a proposition is true to
the extent that it agrees with other true propositions.
In contrast with the correspondence theory's
emphasis on an independent reality, this view
supposes that reliable beliefs constitute an inter-
related system, each element of which entails every
other.
Things can be real if it fits in to your system of
beliefs.
Thus, such idealists as Bradley, Bosanquet, and
Blanshard all defended versions the coherence
theory.
An idea is true if and only if it coheres with other
statements that we can take be true.
The truth or falsity of a statement is determined
only by how it coheres to the world and whether it
fits in with other statements that's part of it.
For example, "there is a table in a room" is true if,
and only if, a room is space to occupied, to be in a
room means something exists in that space, a table is
a piece of furniture with a flat top and legs
Linguistic Term/ Context Principle
According to this principle, it is only in the context of
a sentence that a word has meaning.
 Sense- the meaning (connotation)
 Reference- the extension (denotation)
For example, the sense of "The Solar System is four
billion years old" is different from "The Solar System
is in existence billions of years"
Thus, the meaning of any given word (truth) must
be derived from the context of whole sentences.
Phenomenology
Truth only exist because of a certain phenomenon
happen
The study of structures of experience, or
consciousness. Literally, phenomenology is the study
of "phenomena": appearances of things, or things as
they appear in our experience, or the ways we
experience things, thus the meanings things have in
our experience.
Studies conscious experience as experienced from the
subjective or first-person point of view.
Experience is directed toward-represents or
"intends"-things only through concepts. thoughts,
ideas, images, etc. These make up the meaning or
content of a given experience and are distinct from
the things they present or mean.
Pragmatic Theory
The theory is the belief that a proposition is true
when acting upon it yields satisfactory practical
results.
As formulated by William James, the pragmatic
theory promises (in the long term) a convergence of
human opinions upon a stable body of scientific
propositions that have been shown in experience to
be successful principles for human action.
Examines how beliefs work in practice, the practical
difference.
Truth of a belief is determined by evaluating how
well the belief satisfies the whole of human nature
over a long period of time: how well does it WORK?
Truth only satisfy people when it's useful.
EXISTENTIALISM
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO EXIST?
► To have reason
► Physical and mental awareness of your
surroundings and choices
► Participation in life through interaction with others
► Understanding your personal nature
EXISTENTIALISM
► is the title of the set of philosophical ideals that
emphasize the existence of the human being, the lack
of meaning and purpose in life, and the solitude of
human existence.
► It was during the Second World War, when
Europe found itself in a crisis faced with death and
destruction, that the existential movement began to
flourish, popularized in France in the 1940s.
SOREN KIERKEGAARD
► Father of Existentialism
► Rejected Plato and Aristotle (the idea that the
essence of something determines what it is…
“essence before existence.”
► Believed that individual choice determines
essence.
The main idea behind existentialism was that
existence precedes essence. People are born like a
blank slate and create their essence or being through
their unique experiences.
In defining who you are as a human being, which is
more important- to be able to define your existence or
to be able to define your essence?
ESSENCE VS. EXISTENCE
► Essence can be defined as “the basic nature of
something that determines its shape, its activity,
its defining characteristics, and possibilities of its
everyday life.”
► It therefore sets the ground rules for the actions
and/or purpose that an object can or can’t do.
► Where Existence can be defined as the fact or state
of living or having objective reality.
TENETS OF EXISTENTIALISM
1. THE INDIVIDUAL
• Existentialism deals with the question of what it
means to exist as a human being.
• A person is thus an individual who has the ability to
think and act independently.
• It is then through an individual’s own consciousness
that values and purpose may or may not be
determined.
2. CHOICE
• Existentialists believe that all human has free will.
This ability then leads to life choices.
• Personal choices are unique to every individual and
are based on outlook beliefs, and experiences.
• It is entirely up to the individual to make decisions
—and these decisions are not without their own
consequences and stress.
• However, a person is at his best when he fights
against his nature.
• THE VERY CHOICES WE MAKE IN LIFE
DETERMINES OUR NATURE, AND THERE ARE
THINGS IN THIS WORLD THAT ARE
UNNATURAL AND IRRATIONAL”
3. ANXIETY
• Existentialists place great emphasis on moments
when truths about our existence and nature bring a
new awareness into what life means.
• “Existential crisis”
• Because humans have been thrown into the
universe, there is a certain meaninglessness to our
existence
• The only solution then thru making choices and
taking responsibility.

4. ABSURDISM

• The belief nothing can explain or rationalize human

existence.

• There is no answer to “Why am I?”

• Humans exist in a meaningless, irrational universe

and any search for order will bring them into direct
conflict with this universe.

“In a world whose absurdity appears to be so

impenetrable, we simply must reach a greater degree of
understanding among men, a greater sincerity.” –Albert
Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus

► The central concern of The Myth of Sisyphus is

what Camus calls "the absurd." Camus claims

that there is a fundamental conflict between what we

want from the universe (whether it be meaning,
order, or reasons) and what we find in the universe
(formless chaos).

►” We will never find in life itself the meaning that

we want to find. Either we will discover that meaning
through a leap of faith, by placing our hopes in a God
beyond this world, or we will conclude that life is
meaningless.”

“Sometimes it’s okay not to know your purpose,

maybe it’s just waiting for you; it’s okay because
your purpose knows you. Sometimes it’s okay not to
know the meaning of life, because maybe the true
meaning of life, is to give life meaning.”