CHAPTER 8

CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE

➢ Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
➢ The body of some organisms like bacteria, protozoans and some algae is made up of a single cell (
Unicellular organisms).
➢ The body of fungi, plants and animals are composed of many cells (Multicellular organisms).
➢ Cells vary in size and structure as they are specialized to perform different functions.
➢ But the basic components of the cell are common to all cells.
CELL THEORY
Cell theory was proposed by Matthias Schleiden (1838), Theodore Schwann (1839) and Rudolf Virchow(1855).
The cell theory states that:
❖ All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
❖ All cells arise from pre- existing cells.
TYPE OF CELLS
Based on the structural organisation of the nucleus, cells are of two types:
(i) Prokaryotic cells (pro- primitive, karyon- nucleus):- The cells which possess a primitive type of nucleus
devoid of nuclear membrane .
(ii) Eukaryotic cells (eu- true, karyon- nucleus):- The cells which possess a true, well organized nucleus
having nuclear membrane.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
➢ The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue- green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO.
➢ They are smaller and multiply rapidly.
➢ Vary greatly in shape and size. Bacillus, Coccus, Vibrio and Spirillum are the various shapes exhibited by
bacteria.
➢ Cells have a cell wall surrounding cell membrane.
➢ Cell is filled with fluid matrix- cytoplasm.
➢ Prokaryotes lack membrane bound organelles.
➢ Ribosomes are found as cell organelles.
➢ Mesosomes are found in prokaryotes. They are infoldings of cell membrane.
➢ No well defined nucleus.
GENETIC MATERIAL
Genetic material is naked, not enveloped by nuclear membrane.
The genetic material is of two types:
 ❖ The genomic DNA
❖ Plasmids
The genomic DNA is circular DNA or single chromosome.
Plasmid is a small, extra chromosomal, circular DNA present in bacterial cell.
Functions of plasmids:-
• Resistance to antibiotics
• Used to monitor bacterial transformation
CELL ENVELOPE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS
The cell envelope consists of three layers:
(i) Glycocalyx
(ii) Cell wall
(iii) Plasma membrane
• Glycocalyx- outermost layer.
Loose sheathed glycocalyx is called slime layer
Thick and tough glycocalyx is called capsule.
• Cell wall- Middle layer, which determines the shape of the cell. It provides strong structural support to
prevent bacterium from bursting.
• Plasma membrane- Innermost layer, semi- permeable, structurally similar to that of eukaryotes.
GRAM STAINING
It is a technique used to stain bacteria. This technique was developed by Christian Gram in 1884.
Based on gram staining, bacteria are of two types:
(i) Gram positive bacteria
(ii) Gram negative bacteria
Gram negative bacteria:- Those bacteria that do not take up gram stain by its envelope are gram
negative.
Gram positive bacteria:- Those bacteria that take up the gram stain are gram positive.
MESOSOMES
• It is a structure formed by the extension of plasma membrane into the cell.
• These extensions are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
FUNCTIONS
• Cell wall formation
• Replication of DNA during cell division
• Help in secretion and respiration
• Increase the surface area of plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
FLAGELLA
Flagella are fine filamentous extensions from the cell wall found in motile bacteria. It is composed of
three parts.
▪ Filament: longest portion and extends from cell surface to outside.
▪ Hook: curved and tubular structure.
▪ Basal body: the part which is embedded in the plasma membrane.
PILI AND FIMBRIAE
• Pili are elongated tubular surface structures in bacteria made up of special protein.
• Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of cell. It helps to attach to rocks in streams and also
to host tissues.
RIBOSOMES
• These are non- membrane bound cell organelles.
• They are made up of RNA and proteins.
• Prokaryotic ribosomes are of 70S type. They are composed of two sub- units( 50S and 30S)
• Functions:- Protein synthesis.
• Polysome or polyribosome:- A single mRNA attaches with a group of ribosomes to form a polysome.
The ribosomes of polysome translate the mRNA into proteins.
INCLUSION BODIES
These are storage granules which store reserve materials. They are not bounded by any membrane
system and lie free in the cytoplasm.
Examples:-
• Phosphate granule, glycogen granule and cyanophycean granule.
• Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple green photosynthetic bacteria.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
• In this type of cell organization, there is definite or true nucleus surrounded by nuclear membrane is
present.
• There are different membrane bound cell oraganelles are present in cytoplasm.
• The eukaryotes include all the protists, plants, animals and fungi.
• In animal cell, outer most boundary is cell membrane, plant cell have an additional covering outside
the cell membrane called cell wall. Because of this plant cells have a definite shape.

CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMA MEMBRANE)

• It is the boundary of the cytoplasm.
• Cell membrane is formed of lipids and proteins.
• In addition to this it also possesses carbohydrates.

LIPIDS
• Lipids are arranged in a bilayer.
• The lipid component consists of phosphoglycerides.
• The phospholipid consists of two ends:
(i) Spherical polar head is hydrophilic which lies towards the outer side.
(ii) Non- polar tail is hydrophobic which lies towards the inner part. Thus the non- polar tail is
protected from the aqueous environment.

PROTEINS
Proteins are of two types:
❖ Peripheral proteins (Extrinsic proteins):- They lie on the surface of the membrane.
❖ Integral proteins (Intrinsic proteins):- These are partially or totally buried in the membrane.
The ratio of protein and lipid in human erythrocytes
Protein- 52% , Lipids-40%

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF CELL MEMBRANE

This model was proposed by S J Singer and G L Nicolson (1972).
• According to them, the membrane is a quasi fluid(semi- fluid) structure in which lipid bilayer forms a
continuous layer. Protein molecules are scattered throughout the membrane in an irregular pattern.
• The semi- fluid nature of lipids enables lateral movement of proteins within the overall bilayer.
• The ability to move within the membrane is measured as fluidity.
• This fluid nature of the membrane is important for performing the functions like cell growth,
formation of intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division, etc.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE
Main function of cell membrane is to transport molecules across cells.
Molecules will move across the semi-permeable membrane by two methods.
➢ Passive transport
➢ Active transport

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
• Molecules move across the membrane without any requirement of energy.
• Neutral molecules can move across the membrane by the process of diffusion along the concentration
gradient (ie; from higher concentration to lower concentration).
• It is of two types:
(i) Diffusion:- Movement of molecules from higher to lower concentration.
(ii) Osmosis:- Movement of water molecules from higher water concentration to lower water
concentration.

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Polar molecules cannot pass through the non- polar lipid bilayer.
• Movement of such substances is facilitated through some proteins in the membrane.
• Such proteins provide sites at which these molecules move across the membrane.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Ions are transported across the membrane against their concentration gradient (from lower to higher
concentration).
• Such transportation is an energy dependent process in which ATP is utilized.
Eg:- Na+ /K+ pump.
 CELL WALL
➢ The outermost non- living rigid boundary of cells of plants and fungi.
➢ In algae cell wall is made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate.
➢ In fungi, cell wall is made up of chitin.
➢ In plants, cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and proteins.
PLANT CELL WALL

The plant cell wall is differentiated into three layers:

❖ Middle lamella:- It is a thin layer between two adjacent cells which is composed of calcium pectates.
❖ Primary cell wall:- The cell wall of young plant cell which lies inner to the middle lamella and is made
up of mainly cellulose.
❖ Secondary cell wall:- It is found inner to the primary cell wall. It is thick and rigid.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL WALL

➢ The cell wall gives rigidity, support and shape to the tissues and organs of the plant body.
➢ It protects the cell from mechanical damage and infection.
➢ It helps in cell- to- cell interaction.
➢ It provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules.
PLASODESMATA

The adjacent cells are connected through fine strands of cytoplasm through fine pores in the cell wall. These
strands are called plasmodesmata
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
❖ It incudes Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, Lysosomes and vacuoles.
❖ They are considered together as an endomembrane system because their functions are co-ordinated.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
• A network of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
• It divides the intracellular space into two compartments: Luminal (inside ER) and Extra luminal
(cytoplasm).
• ER is continuous with nuclear membrane.
• They are also found free in the cytoplasm.
• Based on the presence or absence of ribosomes on the surface, ER is of two types.
i. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
ii. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• Endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes on its walls.

 • It appears as rough or granular due to the attachment of ribosomes.
• Function: Protein synthesis and secretion.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• The endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes on its walls.

• Its surface is smooth due to the absence of ribosomes.
• Function: Synthesis of lipids and synthesis of lipid – like steroidal hormones in animal cells.
GOLGI APPARATUS
• Golgi apparatus is discovered by Camillo Golgi.
• It consists of many flat, disc- shaped sacs or cisternae which are stacked parallel to each other.
• They are concentrically arranged near the nucleus with distinct convex cis or the forming face and
concave trans or the maturing face.
FUNCTIONS

• It performs the function of packaging of materials, to be delivered either to the intra- cellular targets or
secreted outside the cell.
• Proteins synthesised by ribosomes on the RER are modified in the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus
before they are released from the trans face.
• It is the important site of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
MECHANISM OF SECRETION BY GOLGI APPARATUS

• Materials to be packaged in the form of vesicles from the ER fuse with the cis face and move towards
the trans face. So, golgi apparatus remains in close association with ER.
• The secretory vesicles are budded off from the trans face.
LYSOSOMES
• The small spherical bodies containing digestive enzymes found in the cell .
• These vesicles are formed by the process of packaging in the golgi apparatus.
• Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases). These enzymes are active at acidic pH.
Eg:- Proteases – digest proteins
Carbohydrases – digest carbohydrates
Lipases – digest lipids
FUNCTIONS OF LYSOSOME
• In the case of a damaged cell, the lysosomes release hydrolytic enzymes which digest their own cell
and ultimately the cell dies. Hence they are called suicidal bags of the cells.
• Lysosomes destroy the foreign materials such as bacteria and viruses that enter the cells by digesting
them and protects the cell from viral and bacterial infections. So lysosomes are also called digestive
bags.
 VACUOLES
✓ The membrane bound space found in the cytoplasm.
✓ It contains water, sap, excretory product and other materials not useful for the plants.
✓ The vacuole is surrounded by a single membrane called the tonoplast.
✓ In plants 90% of the cell volume is occupied by vacuole.
FUNCTIONS OF VACUOLES
✓ number of ions and other materials against concentration gradients into the vacuole, hence their
concentration is significantly higher in the vacuole than in the cytoplasm.
✓ Contractile vacuole helps in excretion in Amoeba.
✓ Food vacuoles engulf food particles in protists.
MITOCHONDRIA
❖ It is sausage- shaped or cylindrical organelle of cytoplasm.
❖ It is a double membrane bound structure with outer membrane and inner membrane.
❖ The mitochondrial lumen is divided into two aqueous compartments: (i) inner compartment and (ii)
outer compartment.
❖ The inner compartment is called matrix.
❖ Outer membrane forms a continuous limiting membrane.
❖ Inner membrane forms a number of infolding called cristae towards the matrix.
❖ Cristae increase the surface area.
❖ The matrix contains ATP, circular DNA, RNA,ribosome(70S) and the components required for protein
synthesis.
FUNCTIONS
❖ It is the site of aerobic respiration.
❖ They produce cellular energy in the form of ATP, hence called power house of the cell.
❖ Perform protein synthesis due to the presence of DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
The mitochondria divide by fission.

PLASTIDS
➢ Plastids are the cytoplasmic organelles of the plant cells and euglenoides.
➢ Plastids contain pigments and based on the types of pigments plastids are classified into:
(i) Chloroplasts, (ii) Chromoplasts, (iii) Leucoplasts
1. CHLOROPLASTS (Green plastids)
They contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments responsible for trapping light energy essential for
photosynthesis.
2. CHROMOPLASTS (Coloured plastids)
• They are coloured plastids other than green.
• They contain carotenoid pigments like carotene and xanthophyll.
• They give yellow, orange or red colour to the plant parts.
3. LEUCOPLASTS (Colourless plastids)
They occur in fruits and storage organs.
Leucoplasts are classified into 3 types.
▪ Amyloplast:- It stores carbohydrates in the form of starch. EG:- Potato
▪ Aleuroplast:- It stores proteins.
▪ Elaioplast:- It stores oils or fats.
CHLOROPLAST
➢ The green plastids seen in cytoplasm.
➢ Mainly found in mesophyll cells of the leaves.
➢ They may vary in shape like lens shaped, oval, spherical, discoid, cup- shaped or ribbon- shaped.
➢ They are one per cell in Chlamydomonas or 20-40 per cell in mesophyll cells of the leaves.
STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPLAST

• It is double membranous structure and inner membrane is less permeable.

• The space inside the chloroplast is filled with a proteinaceous fluid called stroma.
• Thylakoids are flattened membranous sacs present in the stroma. The chlorophyll pigments are located
in the thylakoids.
• Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins called grana or inter-granal thylakoids.
• Stroma lamellae are flat membranous tubules connecting the thylakoids of different grana.
• The space enclosed inside the membrane of thylakoids is the lumen.
• The stroma contains:
(i) Enzymes for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins
(ii) Double stranded circular DNA and
(iii) Ribosomes (70S type)

FUNCTIONS
• PHOTOSYNTHESIS:- The granum is the site of light reaction and stroma is the site of dark reaction in
photosynthesis.
 • PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:- Due to the presence of DNA and ribosomes.
RIBOSOMES
➢ They are first observed by George Palade (1953).
➢ They are granular structures found in the cell.
➢ They are seen in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, chloroplast and attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
➢ They are composed of RNA and proteins.
➢ They are not surrounded by membrane.
➢ Each ribosome has two subunits- larger and smaller subunit.
➢ Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S. It consists of 60S and 40S subunits.
FUNCTION – Protein synthesis.
CYTOSKELETON
• The elaborate network of filamentous and proteinaceous structures in the cytoplasm are called
cytoskeleton.
Functions:- Mechanical support, Helps in motility, Maintains the shape of the cell.
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
CILIA FLAGELLA
Short, hair- like Whip- like
Occur in large number per cell Fewer per cell
Beat co- ordinately Beat independently
Show rowing motion Undulatory motion

STRUCTURE OF CILIA & FLAGELLA

• They are covered with a plasma membrane.

• Their core called axoneme is made up of microtubules.
• Cross section of cilia or flagella shows nine pairs of microtubules (doublets) in the periphery and two
microtubules (singlet) in the centre. Such arrangement is referred to as 9+2 array.
• The central tubules are connected by bridges and is enclosed by a central sheath.
• The central sheath is connected to one of the tubules of each peripheral doublets by a radial spoke.
• The peripheral doublets are interconnected by linkers.
• Both the cilium and flagellum emerge from basal bodies.
CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES
• Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles.
• Centrioles are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar material.
 • Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other in which each has an organisation
like the cart wheel.
STRUCTURE OF CENTRIOLE

➢ Each centriole is made up of 9 microtubule triplets made of tubulin protein.

➢ The adjacent triplets are also linked.
➢ Central part of the proximal region of centriole is proteinaceous and is called hub.
➢ Hub is connected with tubules of peripheral triplet by radial spokes made of proteins.
FUNCTIONS OF CENTRIOLE

❖ Centrioles form the spindle fibres that give rise to spindle apparatus during cell division in animal cells.
❖ Centrioles form the basal bodies of cilia and flagella.
NUCLEUS
• Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.
• Flemming given the name chromatin by staining the material of nucleus with basic dyes.
• Normally there is only one nucleus in a cell.
• Some mature cells lack nucleus. Eg:- Sieve tube cells of phloem and erythrocytes of mammals.
• Multinucleate cells are called coenocytes.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS

The interphase nucleus consists of four main parts:

❖ Nuclear envelope
❖ Nucleoplasm
❖ Nucleoli
❖ Chromatin reticulum
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

• It is a double layered membrane with a space in between called perinucleaar space.

• The outer membrane bears ribosomes. It is continuous with endoplasmic reticulum.
• The nuclear membrane is perforated by nuclear pores.
• Movement of RNA and protein takes place through the nuclear pores.
NUCLEOPLASM

• The interior of the nucleus is filled with a proteinaceous fluid called the nucleoplasm.
• It contains nucleolus and chromatin.
• It also contains proteins, enzymes, RNA, minerals, etc.
NUCLEOLUS

• These are spherical structures present in the nucleoplasm.

 • It is not membrane bound.
• Larger and many nucleoli are present in cells actively performing protein synthesis.
FUNCTIONS:
o Biosynthesis of ribosome subunits.
o It helps in RNA synthesis.
CHROMATIN RETICULUM

➢ Nucleoplasm contains deeply staining network like nucleoprotein fibres .

➢ It is made up of DNA, histones, non-histone proteins and RNA.
➢ DNA bears the hereditary units called genes.
➢ Chromatin transforms into rod- like bodies called chromosomes during cell division by condensation
and contraction.
CHROMOSOMES

• They carry hereditary information.

• A chromosome consists of two identical halves called chromatids.
• Chromatids are held together at one point called centromere (primary constriction).
• On one side of the centromere a disc shaped structure called kinetochore is present.
• Spindle fibres attach with kinetochore during cell division.
• In some chromosome a non- staining second constriction called secondary constriction is present in
addition to primary constriction.
• In such a case a knob- like structure is seen at the chromosome tip. It is called satellite.

Types of chromosomes based on the position of centromere

i) Metacentric chromosome:- Centromere is at the middle, two arms are nearly equal.
ii) Sub- metacentric chromosome:- Centromere is near the middle, one arm will be shorter than the
other.
iii) Acrocentric chromosome:- Centromere is near the end, one arm is extremely short and one is very
long.
iv) Telocentric chromosome:- Centromere is at the tip of the chromosome.
MICROBODIES
➢ These are membrane bound vesicles that contain various enzymes.
➢ They are present in both plant and animal cells.