(Solman) Callahan-The Geometry of Spacetime - An Introduction To Special and General Relativity PDF

Solutions:
The Geometry of Spacetime
James Callahan
DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

iii
Preface
This book consists of detailed solutions to the exercises in my text The Geometry of
Spacetime (Springer, New York, 2000). My Web site,
http://maven.smith.edu/˜callahan/
contains additional material, including an errata file for the text,
spacetime/errata.pdf
This version of the solutions manual takes into account all corrections to the text
found in the errata file up to 31 December 2010.
Given the nature of the material, it is likely that the solutions themselves still have
some errors. I invite readers of this book to contact me at
callahan@math.smith.edu
to let me know about any errors or questions concerning the solutions found here. I
will post a solutions errata file on my Web site.
This solutions manual is available only directly from Springer, via its Web site
http://www.springer.com/instructors?SGWID=0-115-12-333200-0
J. Callahan
January 2011

iv

Contents
1 Relativity before Einstein 1

1.1 Spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Galilean Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 The Michelson–Morley Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Special Relativity—Kinematics 5
2.1 Einstein’s Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Minkowski Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Physical Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3 Special Relativity—Kinetics 20
3.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Curves and Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Accelerated Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4 Arbitrary Frames 30
4.1 Uniform Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2 Linear Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3 Newtonian Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Gravity in Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5 Surfaces and Curvature 39

5.1 The Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.2 Intrinsic Geometry on the Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3 De Sitter Spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Curvature of a Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6 Intrinsic Geometry 53
6.1 Theorema Egregium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.2 Geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.3 Curved Spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.4 Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.5 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7 General Relativity 80
7.1 The Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.2 The Vacuum Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.3 The Matter Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

vi CONTENTS
8 Consequences 98
8.1 The Newtonian Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.2 Spherically Symmetric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8.3 The Bending of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.4 Perihelion Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Solutions: Chapter 1
Relativity before Einstein
1.1 Spacetime respectively, for v0 = −2, 0, +10. The order is what we

would expect.
z 3. The worldline of M is z = vt + λ . This meets the
1. a)
0.1
worldline of the signal (i.e., z = t) when t1 = z = vt1 + λ .
Thus
λ
0.5 1.
t
(1 − v)t1 = λ , or t1 = .
1−v
b) The maximum z occurs where 0 = z′ = 2t − 3t 2 , or At the event E1 , z = z1 = t1 . The worldline of the reflected
t = 2/3. At that time, z = (2/3)2 − (2/3)3 = 4/27. signal is therefore z − z1 = −(t − t1 ) or z = −t + 2t1 . This
meets the worldline of G (i.e. z = vt) when
c) The velocity at departure is z′ (0) = 0. The velocity at
return is z′ (1) = −1. 2t1 2λ
vt2 = z = −t2 + 2t1, or t2 = = .
d) Replacing the factor (1 − t) by (1 − t)2in z(t) will 1 + v 1 − v2
make z′ (1) = 0. Then, for example, any graph of the form
z = kt 2 (1 − t)2 has the correct velocities; when k = 4, the 1.2 Galilean Transformations
maximum value of z is 1.
1. According to R, the spatial distance between E1 and
2. a) Because z′′ (t) = −g and z′ (0) = v0 , integration E2 is 0. According to G, the coordinates of E1 are (1, −v)
gives z′ (t) = −gt + v0 . Because z(0) = h, another inte- and the coordinates of E2 are (2, −2v), and so the spatial
gration gives z(t) = −gt 2 /2 + v0t + h. distance between them is v.
z
b) 70 2. Let M be the matrix whose columns are the vectors X
and Y , in that order. It is a standard result of linear alge-
60
bra that detM = A(X,Y ); see Exercise 4, § 5.1 (Solutions
50 page 40). In particular, the parallelogram determined by
40
X and Y is oriented: it has positive orientation if det M > 0
and negative orientation if det M < 0. If detM = 0, the par-
30
allelogram collapses to a line segment (and has area 0).
20 Now use the given matrix L to construct the product
10
matrix LM. By the definition of matrix multiplication, this
is a matrix whose columns are L(X) and L(Y ), in that or-
t
0 1 2 3 4 5 der. Therefore,
From left to right, the three graphs have v0 = −2, 0, +10.
A(L(X), L(Y )) = det LM = det L · detM = detL · A(X,Y ).
c) An object hits the ground when −gt 2 /2 + v0t + h = 0,
or Thus L reverses orientation if detL < 0 and collapses the
q image to a line segment if det L = 0.
−v0 − v20 + 2gh 3. A linear transformation L preserves areas if det L =
t= = 3.301, 3.499, 4.665 ±1. Because det Sv = 1, Sv preserves areas.
−g

2 SOLUTIONS: CHAPTER 1. RELATIVITY BEFORE EINSTEIN
4. a) We have 1.3 The Michelson–Morley Experi-

1 0 1 0 1 0 ment
Sv Sw = = = Sv+w ,
v 1 w 1 v+w 1
and similarly, Sw Sv = Sw+v = Sv+w . Therefore S−v Sv = 1. a) The figure below is similar to the SPACE diagram
Sv S−v = S0 = I, implying S−v = Sv−1 . on page 18 of the text, except that it shows the movement
of G (the source of light) and the mirror that lies parallel
b) We have Sw Sv = Sw+v = Sv+w = Sv Sw . The previous to the track of G over time. Note that, at every instant,
work shows that the map v 7→ Sv : R → G2 is an onto group the line from G to the mirror remains perpendicular to
homomorphism. Since the kernel of this map is just v = 0, the direction of motion as given by the vector v. After
the homomorphism is an isomorphism. time T⊥ /2, G and the mirror have travelled vT⊥ /2 light-
seconds to the right. By the Pythagorean theorem, the
5. a) The given information implies that G’s position at light ray from G to the mirror has therefore travelled
time t = τ is x = 0, y = vyt, z = vzt. Thus the event with q
coordinates (τ , ξ , η , ζ ) in G’s frame has coordinates λ 2 + v2 T⊥2 /4 light-seconds.
t = τ, x = ξ, y = η + vy τ , z = ζ + vz τ M
at time T⊥/2
in R’s frame. If we set aside the x = ξ coordinate, this can
be written in matrix form as
      
t 1 0 0 τ 1 0 0
y = vy 1 0 η  , so Sv = vy 1 0 ,
z vz 0 1 ζ vz 0 1
with v = (vy , vz ). λ
b) Direct calculation gives

  
1 0 0 1 0 0 vT⊥/2 vT⊥/2
Sv Sw = vy 1 0 wy 1 0
G G G
vz 0 1 wz 0 1 at time 0 at time T⊥
  v
1 0 0
= vy + wy 1 0 = Sv+w = Sw+v . That light ray is reflected back to G (after G has trav-
vz + wz 0 1 elled to the right a total of vT⊥ light-seconds), travelling
an equal distance and time on its return. But the dis-
In particular, Sv S−v = S0 = I = S−v Sv , implying S−v =
tance travelled, in light-seconds, is numerically equal to
Sv−1 .
the travel time T⊥ , in seconds:
c) The group G3 is commutative because w + v = v + w. q
T⊥ = 2 λ 2 + v2 T⊥2 /4 seconds.
6. In Exercise 5a, above, change the x-coordinate of G’s
position at time t = τ to x = vx τ , and change the x- Hence
coordinate of the event to x = ξ + vx τ . This makes the
T⊥2 T2 T⊥2
matrix form of the relation between R’s coordinates of the = λ 2 + v2 ⊥ or 1 − v2 = λ 2,
event and G’s coordinates equal to 4 4 4
  from which it follows that
1 0 0 0
vx 1 0 0 2λ
Sv =   T⊥ = √
vy 0 1 0 , 1 − v2
√ is D⊥ = 2λ ,
vz 0 0 1 Finally, the distance from G to M and back
so the average speed of light is D⊥ /T⊥ = 1 − v2.
with v = (vx , vy , vz ). An immediate calculation gives
Sv Sw = Sv+w = Sw Sv , so multiplication in G4 is commu- b) The travel time Tk is the time t2 that was determined
tative. Furthermore, as in Exercise 5, Sv S−v = S0 = I, so in the solution to Exercise 1 of § 1.1. Because Dk = 2λ ,
G4 is a group. the average speed of light is Dk /Tk = 1 − v2, not 1.

1.4. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 3
c) By Taylor’s theorem, Each vertical line is mapped to itself by both Fv and Sv .

1 1 But Sv simply translates points on the line t = a by the
= 1 + v2 + O(v4 ), √ = 1 + 12 v2 + O(v4 ), amount
√ av, while Fv also compresses them by the factor
1 − v2 1 − v2 1 − v2. Both maps turn horizontal lines into lines with
as v → 0. Therefore, Tk − T⊥ = slope v.

1 1 t t
2λ − √ = λ v2 + O(v4 ) = v2 (λ + O(v2 )) 4. a) The vectors (1, ±1) (where V is the transpose of
1 − v2 1 − v2 V ) lie on the two worldlines. The image worldlines there-
as v → 0. We use the fact that v O(v ) = O(v ) as v → 0. fore contain the vectors
2 2 4

1 √ 0 1 √1
2. a) z = .
v 1 − v2 ±1 v ± 1 − v2
The slopes of these worldlines are
√
v ± 1 − v2 p
m± = = v ± 1 − v2 .
t 1
√
b) The graph of w = 1 − v2 is the unit circle centered
at (0, 0) in the (v, w)-plane; therefore it lies above the line
w = 1 − v on the interval 0 < v < 1. In other words,
√
1 − v2 > 1 − v there. Hence
The p
√ map Cv compresses the image vertically by the factor m+ = v + 1 − v2 > v + 1 − v = 1.
1 − v2.√The image grid thus consists of rectangles of
size 1 × 1 − v2 parallel to the coordinate axes. √
Because − 1 − v2 > −1 and v > 0 on the same domain,
b) Matrix multiplication gives p
! ! ! m− = v − 1 − v2 > 0 − 1 = −1.
1 0 1 0 1 0
SvCv = √ = √ = Fv ; The maximum value of m+ (v) occurs when 0 =
v 1 0 1−v 2 v 1 − v2 √ √
(m+ )′ (v)
√ = 1√− v/ 1 − v .
2 Hence v = 1/ 2 and
however, m+ (1/ 2) = 2.
!
1 0 5. If Fv is to be valid, it must be consistent with the
Cv Sv = √ √ 6= Fv Michelson–Morley experiment. That is, the image world-
v 1 − v2 1 − v2
lines of photons must have slopes ±1. Exercise 4b
when v 6= 0. demonstrates that this is not so if v > 0.
3.
z 1.4 Maxwell’s Equations
1. a) Let A = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), B = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), C =

(c1 , c2 , c3 ); then

t b2 b3 b3 b1 b1 b2
B×C = , , .
c2 c3 c3 c1 c1 c2
The first component of A × (B × C) is therefore
b1 b2 b b1
a2 − a3 3
c1 c2 c3 c1
= b1 (a2 c2 + a3c3 ) − c1 (a2 b2 + a3 c3 )
The map√ Fv first compresses the image vertically by the = b1 (a1 c1 + a2c2 + a3c3 ) − c1(a1 b1 + a2b2 + a3 b3 )
factor 1 − v2 (this is the action of Cv ) and then car-
ries out a vertical shear with slope v (the action of Sv ). = (A · C)b1 − (A · B)c1 .

4 SOLUTIONS: CHAPTER 1. RELATIVITY BEFORE EINSTEIN
(The underlined terms that have been added to the expres- 5. The relation between the Greek and the Roman vari-
sion offset each other.) In a similar way we can show that ables is
the second and third components of A × (B × C) are t − vz z − vt
τ=√ , ζ=√ ;
(A · C)b2 − (A · B)c2 1−v 2 1 − v2
and (A · C)b3 − (A · B)c3, therefore
respectively. ∂τ 1 ∂τ −v
τt = =√ , τz = =√ ,
b) Let ∇ = A = B and F = C. Using the fact that ∇ can ∂t 1 − v2 ∂z 1 − v2
be treated like a vector in vector equations, together with ∂ζ −v ∂ζ 1
the identity ζt = =√ , ζz = =√ .
∂t 1 − v2 ∂z 1 − v2
A × (B × C) = B(A · C) − (B · C)C
Using E(t, z) = E(τ , ζ ), we find
(note the reordered factors in the first term), we have
Eτ − vEζ
∇ × (∇ × F) = ∇(∇ · F) − (∇ · ∇)F = ∇(∇ · F) − ∇2F. Et = Eτ τt + Eζ ζt = √ ,
1 − v2
1
2. Let F = (P, Q, R), where P(x, y, z), Q(x, y, z) and Ett = √ Eττ τt + Eτζ ζt − vEζ τ τt − vEζ ζ ζt
1−v 2
R(x, y, z) are smooth functions. By definition,
Eττ − 2vEτζ + v2Eζ ζ
∇ × F = (Ry − Qz , Pz − Rx , Qx − Py ); = ,
1 − v2
subscripts denote partial derivatives. Again, by definition, −vEτ + Eζ
Ez = Eτ τz + Eζ ζz = √
∇ · (∇ × F) = (Ry − Qz )x + (Pz − Rx )y + (Qx − Py)z 1 − v2
= Ryx − Qzx + Pzy − Rxy + Qxz − Pyz 1
Ezz = √ −vEττ τz − vEτζ ζz + Eζ τ τz + Eζ ζ ζz
1−v 2
= 0,
2
v Eττ − 2vEτζ + Eζ ζ
by the commutativity of partial differentiation (for exam- = .
ple, Ryx = Rxy , etc.). 1 − v2
∂E
3. From Maxwell’s equation ∇ × H = + J we obtain 6. a) Let u = z ± ct, so ut = ±c, uz = 1; then
∂t

∂E ∂ ∂
0 = ∇ · (∇ × H) = ∇ · + ∇ · J = ∇ · E + ∇ · J, h(z ± ct) = h′ (u) · ut = ±ch′(u),
∂t ∂t ∂t
again using the commutativity of partial differentia- ∂2
h(z ± ct) = ±ch′′ (u) · ut = c2 h′′ (u),
tion. This equation, together with Maxwell’s equation ∂ t2
∇ · E = ρ , implies ∂
h(z ± ct) = h′ (u) · uz = h′ (u),
∂ρ ∂z
= −∇ · J.
∂t ∂2
h(z ± ct) = h′′ (u) · ut = h′′ (u),
4. These equalities follow from the chain rule. Because ∂ t2
ζ = z = vt, we have ζz = 1 and ζt = −v. Because τ = t for any (sufficiently differentiable) function h(u). Hence,
and E(t, z) = E(τ , ζ − vτ ), we find if E(t, z) = f (z − ct) + g(z + ct), then
∂E ∂E ∂ζ
Ez = = = Eζ , Ett = c2 ( f (z − ct) + g(z + ct)) = c2 Ezz .
∂z ∂ζ ∂z
∂ Eζ ∂ Eζ ∂ ζ
Ezz = = = Eζ ζ , b) It is a standard fact that the graph of w = f (z − ct0 ) is
∂z ∂ζ ∂z
the graph of w = f (z) translated by the amount ct0 . Thus
∂E ∂E ∂τ ∂E ∂ζ the spike moves to the point z = ct at time t, so it travels
Et = = + = Eτ − vEζ
∂t ∂τ ∂t ∂ζ ∂t with velocity c.
∂ Eτ ∂ Eζ
Ett = −v = Eττ − vEτζ − v Eζ τ − vEζ ζ c) The graph of w = f (z + ct0 ) is the graph of w = f (z)
∂t ∂t translated by −ct0 . The spike moves to z = −ct at time t,
= Eττ − 2vEτζ + v2Eζ ζ . so it travels with velocity −c.

Special Relativity—Kinematics
2.1 Einstein’s Solution unique line containing X and X + Y . These two lines are
parallel, so their images are parallel. We can take the di-
Note: we use 0 to denote the zero vector in any Rk . rection of ℓ1 to be Y , and the direction of its image M(ℓ1 )
1. • We can write the straight line ℓ passing through the to be M(Y ) − M(0) = M(Y ) because M(0) = 0, by hy-
point A in the direction D 6= 0 parametrically in the form pothesis. Moreover, M(Y ) 6= 0 because M is invertible, so
X = Dt + A, −∞ < t < ∞. If L is linear, then M(Y ) is a valid direction vector.
We can also take Y to be the direction vector for the
L(X) = L(Dt + A) = L(D)t + L(A); parallel line ℓ2 , and thus we can take M(Y ) for the direc-
tion of its image M(ℓ2 ). Because M(X) and M(X +Y ) are
this is the straight line through L(A) in the direction L(D). two distinct points on M(ℓ2 ), we can write
If L(D) = 0 for some D 6= 0, then L collapses all of R2 to
a line (or a point), so there is nothing further to prove. To M(X + Y ) − M(X) = kY M(Y ), kY 6= 0.
continue, we assume L is invertible.
By reversing the roles of X and Y (and constructing two
• If ℓ∗ is parallel to ℓ, then its direction vector D∗ is
more parallel lines), we can also write
a nonzero multiple of D: D∗ = kD, k 6= 0, and we can
parametrize ℓ∗ as Y = D∗ s + B. The image of ℓ∗ under L M(X + Y ) − M(Y ) = kX M(X), kX 6= 0.
is the line
Combining these, we find
L(Y ) = L(D∗ )s + L(B) = kL(D)s + L(B).
(1 − kX )M(X) = (1 − kY )M(Y ).
The direction vector here, kL(D), is a nonzero multiple of
If the coefficients are different from 0, M(X) and M(Y )
L(D), so ℓ and ℓ∗ have parallel images.
are linearly dependent. But X and Y are arbitrary nonzero
• If the points Pj are equally spaced on ℓ, then Pj =
vectors and M is invertible, so we are forced to conclude
Dt j + A, where the parameter values t j = t0 + n∆t are the coefficients are zero, so k = k = 1. This implies
Y Y
equally spaced on the t-axis, and conversely. The image
points, M(X + Y ) = M(X) + M(Y ).
L(Pj ) = L(D)t j + L(A),
have (the same!) equally-spaced parameter values, so they c) Suppose Y j → X; then continuity of M implies
are equally spaced. M(Y j ) → M(X). Using the additively of M established
in part b, we then find
2. a) Suppose α and β are distinct parallel lines whose M(X + Y j ) = M(X) + M(Y j ) → M(X) + M(X) = 2M(X).
images M(α ) and M(β ) intersect. Let A on α have the
same image as B 6= A on β : M(A) = M(B) Thus M fails to We also have X + Y j → X + X = 2X, so continuity of M
be 1–1, contradicting the assumption that M is invertible. implies M(X + Y j ) → M(2X). Hence, because a limit is
It follows that the images of distinct parallel lines never unique, M(2X) = 2M(X).
intersect. By hypothesis, the images are straight lines, so d) Additivity of M allows us to write
they must parallel and distinct.
M((k − 1)X + Y j ) = M(X + (k − 2)X + Y j )
b) Let X and Y be arbitrary nonzero vectors in R2 . Let
ℓ1 be the unique line containing 0 and Y , and let ℓ2 be the = M(X) + M((k − 2)X + Y j ).

6 SOLUTIONS: CHAPTER 2. SPECIAL RELATIVITY—KINEMATICS
Assume first that M((h − 1)X +Y j ) → M(hX) for all pos- The quadratic polynomial is called the characteristic
itive integers h < k. In the right-hand side of the previous polynomial of M. It has two (possibly complex) roots that
equation we have M((k − 2)X + Y j ) → M((k − 1)X), so are the eigenvalues of M, because then (M − λ I)X = 0 has
nonzero solutions.
M((k − 1)X + Y j ) → M(X) + M((k − 1)X) = M(kX).
b) If λ1 , λ2 are the roots of the quadratic λ 2 − Bλ + C,
Now assume that M((h − 1)X +Y j ) → hM(X) for all posi- then
tive integers h < k. In the same location we can now write
M((k − 2)X + Y j ) → (k − 1)M(X), so λ 2 − Bλ + C = (λ − λ1 )(λ − λ2)
M((k − 1)X + Y j ) → M(X) + (k − 1)M(X) = kM(X). = λ 2 − (λ1 + λ2 )λ + λ1 λ2 ,
Because the hypotheses have been established for h = 2, implying λ1 + λ2 = B, λ1 λ2 = C. For the eigenvalues (i.e.,
the induction holds and we conclude that M(kX) = kM(X) the roots of the characteristic polynomial), we have
for all positive integers k.
λ1 + λ2 = tr M, λ1 λ2 = det(M).
e) Because rX + −rX = 0 for any real scalar r, and
M(0) = 0, additivity of M implies c) Suppose the nonzero vectors X1 and X2 were linearly
0 = M(rX + −rX) = M(rX) + M(−rX) dependent; then X2 = kX1 for some k 6= 0. Then
and hence that M(−rX) = −M(rX). In particular, if −k λ2 X2 = MX2 = kMX1 = kλ1 X1 = λ1 X2 ,

is a negative integer, then k is positive and M(−kX) =
−M(kX) = −kM(X) by part d. Hence M(pX) = pM(X) implying (λ2 − λ1 )X2 = 0. But X2 6= 0, so λ2 − λ1 = 0,
for any integer p. contradicting the hypothesis that λ1 6= λ2 .
f) As suggested, set Z = 1n X so pZ = np X = qX. Then d) The roots of the characteristic polynomial are
p
nM(qX) = nM(pZ) = pM(nZ) = pM(X), tr(M) ± tr(M)2 − 4 det(M)
λ± =
so M(qX) = np M(X) = qM(X). p 2
a + d ± (a + d)2 − 4(ad − bc)
= .
g) Because q j → r, we have q j X → rX. Continuity of M 2
therefore implies M(q j X) → M(rX). But we also have
When c = b, some algebra reduces this to
q j M(X) → rM(X), so by the uniqueness of the limit,
M(rX) = rM(X). Hence M is linear. p
a + d ± (a − d)2 + 4b2
λ± = .
3. We have Bv F = 2

a(v) b(v) 1 0
=
a(v) −b(v) Since (a − d)2 + 4b2 ≥ 0, the roots λ± are real.
b(v) a(v) 0 −1 b(v) −a(v) Write the dot product of two vectors as a matrix mul-
tiplication that involves the transpose operator: X1 · X2 =
and FBv F =
X1t X2 . The crucial step in he following sequence uses the

1 0 a(v) −b(v) a(v) −b(v) symmetry of M, Mt = M:
= = B−v .
0 −1 b(v) −a(v) −b(v) a(v)
λ1 X1 · X2 = (λ1 X1 )t X2 = (MX1 )t X2 = X1t Mt X2
Therefore a(−v) = a(v) and b(−v) = −b(v). = X1t MX2 = X1t (λ2 X2 ) = X1 · (λ2 X2 ) = λ2 X1 · X2 .
4. a) Write MX = λ X as MX − λ X = MX − λ IX. A This implies (λ1 − λ2 )X1 ·X2 = 0 and because λ1 − λ2 6= 0,
nonzero solution of MX = λ X is a nonzero solution of we conclude X1 · X2 = 0. That is, X1 ⊥ X2 .
AX = 0, where A = M − λ I. The nonzero solution implies The eigenvalues are given by the equation
A is noninvertible, or det A = 0. That is to say, p
a + d ± (a − d)2 + 4b2
a−λ b λ± = ;
0 = det(M − λ I) = = (a − λ )(d − λ ) − bc 2
c d−λ
= λ 2 − (a + d)λ + ad − bc if λ+ = λ− , the discriminant (a − d)2 + 4b2 must be 0,
implying a = d, b = c = 0. Thus λ = λ± = (a + a)/2 = a
= λ 2 − tr(M)λ + det(M) = p(λ ). and M = aI = λ I.

2.1. EINSTEIN’S SOLUTION 7

5. Because tr F = 0 and detF = −1, the eigenvalues are 4 4
• Let M = . The characteristic polynomial is
the roots of λ 2 − 1 = 0, or λ± = ±1. To find an eigen- 2 −3
vector, solve each of the equations (F = λ± I)X = 0. We
have λ 2 − λ − 20 = (λ − 5)(λ + 4).

0 0 x x The eigenvalues are therefore 5 and −4 and we have
0 = (F − λ+ I)X = , so X = ,
0 −2 y 0
−1 4 8 4
2 0 x 0 M − 5I = , M + 4I = ,
0 = (F − λ− I)X = , so X = . 2 −8 2 1
0 0 y y
so we can take
6. See the solution to Exercise 4d.
4 1
7. If M is invertible, then detM = λ1 λ2 6= 0, so the eigen- λ =5:X = and λ = −4 : X = .
1 −2
values of M are nonzero. Suppose X is an eigenvector of
M with eigenvalue λ ; then MX = λ X and this equation The matrix M is not symmetric.
can be rewritten as
2 1
1 • Let M = . The characteristic polynomial is
X = M −1 (λ X) = λ M −1 X or M −1 X = X. 0 1
λ
λ 2 − 3λ + 2 = (λ − 2)(λ − 1),
Thus X is an eigenvector for M −1 with eigenvalue 1/λ .
and the eigenvalues are 2 and 1. We have
6 2
8. a) • Let M = . Then
2 3 0 1 1 1
M − 2I = , M − 1I = ,
0 −1 0 0
λ 2 − 9λ + 14 = (λ − 7)(λ − 2);
so we can take
the eigenvalues are 7 and 2. For these eigenvalues, we
have, respectively, 1 1
λ =2:X = and λ = 1 : X = .
0 −1
−1 2 4 2
M − 7I = , M − 2I = ,
2 −4 2 1 The matrix M is not symmetric.

so we can take for the corresponding eigenvector 2 1
• Let M = . The characteristic polynomial is
1 1
2 −1
λ =7:X = and λ = 2 : X = .
1 2 λ 2 − 3λ + 1,
Note that M is symmetric and the eigenvectors are orthog- so the eigenvalues are
onal. √ √
6 −2 3± 9−4 3± 5
• Let M = . The characteristic polynomial λ± = =
−2 3 2 2
here is the same as for the previous matrix, so the eigen-
values are again 7 and 2. For these eigenvalues, we have, We obtain the eigenvectors by
respectively, √ !
1− 5 2
1
−1 −2 4 −2 M − λ+ I = 2
−1− 5
√ , X= √ ,
M − 7I = , M − 2I = , 1 5−1
−2 −4 −2 1 2
and
so we can take for the corresponding eigenvector
√ ! √
1+ 5
1√ 1− 5
λ =7:X =
2
and λ = 2 : X =
1
. M − λ− I = 2
−1+ 5
, X= .
−1 2 1 2
2
Note that M is symmetric and the eigenvectors are orthog- Note that M is symmetric and the eigenvectors are orthog-
onal. onal.


6 2 z 2 1 z
b) • M = •M=
2 3 1 1
(2, 3) (1, 1) (2, 1)

(6, 2)
t t

6 −2 c) The object here is to build a grid for M in each case us-
•M=
−2 3 ing eigenvectors B1 and B2 of M as the basis vectors. This
z grid is shown in gray and its basic element is shaded. Then
the image of the basic grid element under M is shown in
solid black outline. The sides of the image grid element
are parallel to the sides of the gray grid.
(−2, 3)
6 2 2 −1
t •M= ; grid basis B1 = , B2 =
(6, −2) 2 3 1 2
z
z
4 4
•M=
2 −3
(4, 2)
The basic grid element is stretched by the factor 7 in one
t direction and by the factor 2 in the other.
(4, −3)
6 −2 2 1
•M= ; grid basis B1 = , B2 =
−2 3 −1 2
z

2 1 z
•M=
0 1
t
(1, 1)
(2, 0) t
The basic grid element is stretched by the factor 7 in one

direction and by the factor 2 in the other.

2.2. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 9

•M=
4 4 2
; grid basis B1 = 1 , B2 =
1 9. Rθ : Because tr(Rθ ) = 2 cos θ and det(Rθ ) = 1, the
2 −3 2
−2 characteristic polynomial is λ 2 − 2 cos θ λ + 1 and the
z
eigenvalues are
√ p
2 cos θ ± 4 cos2 θ − 4
λ± = = cos θ ± − sin2 θ
2
= cos θ ± i sin θ ,
√
where i = −1. Therefore

∓i sin θ − sin θ ∓i −1
Rθ − λ ± I = = sin θ .
sin θ ∓i sin θ 1 ∓i
t
The last expression makes it clear that the eigenvectors do
not depend on θ ; the eigenvectors are

The basic grid element is stretched by the factor 5 in one ±i
X± = .
direction and by the factor -4 in the other. The negative 1
factor is manifested as a flip, or orientation reversal.
Mu : Because tr(Hu ) = 2 cosh u and det(Hu ) = 1, the
•M=
2 1
; grid basis B1 =
1
, B2 =
1 characteristic polynomial is λ 2 − 2 cosh uλ + 1. Whereas
0 1 0 −1 cos θ − 1 = − sin2 θ , the hyperbolic equivalent has
2
z cosh2 u − 1 = + sinh2 u. Therefore, the eigenvalues of Hu
are real:
p
2 cosh u ± 4 cosh2 u − 4
λ± = = cosh u ± sinhu.
t 2
Therefore

∓ sinh u sinh u ∓1 1
Hu − λ±I = = sinh u ,
sinh u ∓ sinh u 1 ∓1
The basic grid element is stretched by the factor 2 hori- and the eigenvectors are
zontally and left unchanged in the other direction.
±1
X± = .
2 1 2 −β 1
•M= ; grid basis B1 = , B2 = ,
1 1 β 2
√
where β = 5 − 1. 2.2 Hyperbolic Functions
z
1. From the definition,

u
2 e + e−u e2u + 2 + e−2u
cosh u = = ,
2 4
u
e − e−u e2u − 2 + e−2u
t sinh2 u = = ;
2 4
with subtraction, the exponential terms cancel, leaving
The basic
√ grid element is stretched by the factor λ1 = 2 −2
(3 + 5)/2 ≈ 2.62 in √ the B1 direction and compressed cosh2 u − sinh2 u = − = 1.
4 4
by the factor λ2 = (3 − 5)/2 ≈ 0.38 in the B2 direction.
The other two identities are
For each of the five matrices, the image of the gray
cosh2 u − sinh2 u 1
grid (i.e., the grid based on eigenvectors) is parallel to the 1 − tanh2 u = = = sech2 u,
original gray grid; in this it behaves like the image of the cosh2 u cosh2 u
eigenvector grid for the map Bv as sketched in the text (on cosh2 u − sinh2 u 1
coth2 u − 1 = = = csch2 u.
page 36). sinh2 u sinh2 u

2. From the definitions we obtain the product Thus

u v
e − e−u e + e−v cosh(u ± v) = cosh u cosh v ± sinhu sinh v;
sinh u cosh v =
2 2
this differs from the analogous circular identities: the “±”
eu+v + eu−v − e−u+v − e−(u+v) on the right is “∓” in the circular case.
= .
4
Next we have
Reversing the positions of u and v, we have
sinh(u ± v)
tanh(u ± v) =
eu+v + e−u+v − eu−v − e−(u+v) cosh(u ± v)
cosh u sinh v = .
4 sinh u cosh v ± coshu sinh v
= .
In the sum of these two expressions, the middle two terms cosh u cosh v ± sinhu sinh v
cancel, yielding Dividing numerator and denominator by cosh u cosh v, we
find
sinh u cosh v + coshu sinh v sinh u sinh v
±
eu+v − e−(u+v) eu+v − e−(u+v)
tanh(u ± v) = cosh u cosh v = tanh u ± tanhv .
= + = sinh(u + v). sinh u sinh v
4 4 1 ± tanhu tanh v
1±
cosh u cosh v
By contrast, in the difference, the outer two terms cancel,
yielding This differs from the analogous circular identities: the
“±” in the denominator is “∓” in the circular case.
sinh u cosh v − coshu sinh v For the final identities, we can write
e(u−v) − e−(u−v) e−(u−v) − e(u−v) 1 1 ± tanhu tanh v
= − = sinh(u − v). coth(u ± v) = = .
4 4 tanh(u ± v) tanh u ± tanhv
Thus
Multiplying numerator and denominator by ± coth u coth v
sinh(u ± v) = sinh u cosh v ± coshu sinh v, yields
± coth u coth v + 1 1 ± cothu coth v
agreeing with the analogous circular identities. coth(u ± v) = = .
± coth v + cothu coth u ± cothv
For the next pair of identities, we begin with the prod-
One way to write the analogous circular identities is
ucts
u −1 ± cotu cot v
e + e−u ev + e−v cot(u ± v) = ;
cosh u cosh v = cot u ± cotv
2 2
eu+v + eu−v + e−u+v + e−(u+v) in this case, the difference is solely in the sign of the “1”.
= ,
3. From the formulas,
u −u 4 v −v
e −e e −e eu + e−u eu − e−u
sinh u sinh v = cosh u + sinhu = + = eu ,
2 2 2 2
eu+v − eu−v − e−u+v + e−(u+v) eu + e−u eu − e−u
= . cosh u − sinhu = − = e−u .
4 2 2
Once again the middle two terms cancel in a sum, yielding 4. To save space, let C = cosh u , S = sinh u , i = 1, 2.
i i i i
Then the addition formulas for cosh and sinh give
cosh u cosh v + sinhu sinh v
u+v
e +e −(u+v) u+v
e +e −(u+v) C1 S 1 C 2 S 2
Hu1 · Hu2 =
= + = cosh(u + v). S1 C1 S2 C2
4 4
C1C2 + S1S2 C1 S2 + S1C2
The outer two terms cancel in the difference, yielding =
S1C2 + C1 S2 S1 S2 + C1C2

cosh u cosh v − sinhu sinh v cosh(u1 + u2) sinh(u1 + u2)
=
sinh(u1 + u2) cosh(u1 + u2 )
e(u−v) + e−(u−v) −e(u−v) − e−(u−v)
= − = cosh(u − v). = Hu1 +u2 = Hu2 +u1 = Hu2 · Hu1 .
4 4

2.2. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 11
5. a) The identity involving tanh2 u gives This is done on page 96 of the text; the algebra is intricate.
1 w
= sech2 u = 1 − tanh2 u = 1 − v2. 6. a)
cosh2 u
√
Thus cosh u = 1/ 1 − v2 and
v
sinh u = cosh u · tanhu = √ . 1
1 − v2 w = sech u
b) Making the substitutions from part a, we find
 1  u
v w = csch u
√ √ w = tanh u
 2 1 − v2  1 1 v
Hu =  1 v− v 1  = √ = Bv .
√ √ 1 − v2 v 1 w = coth u
1 − v2 1 − v2
c) We make use of the equation Bv = Hu , in which

v = tanh u. We claim the function v = tanh u is invert-
ible on |v| < 1. To see this, it is sufficient to note that The graphs of w = tanh u and w = coth u are asymptotic
v′ = sech2 u > 0 and tanh u → ±1 as u → ±∞. If we de- to w = ±1 as u → ±∞. The graphs of w = coth u and
note the inverse as arctanh v, then, for any |v| < 1 we can w = csch u are asymptotic to the w-axis.
write Bv = Harctanh v .
b) Because 1 ≤ cosh u < ∞, it follows that
Now suppose −1 < v1 , v2 < 1; then we have
1
Bv1 ·Bv2 = Harctanh v1 ·Harctanh v2 = Harctanh v1 +arctanh v2 . = Bv3 , 1≥ = sech u > 0.
cosh u
where The inequalities −1 < tanh u < 1 were established in the
v3 = tanh(arctanhv1 + arctanhv2 ) and thus |v3 | < 1. previous solution by using calculus. Here uis a separate
proof that uses only inequalities. Because e and e−u are
The addition formula for tanh allows us to write the equa- both positive,
tion for v3 in a different (and simpler!) form
u −u u −u eu − e−u
tanh(arctanh v1 ) + tanh(arctanh v2 ) v1 + v2 e − e < e + e ⇒ tanh u = < 1.
v3 = = . eu + e−u
1 + tanh(arctanhv1 ) tanh(arctanh v2 ) 1 + v1v2
For the other inequality,
That is, Bv1 · Bv2 = B(v1 +v2 )/(1+v1 v2 ) .
e−u + eu > e−u − eu = −(eu − e−u),
Comment: The intervention of the hyperbolic rotation
Hu is quite helpful here. Without it, we could still write −(eu − e−u)
so 1 > = − tanh u, or −1 < tanh u.
1 1 v1 1 1 v2 eu + e−u
Bv1 · Bv2 = √ √
1 − v21 v1 1 1 − v22 v2 1 7. a) The following parametrizations work.

1 1 + v1 v2 v2 + v1
=√ 2 2
I : x − y = 1, x < 0, x = − cosh u, y = sinh u;
(1 − v21)(1 − v22) v1 + v2 1 + v1v2
  2 2
II : y − x = 1, y > 0, x = sinh u, y = cosh u;
v1 + v2
1 + v1 v2 1
 1 + v v  2 2
III : y − x = 1, y < 0, x = sinh u, y = − cosh u.
=√  v1 + v2 1 2
(1 − v21)(1 − v22) 1 y
1 + v1 v2 −1 1 II
I
b)
Thus it appears that v3 = (v1 + v2 )/(1 + v1v2 ), but to prove 1 0
that the final matrix has the form Bv3 , we need to show the
matrix coefficient has the correct form, that is, that 0
1 + v1 v2 1 x
√ =√ .
(1 − v21)(1 − v22 ) 1 − v23 −1 0
−1 1 III

p
8. y The segment of the circle is the graph of x = 1 − y2 ,
2 0 ≤ y ≤ sin u. Therefore,
Z sin u p
area(A + B) = 1 − y2 dy.
0
3/2 The substitutions y = sin s, dy = coss ds, 1 − y2 = cos2 s,

s = u when y = sin u transforms this into
Z u u
sin(2s) s sin(2u) u
cos2 s ds = + = + ;
1 0 4 2 4 2
0
1/2
the integral of cos2 s is a standard form. With the identity
sin(2u) = 2 sin u cos u, we can write
0 x
−1/2 sin u cos u u
area(A + B) = + .
2 2
−1
The right triangle B has sides cos u and sin u, so its area is
(sin u cosu)/2, and area(A) = u/2.
The hyperbola above was created with a PostScript pro-
gram that calculated the location of each point labelled 12. a) The kth term of the Taylor series for f (u) has the
with its u-value. The four lines do indeed appear to be form f ( k)(0) xk /k! (at u = 0); therefore
parallel.
9. The arc subtends the fraction u/2π of the entire cir- u2 u3 u4
eu : 1 + u + + + + · · · ,
cumference, and the circular sector A occupies the same 2! 3! 4!
fraction of the entire area. The entire area is π , so the area u 2 u4 u6
cosh u : 1 + + + + · · · ,
of A must be π · u/2π = u/2. 2! 4! 6!
p u3 u5 u7
10. a) Solve x2 − y2 = 1 for x to get x = ± 1 + y2 and sinh u : u + + + + · · · .
3! 5! 7!
then choose the plus sign because x > 0 on this portion of
the hyperbola. The portion of the hyperbola we want is b) For f (u) = tanh u, we can use the derivatives given on
given by 0 ≤ y ≤ sinh u, so the area of the region A + B is page 41:
the integral
Z sinh u p
f (u) = tanh u f (0) = 0
1 + y2 dy.
′
0 f (u) = sech u2
f ′ (0) = 1
The substitutions y = sinh s, dy = cosh s ds, 1 + y = 2 ′′
f (u) = 2 sech u · − sechu tanh u
cosh2 s, and s = u when y = sinh u, transform this integral = −2 tanh u · sech2 u f ′′ (0) = 0
into
Z u f ′′′ (u) = −2 sech2 u · sech2 u
2 sinh(2s) s u sinh(2u) u − 2 tanhu · −2 tanhu sech2 u
cosh s ds = + = + ,
0 4 2 0 4 2 = −2 sech4 u + 4 tanh2 u sech2 u f ′′′ (0) = −2
according to the integral identity in the text, page 41. Us- The third-order Taylor polynomial is therefore u − u3/3.
ing the identity sinh(2u) = 2 sinh u cosh u, we can write
Z sinh u p 13. If u = g(w) is the inverse of w = f (u), then du/dw is
sinh u cosh u u the reciprocal of dw/du, expressed as a function of w.
area(A + B) = 1 + y2 dy = + .
0 2 2 • u = arcsinh w is the inverse of w = sinh u, and
dw/du = cosh u. Furthermore,
b) The region B is a right triangle whose horizontal side
p p
has length cosh u and whose vertical side has length sinh u. cosh u = sinh2 u + 1 = w2 + 1,
The area of B is thus (sinh u cosh u)/2, so area(A) = u/2.
11. The region A is a circular sector and the region B is so we can write
the triangle from the origin to the point (cos u, sin u) to the du 1 1
point (0, sin u) and back to the origin. = =√ .
dw cosh u w2 + 1

2.3. MINKOWSKI GEOMETRY 13
• u = arccosh w is the inverse of w = cosh u, and respectively. The first of these makes an angle of θ with
dw/du = sinh u. Furthermore, respect to the positive x-axis, i.e., with respect to the first
p p basis vector. Because
sinh u = cosh2 u − 1 = w2 − 1
cos(θ + π /2) = cos(θ ) cos(π /2) − sin(θ ) sin(π /2)
so we can write
= − sin(θ ),
du 1 1 sin(θ + π /2) = sin(θ ) cos(π /2) + cos(θ ) sin(π /2)
= =√ .
dw sinh u w2 − 1 = cos(θ ),
• u = arctanh w is the inverse of w = tanh u, and
dw/du = sech2 u. Furthermore, we can write

sech2 u = 1 − tanh2 u = 1 − w2, − sin θ cos(θ + π /2)
= .
cos θ sin(θ + π /2)
so we can write
Thus the image of the second basis vector makes an angle
du 1 1 of θ + π /2 with the positive x-axis, and hence an angle of
= = .
dw sech2 u 1 − w2 θ with respect to the second basis vector itself.
Hence Rθ rotates the basis vectors by θ and thus, by the
14. a) Let θ = arcsin(tanh u); then sin θ = tanh u and suggestion given in the question, rotates the entire plane
p p by θ .
cos θ = 1 − sin2 θ = 1 − tanh2 u = sech u.
2. Because the inverse of any action A “undoes” A, and
Hence because rotation by −θ undoes rotation by θ , we have
Rθ−1 = R−θ . Trigonometric identities imply
sin θ tanh u sinh u cosh u
tan θ = = = · = sinh u,
cos θ sech u cosh u 1 cos(−θ ) − sin(−θ ) cos θ sin θ
R −θ = = ,
and arctan(sinh u) = θ = arcsin(tanh u). sin(−θ ) cos(−θ ) − sin θ cos θ
b) Set u = arctanhw; then so

eu − e−u e2u − 1 cos θ sin θ cos θ − sin θ 1 0
w = tanh u = u = , R −θ R θ = = ,
e + e−u e2u + 1 − sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ 0 1

and cos θ − sin θ cos θ sin θ 1 0
R θ R −θ = = .
we2u + w = e2u − 1. sin θ cos θ − sin θ cos θ 0 1
Hence
3. The map Rθ Rϕ is rotation by ϕ followed by rotation
2u 2u 1+w by θ . But this is also the single rotation by ϕ + θ = θ + ϕ ,
0 = (1 − w)e − (1 + w) or e = ,
1−w or Rϕ +θ = Rθ +ϕ .
so The product Rθ Rϕ is the matrix
1+w 1 1+w
2u = ln , u = ln .
1−w 2 1−w cos θ cos ϕ − sin θ sin ϕ − cos θ sin ϕ − sin θ cos ϕ
sin θ cos ϕ + cos θ sin ϕ − sin θ sin ϕ + cos θ cos ϕ

15. a) cosh(r) (b) sech(1) cos(θ + ϕ ) − sin(θ + ϕ )
= = R θ +ϕ ,
sin(θ + ϕ ) cos(θ + ϕ )
2.3 Minkowski Geometry by the addition formulas for the sine and cosine.
4. Note the remark in the proof of Theorem 2.3 that, be-
1. The images of the standard basis vectors under any
cause T and L are each preserved as a whole, it is suf-
matrix multiplication are the columns of the matrix; thus
ficient to show that future and past sets are preserved
for Rθ the images are
individually—that is, t always has the same sign as τ ,

cos θ − sin θ where
and , t = τ cosh u + ζ sinh u.
sin θ cos θ

In all cases, we can adapt the proof of Theorem 2.3. implying that X1 is an eigenvector R2θ F0 with eigen-
• T − : On T − , τ < 0 and τ < ζ < −τ , so value +1. We also have

t < τ cosh u − τ sinh u = τ e−u < 0. − cos 2θ sin θ + sin 2θ cos θ
R2θ F0 (X2 ) =
− sin 2θ sin θ − cos2θ cos θ
• L + , L − On all of L , ζ = ±τ , so
sin(2θ − θ ) sin θ
= = = −X2 ,
t = τ cosh u ± τ sinh u = τ e±u . − cos(2θ − θ ) − cos θ
Because e±u > 0, t has the same sign as τ , so L ± are implying that X2 is an eigenvector R2θ F0 with eigen-
value −1. The second coordinate used the cosine identity
individually preserved.
in the form
5. Let Ei be (the transpose of) (τi , ζi ), i = 1, 2. Because
these are future vectors, cos(2θ − θ ) = cos2θ cos(−θ ) − sin2θ sin(−θ )
= cos2θ cos θ + sin 2θ sin θ .
kEi k2 = Q(Ei ) = τi2 − ζi2 > 0, i = 1, 2.
The vectors X1 and X2 form a basis for R2 ; because Fθ
Therefore and R2θ F0 agree on that basis, they agree on all of R2 , so
kE1 k2 kE2 k2 = (τ12 − ζ12 )(τ22 − ζ22 )
cos 2θ sin 2θ
Fθ = R2θ F0 = .
= (τ1 τ2 )2 − (τ1 ζ2 )2 − (ζ1 τ2 )2 + (ζ1 ζ2 )2 . sin 2θ − cos 2θ
Furthermore, c) Note that Fθt = Fθ and that performing a reflection

(E1 · E2 )2 = (τ1 τ2 − ζ1 ζ2 )2 twice is the identity: Fθt Fθ = (Fθ )2 = I.
= (τ1 τ2 )2 − 2τ1 τ2 ζ1 ζ2 + (ζ1 ζ2 )2 , 7. We compute the product Fα Fβ =

so cos 2α sin 2α cos 2β sin 2β A −B
= ,
sin 2α − cos 2α sin 2β − cos 2β B A
(E1 · E2 )2 − kE1k2 kE2 k2
where
= −2τ1 τ2 ζ1 ζ2 + (τ1 ζ2 )2 + (ζ1 τ2 )2
= (τ1 ζ2 − ζ1 τ2 )2 ≥ 0. A = cos 2α cos 2β + sin 2α sin 2β
= cos(2α − 2β ) = cos 2(α − β ),
Thus (E1 · E2 )2 ≥ kE1 k2 kE2 k2 ; taking the square root and B = sin 2α cos 2β − cos2α sin 2β
using the fact that kE1 kkE2k is real and nonnegative, we
= sin(2α − 2β ) = sin 2(α − β ).
get the reverse Cauchy–Schwarz inequality.
Thus Fα Fβ = R2(α −β ).
6. a) The reflection Fθ fixes the given vector X1 , so X1
is an eigenvector of Fθ with eigenvalue λ1 = +1. At the 8. a) Let M1 and M2 be the columns of M. Then Mt M is
same time, Fθ maps the given X2 to its opposite, so X2 is the 2 × 2 matrix whose entries are
also an eigenvector, this time with eigenvalue λ2 = −1.
M1 · M1 M1 · M2
b) The map F0 is reflection across the x-axis, so it leaves M2 · M1 M2 · M2
the x-coordinate of a vector unchanged but changes the
sign of the y-coordinate. Thus If this is equal to the identity matrix I, then

1 0 cos2θ sin 2θ kM1 k2 = M1 · M1 = kM2 k2 = M2 · M2 = 1, M1 · M2 = 0,
F0 = and R2θ F0 = .
0 −1 sin 2θ − cos2θ
as asserted.
We have
b) The points (cos α , sin α ) parametrize the unit circle
cos 2θ cos θ + sin 2θ sin θ in a 1–1 fashion when A − π ≤ α < A + π (for any A).
R2θ F0 (X1 ) =
sin 2θ sin θ − cos2θ sin θ Because M1 is on the unit circle, there is a unique α = θ
for which
cos(2θ − θ ) cos θ
= = = X1 , a cos θ
sin(2θ − θ ) sin θ M1 = = .
c sin θ

2.3. MINKOWSKI GEOMETRY 15
For the vectors perpendicular to M1 on the unit circle, we • Kv−u = H−u Kv Hu . We have
can take α = θ ± π /2, implying
cosh 2v − sinh 2v cosh u sinh u
Kv Hu =
b cos(θ ± π /2) ∓ sin θ sinh 2v − cosh 2v sinh u cosh u
M2 = = =
d sin(θ ± π /2) ± cos θ cosh(2v − u) − sinh(2v − u)
= ,
− sin θ sinh(2v − u) − cosh(2v − u)
=± .
cos θ and H−u Kv Hu =

If the plus sign holds, then cosh u − sinh u cosh(2v − u) − sinh(2v − u)
− sinh u cosh u sinh(2v − u) − cosh(2v − u)
cos θ − sin θ
M= = Rθ ; cosh((2v − u) − u) − sinh((2v − u) − u)
sin θ cos θ =
sinh((2v − u) − u) − cosh((2v − u) − u)

this is rotation by θ . If the minus sign holds, then cosh(2v − 2u) − sinh(2v − 2u)
= = Kv−u .
sinh(2v − 2u) − cosh(2v − 2u)
cos θ sin θ
M= = Fθ /2 ;
sin θ − cos θ
10. a) With the same crucial addition formula, we find
this is reflection across the line through the origin that
cosh 2v1 − sinh 2v1 cosh 2v2 − sinh 2v2
makes the angle θ /2 with the x-axis. Kv1 Kv2 =
sinh 2v1 − cosh 2v1 sinh 2v2 − cosh 2v2
9. • H−u = K0 Hu K0 This is an immediate calculation:
cosh(2v1 − 2v2) sinh(2v1 − 2v2 )
= = Hu ,
sinh(2v1 − 2v2) cosh(2v1 − 2v2)
1 0 cosh u sinh u 1 0
K0 Hu K0 =
0 −1 sinh u cosh u 0 −1 where u = 2(v1 − v2 ).

1 0 cosh u − sinh u b) We have
=
0 −1 sinh u − cosh u
cosh u1 sinh u1 cosh 2u2 − sinh 2u2
cosh u − sinh u Hu1 Ku2 =
= = H−u , sinh u1 cosh u1 sinh 2u2 − cosh 2u2
− sinh u cosh u
cosh(u1 + 2u2) − sinh(u1 + 2u2)
= = Kv ,
because cosh u = cosh(−u), − sinh u = sinh(−u). sinh(u1 + 2u2) − cosh(u1 + 2u2)
• H−u = Kv Hu Kv According to Theorem 2.10,
where v = 12 u1 + u2.

cosh 2v − sinh 2v 11. Consider the linear map t = −τ , z = ζ that simply
Kv = ;
sinh 2v − cosh 2v reverses time; it given by the matrix

therefore, by using the addition formulas, we obtain −1 0
M= .
0 1
cosh u sinh u cosh 2v − sinh 2v
Hu Kv =
sinh u cosh u sinh 2v − cosh 2v This will preserve the Minkowski norm if Mt J1,1 M = J1,1 .
We find
cosh(u + 2v) − sinh(u + 2v)
= .
sinh(u + 2v) − cosh(u + 2v) −1 0 1 0 −1 0
Mt J1,1 = =
0 1 0 −1 0 −1
For the next product, the crucial addition formula is
−1 0 −1 0 1 0
sinh A cosh B − cosh A sinh B = sinh(A − B), and it gives (Mt J1,1 )M = = = J1,1 ,
0 −1 0 1 0 −1
Kv Hu Kv =
so M preserves the Minkowski norm. By construction, M
cosh 2v − sinh 2v cosh(u + 2v) − sinh(u + 2v) maps the future timelike set T + to the past T − , so M is a
sinh 2v − cosh 2v sinh(u + 2v) − cosh(u + 2v) nonorthochronous Lorentz map.

cosh(2v − (u + 2v)) sinh(2v − (u + 2v)) More generally, let Au = MHu , Bu = Hu M = Atu :
=
sinh(2v − (u + 2v)) cosh(2v − (u + 2v))
− cosh u − sinh u − cosh u sinh u
= H−u . Au = , Bu = .
sinh u cosh u − sinh u cosh u

Because M and Hu both preserve the Minkowski norm, respectively. If u < 0, then e−u > eu and the semi-major
so do Au and Bu . Because Hu preserves T + , whereas M and semi-minor axes are simply reversed.
maps it to T − , Au also maps T + to T − . Because Hu also
14. We take as our starting point the fact that the general
preserves T − , Bu maps T + to T − .
ellipse centered at the origin is the locus
12. a) Because cosh(−u) = cosh(+u), the points P−u
and P+u have the same t-coordinate, for every u. The 0 < k2 = Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy2, with B2 < AC.
line connecting them is thus parallel to the z-axis. Thus
(If B2 > AC, then the locus is a hyperbola.)
the first three lines, being parallel to the z-axis, are par-
Suppose the inverse of X = LU is given by
allel to each other. The tangent vector at the point Pu is

Pu′ = (sinh u, cosh u) = (0, 1) at P0 . This vector is parallel u a b x
to the z-axis and is thus parallel to the other three lines. U = = = L−1 X,
v c d y
b) The hyperbolic rotation H1/2 maps the point Pu to the
2 2 2
point Pu+1/2. Therefore the three given lines are the im- and let C be the circle u + v = r > 0 in the (u, v)-plane.
ages, under H1/2 , of the three lines in part (a). These lines We show that L(C) is an ellipse centered at the origin in
are thus parallel, because any linear map maps parallel the (x, y)-plane. We have
lines to parallel lines. The tangent to the curve at u = 0 is
likewise mapped to the tangent to the curve at u = 1/2, so r2 = (ax + by)2 + (cx + dy)2
this image line is parallel to the other three image lines. = a2 x2 + 2abxy + b2y2 + c2 x2 + 2cdxy + d 2y2
13. a) A hyperbolic rotation Hu preserves the lines z = = Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy2

±t; because it is linear, it preserves at least the direction
where
of any parallel line z = ±t + k. Thus the image of the
given rectangle is another rectangle with sides parallel to A = a2 + c2 , B = ab + cd, C = b2 + d 2 .
the given one. The lengths of those sides may, however,
be altered, to new lengths, a′ and b′ , let us say. It remains to show that B2 < AC. We have
The side of length a in√ the given
√ rectangle A is deter-
mined by the vector a(1/ 2, 1/ 2)t . Its image in A′ is B2 = a2 b2 + 2abcd + c2 d 2 ,
thus determined by the vector
AC = a2 b2 + a2 d 2 + b2c2 + c2d 2 ;
√ √
cosh u sinh u a/√2 a(cosh u + sinhu)/√2
= therefore
sinh u cosh u a/ 2 a(sinh u + coshu)/ 2
√
1/√2 AC − B2 = a2 d 2 − 2abcd + b2 c2 = (ad − bc)2 ≥ 0.
= aeu ,
1/ 2
But ad −bc = detL−1 6= 0 because L−1 is invertible; hence
from which it follows that a′ = aeu . AC − B2 > 0, as required.
The other side of√the given √ rectangle A is determined Now suppose Cb is a circle centered at a point P = (p, q)
by the vector b(1/ 2, −1/ 2)t , and its image in A′ is other than the origin. We must show L(C) is again an
determined by the vector ellipse, but one whose center may not be at the origin.
√ √
b(cosh u − sinhu)/√2 1/ √2 Let T : R2 → R2 be the map that translates the P to the
= be−u , origin: T (X) = X − P. Then C = T (C) b is a circle centered
b(sinh u − coshu)/ 2 −1/ 2
at the origin, so L(C) = L(T (C))b is an ellipse centered at
from which it follows that b′ = be−u . the origin. But
b) The map Hu is a symmetric linear map; part (a) shows
us that we can take (1, ±1)t as eigenvectors and e±u as L(T (X)) = L(X − P) = LX − LP = Tb(L(X)),
corresponding eigenvalues. By Exercise 14, Hu will map
where Tb is the translation that moves the point L(P) to the
a circle of radius r into an ellipse whose axes are in the
origin. Finally, then,
directions (1, ±1)t .
If u > 0, then eu > e−u and the semi-major and semi- b = Tb−1 L(C) = L(C) + L(P)
L(C)
minor axes are

reu 1 re−u 1 is an ellipse whose center has been translated from the
√ and √ , origin to the point L(P). This completes the proof that the
2 1 2 −1

2.4. PHYSICAL CONSEQUENCES 17
image of an arbitrary circle under an invertible linear map The points W = Gt X therefore satisfy the equation
is an ellipse.
2 t −1 2
1/λ12 0 w
r =W D W= w z
Now let L be symmetric. We must show how the im- 0 1/λ22 z
age ellipse is related to the eigenvalues and eigenvectors 2 2
of L. The discussion just ended implies we can restrict w z
= 2 + 2.
ourselves to circles and ellipses centered at the origin. λ1 λ2
By the solution to Exercise 4d in §2.1 (Solutions
Because |λ1 | ≤ |λ2 |, we see that W lies on the ellipse E
page 6), L has real eigenvalues λ1 and λ2 with associated
whose semi-minor axis has length |λ1 |r and lies along the
mutually orthogonal eigenvectors G1 and G2 . Note: the
w-axis; its semi-major axis has length |λ2 |r and lies along
stated hypothesis, λ1 ≤ λ2 , is modified to read |λ1 | ≤ |λ2 |.
the z-axis. (If |λ1 | = |λ2 |, the ellipse is in fact a circle.)
Let G1 and G2 be unit vectors, so that
Now Gt = R−θ and G = Rθ ; therefore W = Gt X implies
G1 · G1 = G2 · G2 = 1, G1 · G2 = 0. X = Rθ W , so points in the X-plane are the image under
rotation by θ of points in the W -plane. The set L(C) is
Then if G is the matrix whose columns are G1 and G2 (we the ellipse E after it has been rotated by Rθ . Its semi-axis
write G = (G1 G2 )), we have lengths are unchanged. Its minor and major axes are the
t t coordinate axes after rotation by θ ; these are lines deter-
G G G 1 GtG
2 mined by the eigenvectors
Gt G = 1 G1 G2 = 1 1 = I,
Gt2 Gt2 G1 gt2 G2
cos θ − sin θ
G1 = , G2 = ,
the identity matrix. It follows from exercise 8 of this sec- sin θ cos θ
tion that G is either a rotation or a reflection, depending on
the sign of G2 . Choose G2 so that G is a rotation. (When respectively.
we want to emphasize this, we shall write G = Rθ for an
appropriate θ ).
Now consider how G is related to L. By construction,
2.4 Physical Consequences
L(G1 G2 ) = (LG1 LG2 ) = (λ1 G1 λ2 G2 ), 1. a) 1.0
and
t 0.8
G1
t
G LG = (λ1 G1 , λ2 G2 )
Gt 0.6
2 t
λ1 G1 G1 λ2 Gt1 G2 λ1 0
= = = D,
λ1 Gt2 G1 λ2 GT2 G2 0 λ2
0.4
0.2
a diagonal matrix. Taking the inverse of both sides, we
get
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
−1 t
−1 −1 −1 t −1
D = G LG = G L (G ) ,
The graph makes it plausible that f (v) ≈ 2v when v ≈ 0
−1 t −1
GD G = L . and f (v) ≈ 1 when v ≈ 1. To check, note that
We can now consider once again the circle C of radius r 1

= 1 − v2 + v4 − · · · = 1 + O(v2) as v → 0,
in the (u, v)-plane. The point U is on C if r2 = U t U; by 1 + v2
letting L−1 X = U, we convert this to a condition on X = so
L(U): 2v
f (v) = = 2v + O(v3) as v → 0.
1 + v2
r2 = (L−1 X)t (L−1 X) = X t (L−1 )t L−1 X.
(Taylor’s theorem gives the same result directly.) Because
|O(v3 )| ≪ |v| when v ≈ 0, it follows that f (v) ≈ 2v when
Substituting L−1 = GD−1 Gt (and the transpose of this),
v ≈ 0.When v ≈ 1,
we find
t 2 2v 2
r2 = X t GD−1 Gt GD−1 Gt X = Gt X D−1 Gt X. f (v) = ≈ = 1.
1 + v2 1 + 1

b) The velocity v we seek is a solution of the equation the ends of a different object P moving with R. (For clar-
ity, the events of P are not shown.) To make the relation
2v 1 between the figures symmetric, we take ∆z = 1 for them,
f (v) = = ,
1 + v2 2 too.
By Fitzgerald contraction, R considers the events mark-
so 4v = 1 + v2, or v2 − 4v + 1 = 0. The quadratic formula
ing the ends of Q at time t = 0 in R’s frame to be √ O and
gives √ Q′ , and these have the spatial separation ∆z = 1 − v2.
4 ± 16 − 4 √
v= = 2 ± 3. The symmetry of the figures makes it clear that the events
2 marking the ends of P at time τ = 0 in √ G’s frame are O
√
Because v > 1 is not possible, v = 2 − 3 ≈ 0.268. In and P ; their spatial separation is ∆ζ = 1 − v . The sym-
′ 2
fact, on the graph of f we see f (0.268) ≈ 0.5. metry of the figures resolves the paradox.
√ 4. To construct the first-order Taylor polynomial, we just
2. The relevant equation is ∆t = ∆τ / 1 − v2, where ∆t is
need the values of f (0) and f ′ (0). We have f (0) = 1 and
lifetime in the fixed (laboratory) frame and ∆τ √ is lifetime √ √ √ √
in the particle’s own frame. Because v = 0.99, 1 − v2 ≈ ′ 1 + v · −1/2 1 − v − 1 − v · 1/2 1 + v
0.141, so the particle’s lifetime in its own frame is f (v) = ,
1+v
p −1/2 − 1/2
∆τ = 1 − v2 ∆t ≈ 0.141 × 10−10 sec = 1.41 × 10−11 sec. f ′ (0) = = −1.
1
The polynomial is therefore P(v) = 1 − v.
τ A different argument uses
3. a) ζ z
√ 1
1 ± v = 1 ± 12 v + O(v2 ) and = 1 − A + O(A2)
B′ A 1+A
R
to write
B′ A B √
G τ R t 1 − v 1 − 12 v + O(v2)
O O A′ √ =
G 1 + v 1 + 12 v + O(v2)
A′ B
= 1 − 1 v + O(v2) 1 − 1 v + O(v2 )
2 2
t 2
= 1 − v + O(v ).
In the two frames above, the events A and A′ are si-
multaneous for G; assume τ = 1 for them. Similarly, the 5. [Note: in the Times-Roman fonts used here, Greek nu
events B and B′ are simultaneous for R; t = 1 for them. and Roman math vee are virtually indistinguishable: nu,
ν ; vee, v. To clarify, we put a tilde over the nu, νe.]
√ Because R says G’s clock runs slow by the factor
The text produces a single formula that abandons the
1 − v2,√the event A′ on R’s worldline happens at R’s
time t = 1 − v2. The symmetry we see in the two frames distinction between nadv and nrec by letting v represent the
guarantees that the corresponding ′ time rate of change of distance between source G and ob-
√ event B on G’s world- server R. We adopt this approach here; it means we need
line happens at G’s time τ = 1√ 2
− v . Thus G says that
R’s clock runs slow by the factor 1 − v2. The symmetry only analyze the receding source.
of the figures resolves the paradox. We assume, as in the text, that there are events along
G’s worldline that are spaced ∆τ = 1/νe seconds apart.
b) z In the Galilean formulation, photon worldlines of slope
ζ z ζ
−1 + v emanate from these events in R’s frame, and we
P Q P Q Q seek to determine the spacing ∆t between these worldlines
P′ Q′ τ where they intersect R’s worldline.
R Q
G τ R t
O O slope +1 + v
G
t G
In the two frames above, the shaded region represents ∆τ v ∆τ a
an object Q that moves with G. The events O and Q mark R
∆t
the two ends of Q at the time τ = 0; assume their spatial
separation is ∆ζ = 1. Similarly, the events O and P mark slope −1 + v

2.4. PHYSICAL CONSEQUENCES 19
Recall that, in a Galilean transformation, all time inter- 7. a) ζ z

vals are measured horizontally. Thus ∆t = ∆τ + a, and a EV
can be determined from the slope V
EV
−v∆τ −v∆τ V τ
−1 + v = , so a= . −a tV
a −1 + v G τ R
tT t
O O
Thus
G
−v∆τ −1 + v − v ∆τ
∆t = ∆τ + = ∆τ = , T
−1 + v −1 + v 1−v ET
and T ET
1 1−v
n= = = νe(1 − v). In the two frames, the flashes from T and V are the events
∆t ∆τ
ET and EV , respectively. Given the stated circumstances,
6. The positions of the t- and z-axes make it clear that we assume v > 0.
a Lorentz transformation is involved, not a Galilean. We b) According to G, the flashes are simultaneous.. They
continue to denote source frequency as νe, and we con- occurred a seconds before the event O when the flashes
tinue to let v represent the time rate of change of distance are seen.
between source G and observer R. Thus again we concen-
trate on the receding observer. c) According to R, the flashes are not simultaneous. Be-
cause v > 0, the one from the rear of the train (ET ) hap-
a
pens first, the one from the front (EV ), second. To deter-
∆τ av G mine the times in R’s frame, we can use the boost Bv to
transform G’s coordinates for ET and EV . We have
av
∆t
R −a −a 1 1 v
ET = ,E = , Bv = √ .
−a G V a G 1 − v2 v 1
By Minkowski invariance, ∆t 2 = a2 − (av)2 , so
We need only the t-coordinates; they are
∆t
a= √ .
1 − v2 −a(1 + v) −a(1 − v)
tT = √ , tV = √ .
1−v 2 1 − v2
Furthermore, ∆τ + av = a, so ∆τ = a(1 − v). Therefore,
Their difference is the time interval between the two
∆τ ∆t
=√ flashes as seen by R:
1−v 1 − v2
2av
and thus tV − tT = √ .
1 − v2
p r
(1 − v)(1 + v) 1+v
∆t = ∆τ = ∆τ . d) According to G, both of the flashes were emitted at
1−v 1−v
time τ = −a. According to R, the flash from the rear of
The frequencies therefore satisfy the relation the train was emitted before time t = −a; the one from the
r r front, after that time:
1 1 1−v 1−v
n= = = νe . r r
∆t ∆τ 1 + v 1+v 1+v 1−v
tT = −a < −a < −a = tV .
1−v 1+v
This agrees with the Doppler calculation made in the text
from the source (i.e., G’s) frame. (The two expressions for tT are equal; likewise, the two
expressions for tV are equal.)

Special Relativity—Kinetics
3.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion 3. The “trick” that says to balance dimensions by insert-
ing factors of c as necessary suggests that we should have
1. The result follows from Taylor’s theorem or from the v+w
fact that the geometric series V= .
1 + vw/c2
1 + A + A2 + A3 + · · · + An + · · · To confirm, we can adapt Proof 2 of Proposition 3.1 by
making the replacements
has the sum 1/(1 − A) when |A| < 1. Thus, with A = 23 v2
we find v → v/c, w → w/c, V → V /c,
v
p= 2 2
= v 1 + 32 v2 + · · · . that are indicated by the new form that the boost Bv takes.
1− 3v
Then the formula V = (v + w)/(1 + vw) that appears in
Finally, if v ≈ 0, then 2 2 the proof is itself replaced by
3v + ··· ≪ |v| and so p ≈ v.
v/c + w/c v+w
2. a) If v = c tanh u, then V /c = or V = .
1 + (v/c)(w/c) 1 + vw/c2
sinh2 u cosh2 u − 1 1 (Of course it is possible to go through all the steps of
(v/c)2 = 2
= = 1− ,
cosh u cosh2 u cosh2 u Proof 2 with the replacements made.)
or cosh2 u = 1/(1 − (v/c)2). It follows that 4. Let us denote (t, x/c, y/c, z/c) as Xsec to distinguish it
from Xm = (ct, x, y, z) as used in the text. Then, of course,
1
cosh u = p . Xsec = (1/c)Xm . The same relation holds for 4-velocity,
1 − (v/c)2 proper-4-velocity, and 4-momentum:
b) We have 1
Vsec = Vm = (1, v/c),
c
1 (v/c)2 1 1
sinh2 u = cosh2 u − 1 = 2
−1 = , Usec = Um = p (1, v/c),
1 − (v/c) 1 − (v/c)2 c 1 − (v/c)2
p 1
so sinh u = (v/c)/ 1 − (v/c)2. Psec = Pm = (m, p/c).
c
As the text states, the boost Bv corresponds to the hy-
perbolic rotation Hu when v = c tanh u in conventional The first two are dimensionless; the third has the dimen-
units. Because sion of mass. It is also true that
µ
Hu =
cosh u sinh u
, Psec = m(1, v/c) = mVsec = p Vsec = µ Usec .
sinh u cosh u 1 − (v/c)2
immediate substitution gives The Minkowski norm is

s
1 1 v/c x2 y2 z2
Bv = p . kXsec k = t2 − − − sec,
1 − (v/c)2 v/c 1 c2 c2 c2
20

3.1. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 21
and thus the 4-speed is 6. a) For X = (t, x, y, z), define

q
1 x2 y2 z2
kVsec k = 1 − (v/c)2 = kVm k. Q(X) = t 2 − − − sec2 .
c c2 c2 c2
b) In J1,3 , below, the first diagonal entry is dimensionless

5. a) Consider the formula and the second, third, and fourth have the dimensions of
sec2 /m2 :
t = τ cosh u + ζ sinh u
 
1 0 0 0
as written in geometric units. In conventional units, each 0 −1/c2 0 0 
term must have the dimensions of seconds. The first term J1,3 = 
0
.
0 −1/c 2 0 
already does, but the second has the dimension of meters. 0 0 0 −1/c2
The remedy is to attach the factor 1/c (sec/m) to the sec-
ond term:
1 c) With hindsight, we find it is helpful to write
t = τ cosh u + ζ sinh u. Hut J1,1 Hu = J1,1 also in the form J1,1 Hu = (Hut )−1 J1,1 .
c
Suppose
For the formula

p q 1 p −r
z = τ sinh u + ζ cosh u Hu = , then (Hut )−1 = ,
r s D −q s
in geometric units, its conventional form will have dimen- where D = det Hu = ps − qr. Note: J1,1 = H t J1,1 Hu im-
u
sions of meters. But the first term has the dimensions of plies
seconds, so we need to attach the factor c (m/sec):
−1/c2 = det J1,1 = det Hut · detJ1,1 · detHu = (−1/c2 )D2 ,
z = τ c sinh u + ζ cosh u.
so D = ±1 and Hu is indeed invertible. Direct computa-
Thus, in conventional units, tion gives
!
1 1 p r/c2
Hu =
cosh u sinh u
. = (HUt )−1 J1,1
c D −q −s/c2
c sinh u cosh u
p q
= J1,1 Hu = .
−r/c2 −s/c2
b) The point (τ , ζ ) = (1, 0) is on G’s worldline; its image
(t, z) under Hu will give G’s velocity as v = z/t. We have Because we know D = ±1 already, by comparing the di-
! agonal entries we find D = +1. The off-diagonal entries
1 imply q = r/c2 . The sinh function is 1–1 and maps R onto
cosh u sinh u 1 cosh u t
c = = , itself; hence there is a unique u for which r = c sinh u and
c sinh u cosh u 0 c sinh u z
q = (1/c) sinh u.
Now consider the original identity; once again direct
so v = c sinh u/ coshu = c tanh u.
computation gives
c) Because v = c tanh u exactly as in Exercise 2, above, 2
we know p − r2 /c2 pq − rs/c2
= Hut J1,1 Hu
pq − rs/c2 q2 − s2 /c2
1 v/c
cosh u = p , sinh u = p . 1 0
1 − (v/c)2 1 − (v/c)2 = J1,1 = .
0 −1/c2
As we did in that exercise, we obtain the boost Bv from The new information here is
the hyperbolic rotation Hu we now have from part (a) by
replacing sinh u and cosh u by the corresponding expres- p2 = 1 + r2/c2 and s2 = c2 q2 + 1;
sions in v:
given the values of q and r, we can express these equations
1 1 v/c2 as
Hu → p = Bv .
1 − (v/c) 2 v 1 p = ± cosh u and s = ± cosh u.

22 SOLUTIONS: CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL RELATIVITY—KINETICS
Because 1 = D = ps − qr = ps − sinh2 u, it follows that the curvature vector is

ps = 1 + sinh2 u ≥ 1 and the signs of p and s must be the
same. Therefore we have determined that k(s) = u′ (s) = (0, 0) for all s.
!
± cosh u
1
sinh u Because the curvature κ = 0, the radius of curvature func-
Hu = c . tion is undefined.
c sinh u ± cosh u • The curve is the straight line traversed from (−2, 3)
This is, in fact, as far as we can go. Only by specifying, to (13, 23). Its length is L = 25.
in addition, that Hu is orthochronous can we eliminate the b) • Here x′ = (−6 sin 2q, 6 cos 2q) and kx′ k = 6, so the
possibility of the minus sign in the formula for Hu . arc-length function is
Z q
7. a) When v = 30 m/sec and c = 3 × 108 m/sec, then
v/c2 = 3.3 × 10−16 and s(q) = 6 dq = 6q.
0
p
1
= 1.000 000 000 000 005; Thus q = s/6 and L = s(π ) = 6π .
1 − (v/c)2 • y(s) = x(s/6) = (3 cos(s/3), 3 sin(s/3)), 0 ≤ s ≤ 6π .
• The unit tangent is u(s) = (− sin(s/3), cos(s/3)), and
therefore the boost is

1 3.3 × 10−16 1
B30 m/sec = 1.000 000 000 000 005 × k(s) = (− cos(s/3), − sin(s/3)).
30 1 3

1 0 Therefore κ (s) = 1/3, so the radius of curvature function
= to 13 decimal places.
30 1 is ρ (s) = 3 for all s.
• The curve is the circle of radius 3 traversed counter-
b) When v = 30 m/sec, the Galilean shear is clockwise once around the origin. Its length is L = 6π .

1 0 c) • Here x′ = (− sin q, cosq), kx′ k = 1, and s(q) = q.
S30 m/sec = .
30 1 • Because s = q, the curve already has its arc-length
parametrization: y(s) = x(s), 0 ≤ s ≤ 2π .
To 13 decimal places, B30 m/sec = S30 m/sec . More gener-
• u(s) = (− sin s, cos s) and k(s) = −(coss, sin s).
ally, as c → ∞, we have
q Therefore κ (s) = 1 = ρ (s) for all s.
2
v/c → 0 and 1/ 1 − (v/c)2 → 1; • The curve is the circle of radius 1 traversed once
counterclockwise around the point (3, 2). Its length is
therefore, L = 2π .
q
1 v/c2 1 0 d) • Here x′ (q) = (−3 cos2 q sin q, 3 sin2 q cos q)
Bv = 1/ 1 − (v/c)2 → = Sv .
v 1 v 1
= 3 sin q cos q (− cos q, sin q).
When c ≫ |v|, a Lorentz boost is indistinguishable from a
Galilean shear. Because k(− cosq, sin q)k = 1 and sin q cos q ≥ 0 on the
interval 0 ≤ q ≤ π /2, we have kx′ (q)k = 3 sin q cos q and
Z q
3.2 Curves and Curvature s(q) = 3 sin q cosq dq = 32 sin2 q.
0
p
1. a) • Here x′ = (3, 4) and kx′ k = 5, so the arc-length Therefore q(s) = arcsin 2s/3 and L = s(π /2) = 3/2.
function is Z q • To determine y(s), we shall need the facts that
s(q) = 5 dq = 5q. sin(arcsin v) = v and
0 p p
Furthermore, q = s/5 and arc length is L = s(5) = 25. cos(arcsin v) = 1 − sin2 (arcsin v) = 1 − v2
• The arc-length parametrization is
Thus y(s) = x(q(s))
y(s) = x(s/5) = (3s/5 − 2, 4s/5 + 3), 0 ≤ s ≤ 25. 3 3
p p
• First get the unit tangent vector = cos(arcsin 2s/3) , sin(arcsin 2s/3)

u(s) = y′ (s) = (3/5, 4/5); = (1 − 2s/3)3/2 , (2s/3)3/2 , 0 ≤ s ≤ 3/2.

3.2. CURVES AND CURVATURE 23
• The tangent vector is • The arc-length parametrization is

 3/2 
u(s) = y′ (s) = − (1 − 2s/3)1/2 , (2s/3)1/2 ; (3s + 1)2/3
− 1 2/3
(3s + 1) − 1 

y(s) = x(q(s)) =  , .
3 2
Note that ku(s)k2 = 1 − 2s/3 + 2s/3 = 1, confirming u(s)
is a unit vector for all s. The curvature vector is
! • The unit tangent vector is
1 1 1 1/2
k(s) = u′ (s) = p ,p , ′ 1 2/3
3 1 − 2s/3 2s/3 u(s) = y (s) = (3s + 1) − 1 ,1 ,
(3s + 1)1/3
and and the various aspects of curvature are
s s !
1 1 1 1 1 − 2s/3 + 2s/3 1 1
κ (s) = + = k(s) = u′ (s) = 1/2 , −1 ,
3 1 − 2s/3 2s/3 3 (1 − 2s/3)(2s/3) (3s + 1)4/3 (3s + 1)2/3 − 1
1 1
=p . κ (s) = kk(s)k = ,
2s(3 − 2s) (3s + 1)2/3 − 1
p 1
Therefore ρ (s) = 2s(3 − 2s), 0 ≤ s ≤ 3/2. ρ (s) = = (3s + 1)2/3 − 1.
κ (s)
• Over the larger domain 0 ≤ q ≤ 2π , the curve x(q) is
the astroid pictured below. Our curve, with 0 ≤ q ≤ π /2, (There are a lot of intermediate calculations.)
is the portion in the first quadrant. •
2.0
1.0
1.5
0.5
1.0
0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

-0.5
f) • Here x′ (q) = eq (cos q − sinq, cosq + sin q) and
p √
kx′ (q)k = eq 2 cos2 q + 2 sin2 q = eq 2;
-1.0
p therefore
e)p • Here x′ (q) = (q2 , q) and kx′ (q)k = q4 + q2 = Z q √ √ q √
q q2 + 1 when 0 ≤ q ≤ 2. The arc-length function is s(q) = eq 2 dq = eq 2 = 2 (eq − 1).
0 0
Z q p √
s(q) = q q2 + 1 dq The
√ inverse is q(s) = ln(1 + s/ 2), and L = s(π /2) =
0
q
2 (eπ /2 − 1). √ √
(q2 + 1)3/2 − 1 • We have eq = 1 + s/ 2; if we set A = ln(1 + s/ 2),
= 13 (q2 + 1)3/2 = .
0 3 we can write the arc-length parametrization as
√
Its inverse is y(s) = (1 + s/ 2) cos A, sin A .
q
q(s) = (3s + 1)2/3 − 1, • In the same terms, the unit tangent vector is
1
and L = s(2) = (53/2 − 1)/3 ≈ 3.39. u(s) = √ cos A − sinA, cos A + sin A ,
2

and the curvature vector is In the figure below, each point X(q) is labelled with its
1 q-parameter value, tangent vectors X′ (q) are white with
k(s) = √ √ − sin A − cosA, − sin A + cosA . black outline, and acceleration vectors X′′ (q) are plotted
2( 2 + s)
at half their actual length.
Thus
1 √ 1 0
κ (s) = √ √ · 2= √
2( 2 + s) 2+s X′
√
and ρ (s) = 2 + s. X
• The curve is a portion of a spiral, called an equian-
gular spiral because the radius from the center (the origin X′′
in this case) to any point on the spiral makes a constant
angle with the tangent at that point. In fact, the cosine of −1 1
the angle in this case is
x · x′ e2q (cos2 q + sin2 q) 1
′
= √ =√ ,
kxkkx k eq · eq 2 2 −2 2
◦
so the angle itself is 45 . The angle at which the curve
crosses a coordinate axis (each of which is a radius) does
indeed appear to be 45◦. The speed is kX′ (q)k = 2/(1 + q2); this increases (i.e.,
the parameter point “speeds up”) while q < 0, and it de-
creases (the parameter point “slows down”) while q > 0.
The tangent vectors increase in length until q = 0, and
then they decrease.
4
The acceleration vector always points inward. While
the parameter point is speeding up, acceleration X′′ makes
an acute angle with velocity X′ ; while the point is slowing
down, the angle is obtuse.
3
b) The alternative curvature formula is

s
(X′ · X′ )(X′′ · X′′ ) − (X′ · X′′ )2
κ= .
2
(X′ · X′ )3
We have already seen that X′ · X′ = kX′ k2 = 4/(1 + q2)2 .
In addition,
16 + 48q2 + 48q4 + 16q6 16
1 X′′ · X′′ = 2 6
= ,
(1 + q ) (1 + q2)3
−8q − 16q3 − 8q5 −8q
X′ · X′′ = = ;
(1 + q2)5 (1 + q2)3
0.5 1.0 1.5 therefore
64 64q2
2. a) The tangent (velocity) and acceleration vectors are (X′ · X′ )(X′′ · X′′ ) − (X′ · X′′ )2 = 2 5
−
(1 + q ) (1 + q2)6
2 − 2q2 −4q
X′ (q) = , , 64(1 + q2) − 64q2 64
(1 + q2)2 (1 + q2)2 = = = (X′ · X′ )3 .
(1 + q2)6 (1 + q2)6
−12q + 4q3 12q2 − 4
X′′ (q) = , ; From this it follows that κ ≡ 1.
(1 + q2)3 (1 + q2)3
c) Because the domain of the parameter q is (−∞, ∞),
the values to plot are as follows. the arc-length formula has the form
q 0 ±1 ±2 Z q Z q q
′ 2 dq
X (1, 0) (±1, 0) (±4/5, −3/5) s(q) = kX (q)k dq = 2
= 2 arctan q
−∞ −∞ + q
1 −∞
X′ (2, 0) (0, ∓1) (−6/25, ∓8/25)
= 2(arctan(q) − arctan(−∞)) = 2 arctan(q) + π .
X′′ (0, −4) (∓1, 1) (±8/125, 44/125)

3.2. CURVES AND CURVATURE 25
d) The total length of X is s(∞) = 2 arctan(∞) + π = 2π . 4. Page 116 of the text establishes that the length of the
e) The inverse of s(q) = 2 arctan(q) + π is portion of the ellipse

s−π x2 y2
q(s) = tan , 0 < s < 2π . +
a2 b2
= 1, 0 < b < a,
2
Set (s− π )/2 = A. Because the arc-length parametrization in the first quadrant is given by
Y(s) is obtained from X(q), we first calculate Z π /2 q
2 2 2 2 L=a 1 − k2 sin2 q dq,
1 + q = 1 + tan A = sec A = 1/ cos A. 0
√
Hence where k = a2 − b2 /a. The length of the complete el-
2q 2 sin A/ cosA lipse is then 4L. The integral itself can be determined by
2
= 2
= 2 sin A cos A = sin 2A, numerical integration. Its value is also available in tables;
1+q 1/ cos A
2 it is known as the complete elliptic integral of the second
1 − q2 1 − sin A/ cos A 2
2 2
= = cos A − sin A = cos 2A, kind, denoted E(k). √
1 + q2 1/ cos2 A For the first ellipse, a = 4, b = 3, and k = 7/4; there-
and it now follows that fore E(k) = 1.38147, L = 4 × E(k) = 5.52587, and the
total circumference is 22.1035. √
Y(s) = X(q) = (sin(s − π ), cos(s − π )), 0 < s < 2π . For the second ellipse, a = 12, b = 5, and k = 119/5;
The domain of s excludes the endpoints 0 and 2π be- therefore E(k) = 1.16033, L = 12 × E(k) = 13.924, and
cause the image curve must exclude the point (0, −1) = the total circumference is 55.6959.
(sin(−π ), cos(−π )) = (sin(2π − π ), cos(2π − π )).
1.0
5. a) -1.0
-0.5
f) The unit tangent vector and the curvature vector are 0.5 0.0
0.5
0.0
U(s) = Y′ (s) = (cos(s − π ), − sin(s − π ),
1.0
-0.5
K(s) = U′ (s) = (− sin(s − π ), − cos(s − π )) = −Y(s).
-1.0
Thus K is the unit vector that, everywhere on the circle,

points back to its center. Unlike X′′ , it has constant length
and is everywhere perpendicular to the curve. 2
3. Two modifications are needed. First, because ϕ (q) is

now a decreasing function, we have ϕ ′ (q) < 0. Hence, in
the first displayed equation on page 112 of the text, where
|ϕ ′ (q)| is replaced by ϕ ′ (q), it must now be replaced by 1
−ϕ ′ (q), transforming the displayed equation into
kx′ (q)k dq = · · · = −kX′ (Q)k dQ.
0
The second modification involves the second displayed
equation. We can clarify the second equality in the origi-
nal form by writing
Z b Z ϕ −1 (b) Z B
kx′ (q)k dq = kX′ (Q)k dQ = kX′ (Q)k dQ.
The illustration is drawn with a = 0.2. The curve is
a ϕ −1 (a) A
a helix; more particularly, a circular helix with radius 1
But if we incorporate the first modification with the now- whose axis is the z-axis. The parameter a determines the
changed values of ϕ −1 (a) and ϕ −1 (b), the new version of pitch of the helix; this is the amount of vertical space
the second equality becomes between vertically adjacent points xa (q) and xa (q + 2π ).
Z b Z ϕ −1 (b) The pitch is thus 2π a; in the figure it is thus about 1.26.
Lx = kx′ (q)k dq = −kX′ (Q)k dQ When a → 0, the helix becomes a circle (in the plane
ϕ −1 (a)
a
Z A Z B z = 0). When a → ∞, the pitch increases without limit and
′
′ the helix becomes a straight line (parallel to the axis of the
= −kX (Q)k dQ = kX (Q)k dQ = LX .
B A helix).

′ ′
√ We have xa (q) = (− sin q, cos q, a) and kxa (q)k =
b) 6. a) Note that the curve here is a generalization of the
2
1 + a . If we take q = 0 for the starting point of the one analyzed in Exercise 1(f); our analysis here will gen-
helix, then eralize that analysis. Write xa (q) as eaq (cos q, sin q); then
Z qp p x′a (q) = aeaq (cos q, sin q) + eaq(− sin q, cosq)
sa (q) = 1 + a2 dq = 1 + a2 q,
p 0 = eaq (a cosq − sin q, a sin q + cosq).
qa (s) = q/ 1 + a2, We shall also need
and therefore kx′a (q)k2 = e2aq a2 cos2 q − 2a cosq sin q + sin2 q

s s as + a2 sin2 q + 2a sinq cos q + cos2 q
ya (s) = cos √ , sin √ ,√ .
1 + a2 1 + a2 1 + a2 = e2aq (a2 + 1).
′
To get the curvature vector, we first need the unit tangent The cosine of the angle between xa and xa is
′
ua (s) = ya (s) =
xa · x′a e2aq (a cos2 q + a sin2 q) a
′
= √ =√ .
1 s s kx a kkx a k e aq · eaq a2 + 1 a 2+1
√ − sin √ , cos √ ,a .
1 + a2 1 + a2 1 + a2 This gives us the measure of the angle and shows that it is
constant.
Then ka (s) = u′a (s) = √
b) Because kx′a (q)k = eaq a2 + 1, the arc-length we

1 s s seek is
− cos √ , − sin √ , 0 . √ √
1 + a2 1 + a2 1 + a2 Z 0 p eaq a2 + 1
0
a2 + 1
aq 2
L= e a + 1 dq = = .
−∞ a a
c) • Using the curvature vector itself, we have −∞
1 7. a) Because
κa = kka (s)k = .
1 + a2
kx(q)k2 = cos4 q + cos2 q sin2 q + sin2 q

• To use the alternate formula, we need x′a (from above) = cos2 q cos2 q + sin2 q + sin2 q
and x′′a = (− cos q, − sin q, 0). We have = cos2 q + sin2 q = 1,
x′a · x′a = 1 + a2, x′a · x′′a = 0, x′a · x′a = 1, every point of x(q) is at unit distance from the origin, and
hence is on the unit sphere.
and hence we find b)
s
(1 + a2) · 1 − 02 1
κa (s) = = ,
(1 + a2)3 1 + a2 1.0
in agreement with the first method. Note that the curvature

is constant and depends only on the “pitch” parameter a.
0.5
1.0
d)
0.8
0.6 0.0
0.4
0.2
-0.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.0
Sketched is the graph of κa as a function of a. Accord- 0.5
ing to the formula, κa → 0 as a → ∞. According to the -1.0 0.0
our geometric understanding of the helix itself, the helix 1.0

0.5 -0.5
becomes “straighter” as a increases; this is consistent with 0.0
-0.5
its curvature κa decreasing to 0.
-1.0
-1.0

3.3. ACCELERATED MOTION 27
The curve starts at x(−π /2) = (0, 0, −1), the south pole b) The proper time calculation is similar to the arc-length
of the unit sphere. It ends at x(π /2) = (0, 0, 1), the north calculation in Exercise 5 already referred to. We have
pole. The curve crosses the equator when z = sin q = 0,
that is, when q = 0. X′ (t) = (1, −rω sin ω t, rω cos ω t),
c) At the point x(q), the curve’s direction is given by so it follows (using the Minkowski norm in its simple,
x′ (q) = (−2 cos q sin q, − sin2 q + cos2 q, cos q). The direc- geometric form) that
tions at the starting and ending points are therefore
kX′ (t)k2 = 1 − r2ω 2 sin2 ω t − r2 ω 2 cos2 ω t = 1 − r2ω 2 .
x (−π /2) = (0, −1, 0) and x (π /2) = (0, 1, 0),
′ ′
Note that, for X(t) to be a timelike worldcurve, we must
respectively. The illustration reflects these facts. have
1
0 < 1 − r2ω 2 or r < ;
′
d) First write x (q) as (− sin 2q, cos 2q, cos q); then ω
in other words, the period of the motion (and hence the
kx′ (q)k2 = sin2 2q + cos2 2q + cos2 q = 1 + cos2 q, frequency) puts a bound on the size of the radius of the
motion.
and the arc length is therefore If we take t = 0 as the initial time in R’s frame, then the
Z π /2 p proper time function is
L= 1 + cos2 q dq. Z tp p
−π /2 τ (t) = 1 − r2ω 2 De = 1 − r2ω 2 t.
0
To cast this in the form of an elliptic integral of the second
kind (cf. E(k) in the solution to Exercise 4, above), first Proper time for X is thus proportional to t; the proportion-
use the symmetry of the curve itself to write ality constant is less than 1, so R says that X’s clock runs
slow.
Z π /2 p
L=2 1 + cos2 q dq 2. Note the first sentence of the proof of Proposition 3.3:
0 “Since X′ (q) . . . is a future timelike vector, t ′ (q) > · · · 0.”
It follows that the function t = t(q) is invertible for all q
Then 1 + cos2 q = 1 + 1 − sin2 q = 2(1 − k2 sin2 q) where for which X(q) is defined. Let q = q(t) denote the inverse,
k2 = 1/2, so and let
√ Z π /2 q
L=2 2 1 − k2 sin2 q dq. xb(t) = x(q(t)), yb(t) = y(q(t)), b z(t) = z(q(t)).
0
√ Then
The integral is E(1/ 2) = 1.35064, and L = 3.8202. b = X(q(t)) = (t, xb(t), yb(t),b
X(t) z(t))
gives the new parametrization.
3.3 Accelerated Motion 3. By analogy with the proof of Theorem 3.1, we seek to
construct a smooth function Q = ϕ (q) for which X(q) =
b ϕ (q)). Because X
X( b is 1–1 on its image (i.e., G’s world-
1. a) This curve is similar to the helix in Exercise 5 of b
cuve), the inverse X−1 is defined there, and we take
the previous section 3.2. In R’s (t, y, z)-spacetime, X(t)
is a circular helix whose axis is the t-axis. Its shape has ϕ (q) = X
b −1 (X(q)), b ϕ (q)) = X(q),
implying X(
two aspects: its radius (r, in this case), and its pitch: the
amount by which t changes in one complete cycle. In one as desired. If we can prove ϕ is differentiable, then we
cycle ω t increases by 2π ; therefore the increase in t (i.e., can apply the chain rule to get
the pitch) is 2π /ω . That is, ω determines the pitch of the b ′ (ϕ (q))ϕ ′ (q).
X′ (q) = X
helix.
(In the spatial (y, z)-plane, the helix defines motion in a Because X b ′ (q) and X′ (q) are both future vectors, their
circle of radius r with a period of 2π /ω . Thus the pitch of norms are positive, implying that ϕ ′ (q) is also positive,
the helix in spacetime gives the period of motion in space. for all q. Therefore,
Its reciprocal, ω /2π , is the frequency of the periodic mo-
tion.) b ′ (ϕ (q))k · |ϕ ′ (q)| = kX
kX′ (q)k = kX b ′ (ϕ (q))kϕ ′ (q),

and thus the first two terms on the right cancel each other, leaving
Z q2 Z ϕ (q2 ) us with just
∆τq = kX′ (q)k dq = b ′ (ϕ (q))kϕ ′ (q) dq
kX
q1 ϕ (q1 ) 1 b ′ (Q) · R(∆Q).
Z Q2 r(∆P) = − X
b ′ (Q)k2
kX
= b ′ (Q)k D′ s = ∆τQ .
kX
Q1
Dividing by k∆Pk, we find
The endpoints of the integral transform as shown because
r(∆P) r(∆P) ∆Q
=
b ϕ (qi )) = X(Q
Ei = X(qi ) = X( b i ), i = 1, 2, k∆Pk ∆Q k∆Pk

1 b ′ (Q) · R(∆Q) ∆Q
implying ϕ (qi ) = Qi , as claimed. =− X .
b ′
kX (Q)k 2 ∆Q k∆Pk
To complete the proof we must show ϕ is differen-
tiable. As noted in the proof of Theorem 3.1, the key As ∆Q → 0, the expression in parentheses goes to 0 and
is to show that the inverse X b −1 is differentiable at every ∆Q/k∆Pk remains bounded, because
b
point on the curve X(q). The proof then indicates that
the needed derivative is the vector DP whose value at the ∆P b ′ R(∆Q) b ′ (Q).
= X (Q) + →X
b
point P = X(Q) is given by the formula ∆Q ∆Q
1 Therefore, because ∆Q → 0 if and only if ∆P → 0, we

DX(Q)
b = b ′ (Q).
X have r(∆P)/k∆Pk → 0 as ∆P → 0.
b ′ (Q)k2
kX
4. By the fundamental theorem of calculus,
(The proof
identifies DP as a certain gradient vector
∇ Xb −1 (P), but we do not need this fact for our argument dτ p
= 1 − k2 sin2 t.
here.) dt
The proof that DP is indeed the derivative involves tak- By the inverse function theorem,
ing a nearby point P + ∆P on the curveX(Q)
b and showing
that dt 1 1 1
r(∆P) ϕ′ = = =p =√ .
→ 0 as ∆P → 0 d τ d τ /dt 1 − k2 sin2 t 1 − k sin2 ϕ (τ )
2
k∆Pk
where If we write ϕ ′ = (1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )−1/2 , then
b −1 (P + ∆P) − X
r(∆P) = X b −1(P) − DP · ∆P. ϕ ′′ = − 21 (1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )−3/2 (−2k2 sin ϕ cos ϕ · ϕ ′ )
To begin, note that P + ∆P is on the curve and near P; = (1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )−3/2 (k2 sin ϕ cos ϕ )(1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )−1/2
therefore, P + ∆P = X(Q
b + ∆Q) for some ∆Q, and then k2 sin ϕ cos ϕ
= .
we have (1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )2
1
r(∆P) = ∆Q − b ′ (Q) · ∆P.
X We have
b ′
kX (Q)k2
cos ϕ k2 sin2 ϕ cos ϕ
b is itself differentiable at Q, we can write (ϕ ′ )2 cos ϕ + ϕ ′′ sin ϕ = +
Because X (1 − k2 sin ϕ ) (1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )2
2
b + ∆Q) = X(Q)
X(Q b b ′ (Q)∆Q + R(∆Q),
+X cos ϕ − k2 sin2 ϕ cos ϕ + k2 sin2 ϕ cos ϕ
=
(1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )2
where R(∆Q)/∆Q → 0 as ∆Q → 0. If we rewrite the last cos ϕ
equation as = ;
(1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )2
∆P = X(Q
b + ∆Q) − X(Q)
b b ′ (Q)∆Q + R(∆Q),
=X therefore
then the last expression for r(∆P) takes the form
A(τ ) = ϕ ′′ , k(ϕ ′′ sin ϕ + (ϕ ′ )2 cos ϕ )
2
1 k sin ϕ cos ϕ k cos ϕ
r(∆P) = ∆Q − X b ′ (Q) ∆Q
b ′ (Q) · X = ,
b ′ (Q)k2
kX (1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )2 (1 − k2 sin2 ϕ )2
1 b ′ (Q) · R(∆Q). k cos ϕ
− X = k sin ϕ , 1 .
b ′
kX (Q)k 2 (1 − k sin ϕ )
2 2 2

3.3. ACCELERATED MOTION 29
5. a) Let (t, z) = X(q) = (cosh(q), sinh q). Then, for

all q, t = cosh q > 0 and t 2 − z2 = cosh2 q − sinh2 q = 1;
thus X(q) satifies all the conditions to parametrize the hy-
perbola. Moreover,
X′ (q) = (sinh q, cosh q),

Q(X(q)) = sinh2 q − cosh2 q = −1 < 0
for all q, so the hyperbola is spacelike

p and we write (cf.
page 53 of the text) kX(q)k = −Q(X(q)) = 1.
b) The given formula for the Minkowski length is
Z q
l= 1 · dq = q.
0
6. By definition, p = mv, so p = CV and hence pc = me v.

If we write E = mc2 in the form E/c = mc, then a substi-
tution gives pc = Ev/c.
7. When v = c, the equation established in the previous
exercise takes the form pc = E. Now apply this result to
the displayed formula in the proof of Theorem 3.9:
E2 p 2 c2
µ 2 c2 = kPk2 = 2
− p2 = 2 − p2 = 0.
c c
This forces µ = 0.

Arbitrary Frames
4.1 Uniform Rotation in the (τ , ζ )-plane. (Note the substitution Z = ζ in

this equation.) The graph of a function of this type
√ is shown immediately above, in the solution to Exer-
1. a) Solve τ = T0 / 1 − r2ω 2 for r. To begin, we have cise 1(c). Hence F maps a rectangular grid in the (T, Z)-
1 − r2ω 2 = T02 /τ 2 , so plane as shown in the text. Evidence for this can also
q be obtained by using Mathematica’s ParametricPlot
1 − T02 /τ 2 1 − T02 /τ 2 command.
2
r = , or r = .
ω2 ω
b) The image of the horizontal grid line ϕ = b is the
b) For r to be real, we must have 1 − T0 /τ ≥ 0 and
2 2 (same) horizontal line in the (θ , ϕ )-plane. The image of
hence τ ≥ T . As τ → ∞, we have T /τ → 0, implying
2 2 the vertical line d = a is the graph of
0 0
r → 1/ω .
θ = k sec ϕ ,
c) An immediate calculation gives
where k = a/R, a constant. The graph of a multiple of the
dr T2 secant function has the form shown in the text, so F maps
r′ =
= √ 0 .
dτ ωτ 3 1 − T02 /τ 2 a rectangular grid in the (d, ϕ )-plane as shown in the text.
√
As τ → T0 , we have √ 1 − T02 /τ 2 → 0 and hence r′ → 0. 3. According to Taylor’s theorem (see the solution to Ex-
As τ → ∞, however, 1 − T02 /τ 2 → 1 but the factor τ 3 in ercise 1(c), § 1.3, Solutions page 3)
the denominator of r′ will force r′ → 0.
1
0.4 √ = 1 + 12 v2 + O(v4 ) as v → 0.
1−v 2
0.3 The substitution v = rω gives
π πω 2 2
√ =π+ r + O(r4 ) as r → 0.
1 − r2 ω 2
0.2
2
0.1 4. The starting point that we need is Taylor’s formula
cos x = 1 − x2/2 + x4/24 + O(x6) as x → 0.

0 2 4 6 8 10
Hence
The graph of r = r(τ ) in the illustration above uses T0 = 2

and ω = 3. It agrees with the graph in the text. A 2 R2 d
= 2 1 − cos
πd 2 d R
2. a) The image of the horizontal grid line Z = b is the
2 d2 d4
(same) horizontal line ζ = b in the (τ , ζ )-plane. The im- 2R
= 2 1−1+ 2 − + O(d 6
)
age of the vertical grid line T = a is the graph of d 2R 24 R4
a d2
τ=p = 1− + O(d 4 ) as d → 0.
1 − ζ 2ω 2 12 R2
30

4.2. LINEAR ACCELERATION 31
5. a) Because the radius r is represented by d in the fig- where A = −x2 /2 + O(x4 ) and so O(A2 ) = O(x4 ). The
ure in the margin on page 153, it is best for us to work next step is
with d. The circle C in that figure has radius d when mea- 2 2
sured on the surface, but its circumference is shown to be ln(sech x) = ln(1 + A + O(A )) = ln(1 + B) = B + O(B )
2π R sin ψ . Here the measure of ψ is d/R radians, so where B = A + O(A2 ) and so O(B2 ) = O(A2 ) = O(x4 ).
circumference 2π R sin(d/R) sin(d/R) Thus
= = →1 (ατ )2
2π d 2π d d/R ln(sech(ατ )) = − + O(τ 4 );
2
as d → 0. (We have used the fact that sin(x)/x → 1 as this confirms the formula for ζ once again.
x → 0, with x = d/R.)
We obtain the second ratio from the previous Exercise: 2. a) First we check that M −1 ◦ M is the identity. We
area have
= 1 + O(d 2) → 1 as d → 0. t sinh ατ
π d2 = = tanh ατ ;
z cosh ατ
b) From Exercise 3, above, we have hence

circumference 1 −1 t 1 1
= π + O(r2 ) → π as r → 0. tanh = tanh−1 (tanh ατ ) = ατ = τ ,
diameter α z α α
as required. Next, we have
4.2 Linear Acceleration
e2αζ
α 2 (z2 − t 2) = α 2 · (cosh2 ατ − sinh2 ατ ) = e2αζ ;
1. Let f (τ ) = ln(sech(ατ )). One way to confirm the for- α2
mula is to construct a Taylor polynomial for f from its hence
derivatives, as follows.
1 1 1
1 ln(α 2 (z2 − t 2)) = ln(e2αζ ) = 2αζ = ζ ,
f ′ (τ ) = · − sech(ατ ) tanh(ατ ) · α 2α 2α 2α
sech(ατ )
as required.
= −α tanh(ατ ),
Now check that M ◦ M −1 is the identity. We have
f (τ ) = −α sech (ατ ) · α = −α sech (ατ ),
′′ 2 2 2

−1 t t
f (τ ) = −α · 2 sech(ατ ) · − sech(ατ ) tanh(ατ ) · α
′′′ 2 ατ = tanh , so tanh ατ = .
z z
= 2α 3 sech2 (ατ ) tanh(ατ ).
This equation allows us to establish the domain of M −1 ,
Therefore, f (0) = 0, f (0) = 0, f (0) = −α , f (0) = 0, as follows. The equation implies |t/z| < 1, because
′ ′′ 2 ′′′
so | tanh x| < 1 for all x. Given that α > 0, the formula for
f (τ ) α z implies z > 0. Therefore |t/z| < 1 can be written in the
ζ= = 0 + 0 · τ − τ 2 + 0 · τ 3 + O(τ 4 ) form |t| < z; this is the domain of M −1 .
α 2
α To apply M, we need to express sinh ατ and cosh ατ
= − τ 2 + O(τ 4 ) as τ → 0. in terms of the expression for tanh ατ that M −1 gives us.
2
Start with the standard identity 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x; it
Another way to confirm the formula is to use some gives
more-or-less well known Taylor expansions:
1 1
cosh x = 1 + x2/2 + O(x4), cosh2 x = or cosh x = p .
1 − tanh2 x 1 − tanh2 x
1/(1 − A) = 1 + A + O(A2),
From sinh2 x = cosh2 x − 1 we get
ln(1 + B) = B + O(B2).
tanh x
Then sinh x = p .
1 − tanh2 x
1 1
sech x = = Therefore
cosh x 1 + x2/2 + O(x4)
1 t/z 1
= = 1 + A + O(A2) sinh ατ = p , cosh ατ = p .
1−A 1 − (t/z) 2 1 − (t/z)2

32 SOLUTIONS: CHAPTER 4. ARBITRARY FRAMES
The second equation in M −1 gives us a straight line with nonzero slope there into a horizontal
p line. As we shall then see, M −1 transforms the hyperbolic
2αζ = ln(α 2 (z2 − t 2 )) or eαζ = α z2 − t 2 . rotation in R’s frame into a translation in G’s frame.
The figure indicates that the correct hyperbolic rotation
Now we can evaluate M; the first equation is
is H−α k , where k is chosen so that (b sinh α k, b cosh α k)
eατ p t/z is the point where the sloping line is tangent to the family
sinh ατ = z2 − t 2 · p of hyperbolas Q(t, z) = z2 − t 2 = b2 . The tangent point
α 1 − (t/z)2
q occurs where the function q(t) = Q(t, vt + z0 ) has an ex-
t
= 1 − (t/z)2 · p = t, treme. Thus,
1 − (t/z)2 vz0
0 = q′ (t) = 2(vt + z0 )v − 2t, or t = .
as required. The second equation is similar: 1 − v2
The z-coordinate of the tangent point is therefore
eατ p 1
cosh ατ = z2 − t 2 · p vz0 z0
α 1 − (t/z)2 z=v + z0 = ,
q 1 − v2 1 − v2
z
= 1 − (t/z)2 · p = z, so
1 − (t/z)2 vz0 z0
(b sinh α k, b cosh α k) = ,
1 − v2 1 − v2
again, as required.
We can use Q to determine the relation between b, k and
b) The figure below shows the image in the (t, z)-plane v, z0 , as follows. First,
of the square −1 ≤ τ , ζ ≤ 1 under the map M with α = 1.
As the domain in the (τ , ζ )-plane is enlarged, more of the vz0 z0
b2 = Q(b sinh α k, b cosh α k) = Q ,
quadrant z > |t| is filled. 1 − v2 1 − v2
5 z20 2 z20
= (1 − v ) = ,
(1 − v2)2 (1 − v2)
4 √
so b = z0 / 1 − v2. Next,
1 v
3
cosh α k = √ , sinh α k = √ ,
1 − v2 1 − v2
2 implying tanh α k = v, α k = tanh−1 v. It follows that the
hyperbolic rotation Hα k maps (or “boosts”) the horizontal
1 line z = b to the line z = vt + z0 , and hence that H−α k
reverses the process.
Let
0
t cosh α k − z sinh α k
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
tˆ t
= H−α k =
c) The text itself deals with the cases v = 0, ±1. There- ẑ z −t sinh α k + z cosh α k
fore, we assume, first of all, that |v| < 1. This question is By construction, ẑ = b when z = vt + z If we substitute
0
addressed later in the text (page 337), where it is shown into the equation for ẑ the original equations for t and z
that the image curves in the (τ , ζ )-plane are just horizon- provided by M, we obtain
tal translates of the curves for v = 0.
z eαζ
b = ẑ = (− sinh ατ sinh α k + cosh ατ cosh α k)
α
ζ eαζ
z = vt + z 0 = cosh(α (τ − k)),
G τ α
z=b by the addition formula for the hyperbolic cosine. Solving
αζ
(bsinh α k, bcosh α k) this equation for ζ gives e = α b sech(α (τ − k)), or
ln α b 1
ζ= + ln(sech(α (τ − k))).
R t α α
To derive this result afresh, note that a suitable hyper- This is the one of the original curves in the (τ , ζ )-plane
bolic rotation in the (t, z)-plane (R’s frame) will convert translated horizontally by τ = k = tanh−1 (v)/α .

4.2. LINEAR ACCELERATION 33
If |v| > 1, no hyperbolic rotation will make z = vt + z0 This point has the alternate form (a cosh α k, a sinh α k), in
horizontal. However, a hyperbolic rotation can make it which
vertical. Analogy with the case |v| < 1 then suggests that −z0 v 1
we first analyze a vertical line t = a (in the way that the a= √ , cosh α k = √ , sinh α k = √ ,
text first analyzed a horizontal line). v2 − 1 v2 − 1 2
v −1
The image of the vertical t = 0 is the ζ -axis, so we just and hence α k = tanh−1 (1/v).
consider t = a with a 6= 0. The first equation for M gives We claim the hyperbolic rotation H−α k transforms z =
vt + z0 into the vertical line tˆ = a. To see this, we take
eαζ
a= sinh ατ . (from the previous page)
α
Solving this for ζ (and keeping in mind that sinh ατ must tˆ = t cosh α k − z sinh α k
have the same sign as a) gives tv vt + z0 −z0
=√ −√ =√ = a.
2
v −1 2
v −1 v2 − 1
1 αa ln(α |a|) ln(± sinh ατ )
ζ (τ ) = ln = − .
α sinh ατ α α Now substitute into the same formula for tˆ the original
equations for t and z provided by M:
When a < 0, we must use the minus sign in the last term
and thus take τ < 0; when a > 0, we use the plus sign eαζ
and τ > 0. The graph of ζ (τ ) is a vertical translate (by a = tˆ = sinh ατ cosh α k − cosh ατ sinh α k
α
ln(α |a|)/α ) of one of the two graphs
eαζ
= sinh(α (τ − k)).
ln(− sinh ατ ) ln(sinh ατ ) α
ζ− = − , τ < 0, ζ+ = − , τ > 0.
α α This is one of the original curves in the (τ , ζ )-plane trans-
These appear on the left and right, below, respectively. lated horizontally by τ = k = tanh−1 (1/v)/α .
d) The images of the vertical lines t = t0 were found
in the previous part of this solution, and they match the
roughly vertical curves in the figure provided. The text
(page 160) shows that images of the hyperbolas are the
graphs of equations of the form
q
1
ζ = ln α z0 cosh ατ + α z0 sinh ατ + 1
2 2 2
α
as z0 varies. To obtain the curves below the τ -axis, it
is necessary to allow z0 to be negative, as long as the
argument of the logarithm remains positive; this forces
z0 > −1/α . The Mathematica command
Plot[Table[Log[(Exp[2 a] - 4) Cosh[t/4]/4
+ Sqrt[(Exp[2 a] - 4)ˆ2 Sinh[t/4]ˆ2/16
+ 1]] 4, {a, -4, 4}], {t, -12, 12}]
The positive ζ -axis is a vertical asymptote for both produces the following output, which matches the set of
graphs. Because sinh x ≈ ex /2 when x is large, the line roughly horizontal curves in the figure provided.
ζ = ∓τ + ln(2)/α is also an asymptote for ζ± , respec- 40
tively.
The vertical translates of these curves, together with the 20
image of t = 0, fill the entire (τ , ζ )-plane.
Now suppose z = vt + z0 with z0 6= 0 (and with |v| > 1 -10 -5 5 10
continuing to hold). An analysis similar to the one per-
formed above shows that this line is tangent to one of the -20
hyperbolas t 2 − z2 = a2 at the point
vz0 −z0 -40
t= , z= .
v2 − 1 v2 − 1

3. a) The signal’s worldline is the graph of the equation 4.3 Newtonian Gravity
zsignal = t + 1/α . This intersects the worldline of C when
s 1. We take 4 × 107 meters as the circumference of the
1 eα h α2 2 earth (assumed to be a sphere), so its radius is (2/π )× 107
th + = zsignal = zC = α
th + 1,
α α e 2 h
meters, and
or
2 9.8 m/sec2 × (2/π )2 × 1014 m2
2t 1 e 2α h α e 2α h M = = 5.95 × 1024 kg.
h × −11 m3 /kg sec2
th2 + + 2 = 2 t 2
+ 1 = t 2
+ . 6.67 10
α α α e2 α h h h
α2
A bit of algebra gives 2. Write R = r2 = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + (z − z0 )2 and
e2 α h − 1 e αh αh −e −α h eα h then Φ = R−1/2 for ease of calculation. We have
th = = = sinh α h.
2α α 2 α ∂Φ ∂R
= − 21 R−3/2 = −R−3/2(x − x0 ),
Substituting this value of th into the formula for zC = zh ∂x ∂x
then gives and then
eα h p eα h ∂ 2Φ 3(x − x0)2 − R
zh = sinh2 α h + 1 = cosh α h. −5/2 2 −3/2
α α ∂ x2
= 3R (x − x 0 ) − R =
R5/2
.
b) According to R, C’s velocity at any time t is Because the three variables appear symmetrically in R, we
dzC eα h α 2t t have
v= = · p = ;
dt α e2α h α 2t 2 /e2α h + 1 zC ∂ 2 Φ 3(y − y0)2 − R ∂ 2 Φ 3(z − z0 )2 − R
= , = .
at time th the velocity is therefore ∂ y2 R5/2 ∂ z2 R5/2
th sinh α h Therefore,
vh = = = tanh α h.
zh cosh α h
∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ
For F(h) we now have ∇2 Φ = + 2 + 2
∂ x2 ∂y ∂z
r s
1 − tanh α h (1 − tanh α h)2 3(x − x0)2 + 3(y − y0)2 + 3(z − z0)2 − 3R
F(h) = = = = 0.
1 + tanh α h 1 − tanh2 α h R5/2
1 − tanh α h The appearance of R in the denominator requires R 6= 0,
= = cosh α h − sinh α h = e−α h .
sech α h which happens if (x, y, z) 6= (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
The map (T, h) → (τ , ζ ) is realized by the Mathematica
3. a) We can take the potential function to be
command
ParametricPlot[{T Exp[-h/3], h}, 1 1
{T, -1.5, 1.5}, {h, -3, 3}, Φ(x, y) = − p −p .
2
(x − 1) + y 2 (x + 1)2 + y2
PlotRange -> {{-2, 2}, 4{-1, 1}},
MeshShading -> {{White, White},
{White, White}}] 2
Its output, shown below, demonstrates that the image grid

has the form shown in the text. 1
1.0
0
0.5
0.0
-1
-0.5
-2
-1.0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

4.3. NEWTONIAN GRAVITY 35
b) The work done is the negative of the difference in po- d θ d θ are automatically zero. Here are the remaining six
tential: terms:
1 1
W = −Φ(0, 0) − (−Φ(0, ∞)) = + − 0 = 2. r sin ϕ cos ϕ cos θ sin θ dr d ϕ ,
1 1
r sin2 ϕ cos2 θ dr d θ ,
4. The work done is −Φ(−1, 0, 0) − (−Φ(∞, 0, 0)) = r cos ϕ sin ϕ cos θ sin θ d ϕ dr,
5 1 r2 cos ϕ sin ϕ cos2 θ d ϕ d θ ,
√ +√ − 0 = 5 12 .
1+0+0 4+0+0 −r sin2 ϕ sin2 θ d θ dr,
−r2 sin ϕ cos ϕ sin2 θ d θ d ϕ .
5. Let ϕ (t) = f (t α ,t β ,t γ ). Taylor’s theorem says that
ϕ (ε ) = ϕ (0) + εϕ ′ (0) + O(ε 2 ). Because d ϕ dr = −dr d ϕ , the first and third terms cancel
each other. The second and fifth terms combine as
Because O(ε 2 ) ≈ 0 when ε is small, we can rewrite this
as r sin2 ϕ cos2 θ dr d θ + r sin2 ϕ sin2 θ dr d θ = r sin2 ϕ dr d θ
ϕ (ε ) − ϕ (0) ≈ εϕ ′ (0).
The fourth and sixth terms combine in a similar way to
By the chain rule, give
ϕ (t) = fx (t α ,t β ,t γ )α + fy (t α ,t β ,t γ )β + fz (t α ,t β ,t γ )γ
′ r2 cos ϕ sin ϕ d ϕ d θ .
= ∇ f (t α ,t β ,t γ ) · (α , β , γ ), Therefore, dU dV reduces to
ϕ (0) = ∇ f (0, 0, 0) · (α , β , γ );
′
r sin2 ϕ dr d θ + r2 cos ϕ sin ϕ d ϕ d θ .
therefore, the equation ϕ (ε ) − ϕ (0) ≈ εϕ ′ (0) translates
into The exterior product dV dW has only four terms that
are not automatically zero; they are
f (εα , εβ , εγ ) − f (0, 0, 0) ≈ ε ∇ f (0, 0, 0) · (α , β , γ ).
The condition that (α , β , γ ) be a unit vector is not needed. −r sin2 ϕ sin θ dr d ϕ ,

r cos2 ϕ sin θ d ϕ dr,
6. a) The basic fact we use is that if w = f (x, y, z), then
r sin ϕ cos ϕ cos θ d θ dr,
dw = fx dx + fy dy + fz dz. −r2 sin2 ϕ cos θ d θ d ϕ .
Given the expressions for U, V , and W , in terms of r, ϕ , The first two terms combine to −r sin θ dr d ϕ , giving
and θ , we have
dV dW = −r sin θ dr d ϕ + r sin ϕ cos ϕ cos θ d θ dr
dU = sin ϕ cos θ dr + r cos ϕ cos θ d ϕ − r sin ϕ sin θ d θ ,
dV = sin ϕ sin θ dr + r cos ϕ sin θ d ϕ + r sin ϕ cos θ d θ , + r2 sin2 ϕ cos θ d ϕ d θ .
dW = cos ϕ dr − r sin ϕ d ϕ .
There are also just four nonzero terms in dW dU:
b) We have r cos2 ϕ cos θ dr d ϕ ,
dr dq d p = dr(dq d p) = dr(−d p dq) = −dr d p dq, −r cos ϕ sin ϕ sin θ dr d θ ,
dr dq d p = (dr dq)d p = (−dq dr)d p = −dq dr d p, −r sin2 ϕ cos θ d ϕ dr,
but +r2 sin2 ϕ sin θ d ϕ d θ .
dr dq d p = −dq dr d p = −dq(dr d p) = −dq(−d p dr) The first and third terms combine to give r cos θ dr d ϕ ,
= +dq d p dr. yielding
dW dU = r cos θ dr d ϕ + r cos ϕ sin ϕ sin θ d θ dr

c) The exterior product dU dV apparently has nine
terms, but the three terms involving dr dr, d ϕ d ϕ , and + r2 sin2 ϕ sin θ d ϕ d θ .

d) To check the correctness of the results of the previous b) div A = 1/5 + 1/5 = 2/5.
part, we compute dU dV dW three ways: as (dU dV )dW ,
(dW dU)dV , and dU(dV dW ). The first is
2
−r2 sin2 ϕ · sin ϕ dr d θ d ϕ + r2 cos2 ϕ sin ϕ d ϕ d θ dr
= r2 sin ϕ dr d ϕ d θ .
1
The second is
0
r2 sin ϕ cos2 θ dr d ϕ d θ + r2 cos2 ϕ sin ϕ sin2 θ d θ dr d ϕ
+ r2 sin2 ϕ · sin ϕ sin2 θ d ϕ d θ dr -1
= r2 sin ϕ cos2 θ dr d ϕ d θ + r2 sin ϕ sin2 θ dr d ϕ d θ
= r2 sin ϕ dr d ϕ d θ . -2
The third is
-2 -1 0 1 2
r2 sin2 ϕ cos2 θ sin ϕ dr d ϕ d θ
c) div A = 0 + 0.
+ r2 cos2 ϕ sin ϕ cos2 θ d ϕ d θ dr
+ r2 sin ϕ sin2 θ d θ dr d ϕ
1.0
= r2 cos2 θ sin ϕ dr d ϕ d θ + r2 sin ϕ sin2 θ dr d ϕ d θ
= r2 sin ϕ dr d ϕ d θ .
0.5
e) We have
0.0
dx = cos θ dr − r sin θ d θ ,
dy = sin θ dr + r cos θ d θ .
-0.5
Therefore,
dx dy = r cos2 θ dr d θ − r sin2 θ d θ dr
-1.0
= r cos2 θ dr d θ + r sin2 θ drd θ = r dr d θ .
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
d) div A = 0 + 0 = 0.
7. a) div A = 1/5 + 1/5 = 2/5.
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

4.4. GRAVITY IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 37
4.4 Gravity in Special Relativity To recalculate the angle in conventional units, we must
use the equation ζ = −αη 2 /2c2 . Then ζ ′ = −αη /c2 , so
1. a) The magnitude of the force on the test mass m at −α X (−272 m/sec2 )(7 × 108 m)
θ≈ 2
=
the surface of the sun is c (3 × 108 m/sec)2
GM ≈ −2 × 10−6 radians.
mα = F = m 2 = mα ,
X
d) The photon’s path has two parts: (1) from infinity to
where α is the corresponding acceleration, M is the mass
a point tangent to the surface of the sun and, (2) from
of the sun, and X is its radius. Thus α = GM/X 2 . In
the point of tangency on to infinity. The two parts are
conventional units, the value of α is
symmetric, so the total deflection is twice the deflection
(6.67 × 10−11 m3 /kg sec2 )(2 × 1030 kg) along one part. Part (c) of this exercise shows that the
= 272 m/sec2 . latter is about 2 × 10−6 radians, so the total deflection is
(7 × 108 m)2
about 4 × 10−6 radians. This agrees with Einstein’s 1911
calculation.
To convert the value to geometric units (in which 3 × 108
meters = 1 second), multiply by 1/(3 × 108 m/sec) to get
2. a) The numbers N and νe are frequencies with the di-
m 1 sec mensions of Hertz (1 Hz = 1 sec−1 ) while Φ has the di-
α = 272 × = 9.07 × 10−7 sec−1 . mensions (m/sec)2 in conventional units and hence is di-
sec2 3 × 108 m
mensionless in geometric units. Therefore the equation
b) The formula ζ = −αη 2 /2 for the distance a photon N = νe(1 − ∆Φ)
drops is expressed in geometric units. The corresponding
formula in conventional units is ζ = −αη 2 /2c2 (page 195 balances dimensionally when geometric units are used,
of the text). In conventional units, but must be converted to

−(272 m/sec2 )(7 × 108 m)2 ∆Φ
ζ= = −740 meters. N = ν
e 1 −
2 × (3 × 108 m/sec)2 c2
To determine ζ ’s value in geometric units, we need the in order to balance when conventional units are used. The
value of η = X in geometric units. As above, we have the general form of this adjustment is described in the text on
value page 101. (For typographic reasons, we continue to put
a tilde over the Greek letter nu to distinguish it from the
1 sec 7 roman letter vee.)
X = 7 × 108 m × = seconds.
3 × 108 m 3
b) The Newtonian gravitational potential (page 171) is
The value of ζ is therefore Φ(r) = −GM/r, where r is the distance from the center of
2 the sun, M is its mass, and G is the gravitational constant.
7 1 If X is the radius of the sun and E is the distance from
ζ = −9.07 × 10 −7
sec −1
× sec2 ×
the center of the earth to the center of the sun, then the
3 2
potential difference is
= −2.47 × 10−6 seconds.

1 1
∆Φ = Φ(E) − Φ(X) = GM − .
c) At its initial position (where η = 0), the photon’s ini- X E
tial direction is horizontal. Hence its change in direc-
tion is the angle θ made by the tangent line to the graph The value of E is about 150 million km, or 1.5 × 1013
ζ = −αη 2 /2 at the point η = X. (Note this is the formula meters; the other values appear in the previous exercise.
for ζ in geometric units.) The tangent of θ is the slope of Thus, 1/X − 1/E = 1.42 × 10−9 m−1 , GM = 1.334 ×
that tangent line, which is ζ ′ = −αη = −α X. Because θ 1020 m3 /sec2 , and
is so small, tan θ ≈ θ ; therefore,
∆Φ = (1.334 × 1020 m3 /sec2 )(1.42 × 10−9 m−1 )
7
θ ≈ −9.07 × 10−7 sec−1 × sec ≈ −2 × 10−6 radians. = 1.9 × 1011 (m/sec)2 .
3

The value of the potential difference in geometric units is
∆Φ 1.9 × 1011 (m/sec)2

= = 2.1 × 10−6,
c2 (3 × 108 m/sec)2
or about 2 × 10−6, in agreement with the text.

c) As a function of the emission frequency νe, the red
shift is
N − νe = −∆Φ · νe = −(2 × 10−6) νe Hz.

Surfaces and Curvature
5.1 The Metric d) This surface is the “northern” hemisphere of radius 1

centered at the origin. It is shown above, on the left.
1. a) There is no surface to be drawn for this part of the e) This surface, shown above on the right, is also the
question. The figures for the following parts are all made “northern” hemisphere of radius 1 centered at the ori-
using the Mathematica command ParametricPlot3D gin. Here, though, the coordinate lines q1 = constant
(even if Plot3D would have been sufficient). In parts (b), are the vertical lines of longitude; the coordinate lines
(c), and (d), the lines q1 = constant run roughly from the q2 = constant are the horizontal lines of latitude.
front left to the back right; the lines q2 = constant run f) This surface is the entire sphere of radius 1 centered
roughly from the back left side to the front right. The at the origin (below left). The coordinate lines are still the
Mathematica 7 command includes the options longitude and latitude lines.
BoundaryStyle -> Directive[Thin],
MeshShading -> {{None, None}, {None, None}},
Axes -> False
b) The surface, shown below on the left, is saddle-

shaped. Furthermore, the figure shows it is made up of
two families of straight lines.
g) This surface has the same image as the previous

one. It arises from the previous one by making the re-
placement cos q2 → sin q2 , together with the change in
domain of q2 from [−π /2, π /2] to [0, π ]. The coordinate
lines are still longitude and latitude lines, respectively.
c) This surface, shown above on the right, is also saddle- h) This surface is shown above on the right. The circular
1
shaped, but its orientation in space is different from that functions of q still appear, so the surface still has rota-
of the previous surface. tional symmetry around the vertical (i.e., z-) axis. The co-
ordinate lines are still what we can call the longitude and
latitude lines, respectively. The longitude lines are now
hyperbolas, though, because they are parametrized by the
hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine functions. The sur-
face is called a hyperboloid of one sheet; it has the shape
of a cooling tower at a power plant.
2. a) (Nothing to do.)
39

40 SOLUTIONS: CHAPTER 5. SURFACES AND CURVATURE
b) x1 = (1, 0, q2 ), g) x1 = (− sin q2 sin q1 , sin q2 cos q1 , 0),

x2 = (0, 1, q1 ), x2 = (cos q2 cos q1 , cos q2 sin q1 , − sin q2 ),
x1 × x2 = (−q2 , −q1 , 1), x1 × x2 = −(sin2 q2 cos q1 , sin2 q2 sin q1 , sin q2 cos q2 ),
2 2
g11 g12 1 + (q2)2 q1 q2 g11 g12 sin q 0
= , = ,
g21 g22 q1 q2 1 + (q1)2 g21 g22 0 1
√ p √
g = 1 + (q1)2 + (q2 )2 . g = sin q2 .
The coordinate lines in the figure do not appear to be The coordinate lines (i.e., the longitude and latitude lines)
orthogonal except along the coordinate lines q1 = 0 and are clearly orthogonal everywhere (except at the poles,
q2 = 0. This is confirmed by the fact that g12 = q1 q2 6= 0 q2 = 0, π ). This is confirmed by g12 = 0.
except when q1 = 0 or q2 = 0. h) x1 = (− cosh q2 sin q1 , cosh q2 cos q1 , 0),
1
c) x1 = (1, 0, 2q ), x2 = (sinh q2 cos q1 , sinh q2 sin q1 , cosh q2 ),
2
x2 = (0, 1, −2q ), x1 × x2 =
x1 × x2 = (−2q1, 2q2 , 1), (cosh2 q2 cos q1 , cosh2 q2 sin q1 , − cosh q2 sinh q2 ),

g11 g12 1 + 4(q1)2 −4q1q2 g11 g12 cosh2 q2 0
= , = ,
g21 g22 −4q1q2 1 + 4(q2)2 g21 g22 0 2 sinh2 q2 + 1
√ p p
g = 1 + 4(q1)2 + 4(q2 )2 . √
g = cosh q2 2 sinh2 q2 + 1.
Again, the coordinate lines do not appear to be orthogonal The coordinate lines (i.e., the longitude and latitude lines)
except along the coordinate lines q1 = 0 and q2 = 0, and are clearly orthogonal everywhere; this is confirmed by
this is confirmed by g12 = −4q1q2 . g12 = 0.
p
d) Set h(q1 , q2 ) = 1 − (q1)2 − (q2)2 to help simplify
expressions. Then x1 = (1, 0, −q1 /h), x2 = (0, 1, −q2 /h), 3. a) We have

x1 × x2 = (q1 /h, q2 /h, 1), y1 = 1, 0, (q1 + 0.9q2)2 + 2(q1 − 0.9q2)(q1 + 0.9q2)

g11 g12 1 + (q1/h)2 q1 q2 /h2 = 1, 0, (q1 + 0.9q2)(3q1 − 0.9q2) ,
= ,
g21 g22 q1 q2 /h2 1 + (q2/h)2 y2 = 0.9 1, 0, (q1 + 0.9q2)(q1 − 2.7q2) .
√ p
g = 1 + (q1/h)2 + (q2 /h)2 .
Thus, when q1 = q2 = 0, we see that y1 = (1, 0, 0) and
Again, the coordinate lines do not appear to be orthogonal y2 = (0.9, 0, 0), so y1 and y2 are collinear.
except along the coordinate lines q1 = 0 and q2 = 0, and b) Let (x, 0, z) be any point for which x 6= 0. We must
this is confirmed by g12 = q1 q2 /h2 . show that there is a point (q1 , q2 ) for which y(q1 , q2 ) =
e) 2 1 2 1
x = (− cos q sin q , cos q cos q , 0), (x, 0, z). By definition of y,
1
x2 = (− sin q2 cos q1 , − sin q2 sin q1 , cos q2 ), x = q1 + 0.9q2 = x, z = q1 − 0.9q2)x2 ,

x1 × x2 = (cos2 q2 cos q1 , cos2 q2 sin q1 , cos q2 sin q2 ),
2 2 or q1 − 0.9q2 = z/x2 . Therefore,
g11 g12 cos q 0
= ,
g21 g22 0 1 1 z 1 z
√ q1 = x+ 2 , q2 = x− 2 .
g = cos q2 . 2 x 1.8 x
This determines (q1 , q2 ) for any (x, z) with x 6= 0. Because
Note: on the interval −π /2 ≤ q2 ≤ π /2, cos q2 ≥ 0, so
p y(0, 0) = (0, 0, 0), we have shown y(R2 ) is the entire plane
cos2 q2 = | cos q2 | = cos q2 . y = 0 excluding the nonzero points on the z-axis.
The coordinate lines (i.e., the longitude and latitude
lines) are clearly orthogonal everywhere (except at the 4. We have M = v ∧ w, where
poles, q2 = ±π /2). This is confirmed by g12 = 0.
v w1
f) Same as part (e). v= 1 , w= ,
v2 w2

5.1. THE METRIC 41
and we know from the text that area M = kvkkwk sin θ . d) This sphere is the particular surface of revolution for
Therefore, which
r = R cos q2 and z = R sin q2 ,
(area M)2 = kvk2kwk2 sin2 θ = kvk2 kwk2(1 − cos2 θ )
where r and z are as given in the previous part of this ex-
= kvk2kwk2 − (v · w)2 ercise. Therefore r′ = −R sin q2 , z′ = R cos q2 , and by sub-
= (v21 + v22 )(w21 + w22 ) − (v1 w1 + v2 w2 )2 stituting into the previous answer, we get
= v21 w22 + v22 w21 − 2(v1w1 v2 w2 ) x1 = R cos q2 (− sin q1 , cos q1 , 0),
= (v1 w2 − v2 w1 )2 . x2 = R(− sin q2 cos q1 , − sin q2 sin q1 , cos q2 ),
x1 × x2 = R2 cos q2 (cos q1 cos q2 , sin q1 cos q2 , sin q2 ),
From this it follows that areaM = ±(v1 w2 − v2 w1 ). To 2 2 2
determine the sign, take v = e1 , w = e2 , the standard ba- g11 g12 R cos q 0
= ,
sis vectors. By construction, the area of e1 ∧ e2 is +1, g21 g22 0 R2
whereas v1 w2 − v2 w1 = 1 · 1 − 0 · 0 = +1. Therefore the √
g = R2 cos q2 .
+ sign should be taken, and areav ∧ w = v1 w2 − v2 w1 .
As a surface of revolution, the sphere’s coordinate lines
5. a) x1 = (1, 0, a), are orthogonal.
x2 = (0, 1, b), e) This torus is the particular surface of revolution for
x1 × x2 = (−a, −b, 1), which

g11 g12 1 + a2 ab r = a + r cosq2 and z = r sin q2 .
= ,
g21 g22 ab 1 + b2
√ p Therefore r′ = −r sin q2 , z′ = r cos q2 , and
g = 1 + a2 + b2 .
x1 = (a + r cosq2 )(− sin q1 , cos q1 , 0),
The coordinate lines are not orthogonal unless a = 0 or x2 = r(− sin q2 cos q1 , − sin q2 sin q1 , cos q2 ),
b = 0, because g12 = ab.
x1 × x2 =
b) If we let f1 = ∂ f /∂ q1 , f2 = ∂ f /∂ q2 , then r(a+r cos q2 )(cos q1 cos q2 , sin q1 cos q2 , sin q2 ),

x1 = (1, 0, f1 ), g11 g12 (a + r cosq2 )2 0
= ,
g21 g22 0 r2
x2 = (0, 1, f2 ), √
x1 × x2 = (− f1 , − f2 , 1), g = r(a + r cosq2 ).

g11 g12 1 + ( f1 )2 f1 f2 The coordinate lines are orthogonal.
= ,
g21 g22 f1 f2 1 + ( f2 )2
p 6. The parametrized curve (r, z) = (r(q), z(q)) is called
√
g = 1 + ( f1 )2 + ( f2 )2 . the generator of the surface of revolution. Think of
the (r, z) plane as a vertical plane that passes through
In general, the coordinate lines are not orthogonal unless the z-axis and rotates around that axis. Then the curve
f1 = 0 or f2 = 0, that is, unless f is independent of either (r(q), z(q)) “sweeps out” the surface, forming the lon-
q1 or q2 . gitude lines of the surface. (Because the curve is
parametrized, it can have a complicated shape and inter-
c) x1 = r(− sin q1 , cos q1 , 0), sect itself, for example. The surface of revolution will
x2 = (r′ cos q1 , r′ sin q1 , z′ ), then reflect this complexity.) In exercises 1d, 1f, and 1g,
the curve is a semicircle of radius 1 centered at the origin;
x1 × x2 = r(z′ cos q1 , z′ sin q1 , −r′ ),
2 on the sphere, it is a meridian that runs from the south pole
g11 g12 r 0 to the north. In 5d, the same is true but the semicircle now
= ,
g21 g22 0 (r′ )2 + (z′ )2 has radius R. In 5e, the generator is a full circle of radius
√ p r whose center is at the point (r, z) = (a, 0) away from the
′ 2 ′ 2
g = r (r ) + (z ) .
origin.
The coordinate lines are longitude and latitude lines on 7. The circle (a + r cosq2 , r sin q2 ) is the generator of the
the surface of revolution, and they are orthogonal. torus Ta,r . The outer half of the torus corresponds to the

part of the circle where cos q2 ≥ 0, or −π /2 ≤ q2 ≤ π /2. c) The curve wraps three times around the torus longi-
The inner half is where cosq2 ≤ 0; by periodicity of the tudinally while advancing twice around the central axis.
circular functions, we can take π /2 ≤ q2 ≤ 3π /2. The two figures below are analogous to those for the pre-
By Theorem 5.1, the area of a region is the integral of vious curve.
√
g over the parameter domain that determines the region.
√
From Exercise 5e we have g = r(a + r cosq2 ), so
Z 2π Z π /2
area(outer half) = dq1 r(a + r cosq2 ) dq2
0 −π /2
π /2
= 2π (raq2 + r2 sin q2 )
−π /2
= 2π (raπ + 2r ), 2
and 9. a) The curve is just one-quarter turn of a rather elon-

Z 2π Z 3π /2 gated helix that is shown in the figure on the left, below.
area(inner half) = dq1 r(a + r cosq2 ) dq2
0 π /2
4
3π /2
= 2π (raq2 + r2 sin q2 ) 4
π /2
= 2π (raπ − 2r2).
The total area of Ta,r is therefore 4π 2ra.
Incidentally, Opus’s centroid theorem for the area of a
surface of revolution says that the area equals the product
of the length of the generating curve ( 2π r in this case) and
2
the distance its geometric centroid travels as the surface 2
is generated. Here the centroid is just just the center of
the generating circle; it lies a units from the axis, so it
travels a distance of 2π a. Hence the area of the torus is
2π r · 2π a = 4π 2ra. By determining the centroids for the
1.5
1.5
inside and the outside of the torus, we could even get their 1.0
1.0
-1.0
separate areas using Pepper’s theorem. -0.5 0.5
-1.0
0.5
-0.5
0.0 0.0
0.00
8. a) This can be done without integrals. Each meridian 0.5 0.5
0.00
of longitude is a complete circle of radius r, so its length -0.5

1.0
-0.5
1.0
is just 2π r. The parallel of latitude with a fixed value of q 2
is a circle centered on the z-axis with radius a + r cos q2 .

Its length is therefore 2π (a + r cosq2 ). Meridians all have b) The figure on the right, above, shows the curve (in
the same length, but the parallels of latitude have varying gray) with the five unit tangent vectors (in black). We
length, depending on q2 . have
b) The curve wraps once around the torus, as shown in ′ 1 s s √
the figures below. On the left, the torus is represented by a z (s) = − sin , cos , 3 ,
2 2 2
number of its longitude circles, allowing the whole curve 1
′ 2 2 s 2 s
to be seen. On the right, the torus is opaque. kz (s)k = sin + cos + 3 = 1.
4 2 2
c) The figure with the long tangent line segments is
shown on the left, below (next page).
d) The tangent developable surface is shown on the right,
below (next page). The image is not especially clear; one
way to see the cusp edge better is to produce the figure
using Mathematica and then manipulate the output image
with a mouse.

5.2. INTRINSIC GEOMETRY ON THE SPHERE 43
e) The segment in question has length

4
4
kx(c1 , b) − x(c1, a)k = kz(c1 ) + bz′(c1 ) − z(c1 ) − az′(a)k
= (b − a)kz′(c1 )k = b − a
because z′ (c1 ) is a unit vector, by construction.
2
2
5.2 Intrinsic Geometry on the

1.5 1
Sphere
-1
1.0
0
1. If x(q1 , q2 ) is the parametrization of the sphere of

-1.0
0
-0.5 0.5
1
0.0
0.00
0.5 -1
radius R that is the adaptation of the parametrization
x(q1 , q2 ) in the text, then
1.0
-0.5
x(q1 , q2 ) = Rx(q1, q2 ).
Hence xi (q1 , q2 ) = Rxi (q1 , q2 ) and
gi j = xi · x j = R2 xi · x j = R2 gi j .
10. a) When z(s) is a space curve parametrized by arc Therefore

length, then g = g11 g22 − g212 = R4 g11 g22 − g212 = R4 g,
√ √
z′ · z′ = 1, z′ · z′′ = 0, z′′ · z′′ = κ 2 ; and the area magnification factor is g = R2 g.
2. a) By analogy with the circle of latitude analyzed in
κ (s) is the curvature function for the curve (text Chap. 3.2,
the text (pages 222–223), the meridian of longitude for
page 121). Therefore, if x(q1 , q2 ) = z(q1 )+ q2 z′ (q1 ), then
which q1 = k can be parametrized as (q1 (t), q2 (t)) = (k,t)
with π /2 ≤ t ≤ π /2. Therefore (dq1 /dt, dq2 /dt) = (0, 1)
x1 = z′ (q1 ) + q2z′′ (q1 ),
and
x2 = z′ (q1 ), s
dqi dq j p
x1 × x2 = q2 z′′ (q1 ) × z′ (q1 ), gi j q1 (t), q2 (t) = g22 (k,t) · 1 = 1.
dt dt
g11 g12 1 + (q κ (q )) 1
2 1 2
= , In other words, the parametrization of the meridian is a
g21 g22 1 1
√ unit-speed parametrization, so the point that lies d units
g = q2 κ (q1 ). from the north pole along this meridian has the parameter
value q2 = t = π /2 − d. Therefore, the circle of radius
√
b) The parametrization is singular where g = 0. This d centered at the north pole is given by q = π /2 − d.
2
happens at two kinds of places. The first is where q2 = 0; Finally, the length of the entire meridian is the length of
these are all the points on the original curve z(q1 ). The the parameter interval, namely π .
second is where κ (q1 ) = 0; these are all the points along b) By part (a), we see that the spherical cap of radius d
any line tangent to a point where the original curve has corresponds to the parameter domain
curvature equal to zero.
−π ≤ q1 ≤ π ,
D:
1 ′′ 1 ′
c) When q is fixed, the vector z (q ) × z (q ) is fixed,1 π /2 − d ≤ q2 ≤ π /2.
as well, so Therefore, the area of the spherical cap is
ZZ Z π Z π /2
x1 × x2 = q2 z′′ (q1 ) × z′(q1 ) √
g dq1 dq2 = dq1 cos(q2 ) dq2
−π π /2−d
D
varies only in length, not direction. Therefore, the unit
π /2
normal vector n(q1 , q2 ) = x1 × x2 /kx1 × x2 k is constant
= 2π · sin(q2 ) = 2π (1 − sin(π /2 − d))
when q1 is fixed. π /2−d
d) Because g12 = 1 6= 0, the coordinate lines are never = 2π (1 − cos(d)).
orthogonal. We have used the identity sin(π /2 − θ ) = cos(θ ).

c) By the solution to Exercise 1, the metric tensor for Then dq1 /dt = dq2 /dt = 1, so
the sphere of radius R is gi j = R2 gi j , where gi j is the s
metric tensor of the unit sphere. Therefore, if we let dqi dq j p
gi j q1 (t), q2 (t) = g11 (t,t) · 1 + g22(t,t) · 1
(q (t), q (t)) = (k,t), −π /2 ≤ t ≤ π /2 parametrize the
1 2 dt dt
meridian of longitude q1 = k, as in part (a), then p
= cos2 t + 1.
s
The length of the line is
dqi dq j
gi j dt = R. Z π /2 p
dt dt cos2 t + 1 dt = 1.91.
0
In other words, the parametrization has speed R (rather This is an elliptic integral whose value was found using
than speed 1), so the meridian at distance d from the north Mathematica. It can also be found using numerical in-
pole has parameter value q2 = t = π /2 − d/R. Hence the tegration, another computer algebra system, or tables of
parameter domain for the spherical cap is elliptic integrals.

−π ≤ q1 ≤ π , 5. a) We modify the analysis found on page 228 of the
D:
π /2 − d/R ≤ q2 ≤ π /2. text. Keep x1 = (1, 0), but let
√ √ q(t) = (t, arcsin(tanht)), q′ (t) = (1, secht).
Recalling that g = R2 g = R2 cos(q2 ), we see that the
area of that spherical cap is Because q2 is now arcsin(tanht), we must also modify the
term g11 = cos2 (q2 ) in the the metric tensor. We have
ZZ p Z π Z π /2
g dq1 dq2 = dq1 R2 cos(q2 ) dq2 cos2 (q2 ) = cos2 (arcsin(tanht))
−π π /2−d/R
D = 1 − sin2 (arcsin(tanht)) = 1 − tanh2 t = sech2 t
π /2
so the components we use to compute the cosine of the
= 2π · R2 sin(q2 )
π /2−d/R angle θ between q and x1 are

= 2π R2 (1 − sin(π /2 − d/R)) ′
sech2 t 0 1
q · x1 = 1 secht = sech2 t,
0 1 0
= 2π R (1 − cos(d/R)).
2

′ ′
sech2 t 0 1
q · q = 1 secht = 2 sech2 t
By Taylor’s theorem, cos θ = 1 − θ 2 /2 + O(θ 4) when 0 1 secht

θ ≈ 0. If d is small in relation to R, then θ = d/R ≈ 0, so sech2 t 0 1
we can express the area of the spherical cap as x1 · x1 = 1 0 = sech2 t.
0 1 0
4 Therefore,
d2 d
2π R2 1 − cos(d/R) = 2π R2 1 − 1 + 2 + O
2R R4 q′ · x1 sech2 t 1
4 cos θ = √ ′ ′ √ =√ 2
= √ = constant
d q · q x 1 · x 1 2 sech t 2
= π d2 + O .
R2 so the curve is a loxodrome.
b) The previous computation shows that θ = 45◦.
Π
3. 2
Π
4
Π Π
0 4 2
The curve lies entirely in the northern hemisphere, and
4. Parametrize the line as q1 (t) = q2 (t) = t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π /2. begins where the positive x-axis meets the equator.

5.3. DE SITTER SPACETIME 45
c) Here is one approach: Modify the curve q(t) in the 5.3 De Sitter Spacetime
previous part to
q(t) = (kt, arcsin(tanht)), q′ (t) = (k, secht), 1. a) We compute the three components of X1 × X2 . Be-
cause of the relation between the Euclidean norm and the
Then Minkowski norm, the signs of the second and third terms
in the Minkowski cross product must be the negatives of
q′ · x1 = k sech2 t, their signs in the Euclidean cross product. The first com-
ponent is
q′ · q′ = (k2 + 1) sech2 t,
x1 · x1 = sech2 t, sinh(q1 ) cos(q2 ) sinh(q1 ) sin(q2 )
= sinh(q1 ) cosh(q1 ).
− cosh(q1 ) sin(q2 ) cosh(q1 ) cos(q2 )
and the angle θ between q and the parallels of latitude
satisfies The second (with the required change of sign) is
k
cos θ = √ . −
sinh(q1 ) sin(q2 ) cosh(q1 )
= cosh2 (q1 ) cos(q2 ).
2
k +1 cosh(q1 ) cos(q2 ) 0
This implies (k2 + 1) cos2 θ = k2 , or The third (also with the sign change) is
cos θ cosh(q1 ) sinh(q1 ) cos(q2 )
k= √ = cot θ . − = cosh2 (q1 ) sin(q2 ).
1 − cos2 θ 0 − cosh(q1 ) sin(q2 )
In other words, to construct the loxodrome that makes the These are the three components of X, each multiplied by
angle θ with parallels of latitude, where 0 < θ < π , set cosh(q1 ).
k = cot θ .
b) Given the result in part (a), it is sufficient to check that
d) The north pole is at the center of the figure below; the X · X1 = X · X2 = 0. We have
circles represent parallels of latitude that are 1◦ apart. The
X · X1 = sinh(q1 ) cosh(q1 ) − cosh(q1 ) sinh(q1 ) cos2 (q2 )
loxodrome does appear to be an equiangular spiral, mak-
ing an angle of 45◦ with latitude circles. The illustrated − cosh(q1 ) sinh(q1 ) sin2 (q2 ) = 0
portion of the loxodrome begins (where t = π ) at about X · X2 = + cosh2 (q1 ) cos(q2 ) sin(q2 )
85◦ north latitude.
− cosh2 (q1 ) sin(q2 ) cos(q2 ) = 0.
c) Note that X and hence X1 × X2 are spacelike vectors;

therefore √
kXk = −X · X
We have kX1 × X2 k = cosh(q1 )kXk and X · X =
sinh2 (q1 )−cosh2 (q1 ) cos2 (q2 )−cosh2 (q1 ) sin2 (q2 ) = −1.
Thus kXk = +1 and kX1 × X2 k = cosh(q1 ). Because

−g = cosh2 (q1 ) is given in the text, we finally have
√
kX1 × X2 k = −g.
2. a) The expressions for x1 and x2 are the same as for

X1 and X2 , respectively, but the signs of the second and
third components of x1 × x2 are the negatives of those for
X1 × X2 . Thus
e) The total length of q(t) is
Z ∞p Z ∞√ √ x1 × x2 = cosh(q1 ) sinh(q1 ), − cosh2 (q1 ) cos(q2 ),
q′ · q′ dt = 2 secht dt = π 2.
−∞ −∞ − cosh2 (q1 ) sin(q2 ) .

Furthermore, At this parameter point, the two normal vectors are

g11 g12 cosh2 (q1 ) + sinh2 (q1 ) 0 1
= , n= p sinh(t), 0, − cosh(t) ,
g21 g22 0 cosh2 (q1 ) 2
2 sinh t + 1
q
√ 1
g = cosh(q1 ) cosh2 (q1 ) + sinh2 (q1 ) N= p sinh(t), 0, cosh(t) .
p 2
2 sinh t + 1
= cosh(q1 ) cosh(2q1 ).
They differ only in the sign of the last coordinate. More-
It is clear in the figure on page 231 of the text that the co- over, N is always collinear with X, but n is collinear with
ordinate lines are orthogonal in the Euclidean sense, and x only when t = 0. The two normals are shown in the
this is confirmed here by g12 = g21 = 0. figure below. As |t| gets large, N becomes tangent to the
b) Let us write x = (x, y, z), so that the curve q(t) has the surface on the Euclidean sense, so it becomes orthogonal
components to n in the Euclidean sense.
z
x = sinh(t), x
y = cosh(t) cos(2 arctan(et ) − π /2),
z = cosh(t) sin(2 arctan(et ) − π /2).
Then all aspects of the analysis on pages 237–238 of the
text go through, mutatis mutandis, to establish
n
y = 1, z = x.
Hence q(t) is a straight line in (x, y, z)-space. x

Because the earlier analysis found that
3. We know cos(−θ ) = cos(θ ) = sin(π /2 − θ ) and
1 sin(−θ ) = − sin(θ ) = − cos(π /2 − θ ). Therefore
cos(2 arctan(et ) − π /2) = ,
cosh(t)
cos(±A ∓ π /2) = cos(∓(π /2 − A))
sin(2 arctan(et ) − π /2) = tanh(t),
= cos(π /2 − A) = sin(A),
along q(t), the normal vector x1 × x2 there has the form sin(±A ∓ π /2) = sin(∓(π /2 − A))

cosh(t) sinh(t), −1, − sinh(t) = ∓ sin(π /2 − A) = ∓ cos(A).
and therefore
4. a) Complementary angles have tangents that are re-
1
n(t) = √ sinh(t), −1, − sinh(t) . ciprocals of each other:
2 sinh2 (t) + 1
Because sinh(t) is 1–1, n(t1 ) 6= n(t2 ), if t1 6= t2 . x = tan(θ ) = 1/ tan(π /2 − θ ).
c) Let us take advantage of the rotational symmetry of Therefore, if θ = arctan(x), then π /2 − θ = arctan(1/x),
x(q1 , q2 ) = (x, y, z) = X(q1 , q2 ) to compute vectors only or
on the plane y = 0 and only on the half where z > 0. This arctan(1/x) = π /2 − arctan(x).
means we can take q2 = π /2 and then
Hence, the substitution τ → −τ yields

x1 × x2 = cosh(q1 ) sinh(q1 ), 0, − cosh(q1 ) ,
q2 = 2 arctan(eτ ) − π /2
X1 × X2 = cosh(q1 ) sinh(q1 ), 0, cosh(q1 ) .
→ 2 arctan(1/eτ ) − π /2 = 2 π /2 − arctan(eτ ) − π /2
In other words, both these normal vectors also lie in the = −2 arctan(eτ ) + π /2 = −q2 ;
plane y = 0, so it is sufficient to make a 2-dimensional
drawing. that is, q2 → −q2 .
The intersection of the surface x = X with the half-
plane y = 0, z > 0, is the curve given parametrically as b) Let ϕC (τ ) = 2 arctan(eτ ) + C. By construction, each
parametrized curve (q1 , q2 ) = (τ , ϕC (τ )) is tangent to the
(x, 0, z) = sinh(t), 0, cosh(t) . L+ vector field. Because τ = q1 in this parametrization,

5.4. CURVATURE OF A SURFACE 47
reflection across the q2 -axis, which is given by the substi- 5.4 Curvature of a Surface
tution q1 → −q1, is the same as τ → −τ . As the previous
part shows, this substitution leads to the same result as
q2 → −q2 (reflection across the q1 -axis). 1. a) Nothing to do.
But reflection across the q -axis clearly transforms the b) Given that A = (x′ · x′ )−1/2 , we can write
1
L+ -vector field into the L− -vector field. Therefore, be-

A′ = − 21 (x′ · x′ )−3/2 (x′ · x′ )′
cause q2 = ϕC (τ ) is tangent to L+ , the reflected q2 =
−ϕC (τ ) must be tangent to the reflected L+ , that is, to = − 21 (x′ · x′ )−3/2 (x′′ · x′ + x′ · x′′ )
L−
= −(x′ · x′ )−3/2 (x′ · x′′ ) = −B,
5. Let P α be the past timelike set that is visible to the
where B is as defined in 1b. The product rule applied to
observer G at time τ = α . By analogy with future sets,
t = Ax′ then gives
the past light cone for α = 0 is given by the two graphs
t′ = Ax′′ + A′ x′ = Ax′′ − Bx′ .
τ
q = −2 arctan(e ) + π /2,
2
τ < 0.
q2 = 2 arctan(eτ ) − π /2, c) We have
t′ · t′ = A2 (x′′ · x′′ ) − 2AB (x′′ · x′ ) + B2 (x′ · x′ )
Note the domain of τ . As τ → −∞, q2 → ±π /2, so the
range of values of q2 approaches π . x′′ · x′′ (x′ · x′′ )2 (x′ · x′′ )2 (x′ · x′ )
= ′ ′
−2 ′ ′ 2 +
Π
2
x ·x (x · x ) (x′ · x′ )3
x′′ · x′′ (x′ · x′′ )2
= − ′ ′ 2
x′ · x′ (x · x )
(x′′ · x′′ )(x′ · x′ ) − (x′ · x′′ )2
= ,
Π (x′ · x′ )2
-
2
and therefore
The past light cone for α 6= 0 involves graphs of the
form t′ · t′ (x′′ · x′′ )(x′ · x′ ) − (x′ · x′′ )2
= .
q2 = ±(2 arctan(eτ ) + C), x′ · x′ (x′ · x′ )3
where C must be chosen so that both graphs fall on the Finally, then,
τ -axis when τ = α . Thus r s
kt′ k t′ · t′ (x′′ · x′′ )(x′ · x′ ) − (x′ · x′′ )2
α α κ= ′ = = ,
0 = ±(2 arctan(e ) + C), or C = −2 arctan(e ). kx k x′ · x′ (x′ · x′ )2
The figure below shows the graphs of 3 ′ 2

p that x = (q, q ), we have x = (1, 3q ) and
2. a) Given
2 τ α ′ 4
kx k = 1 + 9q . Therefore
q = ± 2 arctan(e ) − 2 arctan(e )
!
with α = 3. x′ 1 3q2
t= ′ = p ,p .
Π kx k 1 + 9q4 1 + 9q4
-Π
As τ → −∞ with α fixed, arctan(eτ ) → 0 so
q2 → ∓(2 arctan(eα );
thus the range of values of q2 approaches 4 arctan(eα ).

Therefore, if we now let α → ∞, the range of values of q2
approaches 4 · π /2 = 2π , covering the entire circle.

The curve x(q) itself is shown on the left, above; it has Therefore,
an inflection where q = 0. Its unit tangent map—drawn X′ (r) x′ (q) ϕ ′ (q) x′ (q)
to a different scale—is on the right. To make it clearer T(r) = = = = ±t(q),
kX′ (r)k kx′ (q)k |ϕ ′ (q)| kx′ (q)k
that the unit tangent reverses direction (at q = 0, where it
touches the x-axis), its length has been altered by the vari- where t is the unit tangent for x, and the sign is chosen de-
able factor eq/10. That is, the plot is actually of eq/10t(q). pending on whether ϕ preserves or reverses orientation,
′ (q) = (1, cos q) and kx′ k =
that is, on whether ϕ ′ is positive or negative. Thus two
b)
p Here x(q) = (q, sin q), so x parametrizations of a curve have Gauss maps that are ei-
1 + cos2 q; therefore ther the same or antipodal.
!
1 cos q 4. We use Theorem 5.3 to determine K as the quotient
t(q) = p ,p . kn1 × n2 k/kx1 × x2 k. We have
1 + cos2 q 1 + cos2 q
x(q1 , q2 ) = ( f (q1 ), g(q1 ), q2 ),
The curve x(q) is shown immediately below; it has
three inflections, at the points where q = π , 2π , and 3π . x1 (q1 , q2 ) = ( f ′ (q1 ), g′ (q1 ), 0),
x2 (q1 , q2 ) = (0, 0, 1),
x1 × x2(q1 , q2 ) = (g′ (q1 ), − f ′ (q1 ), 0).
Note that x1 ×x2 depends only on q1 . The same will there-
The unit tangent curve t(q), shown fore be true for n, so we will have n2 = 0 at all points.
at the left, reverses direction three Therefore n1 × n2 = 0, and hence K = 0, at all points.
times, at q = π , 2π , and 3π . Again, The Gaussian curvature on a cylinder is identically zero.
to make this fact more visible, its
length has been altered by eq/100 . 5. We use Theorem 5.4 to determine K(P). Given
The curve also makes it evident x(q1 , q2 ) = (q1 , q2 , q1 q2 ), we find
that the tangents vary in direction x1 = (1, 0, q2 ),
between +45◦ and −45◦ .
x2 = (0, 1, q1 ),
c) Here x = (q2 , q − q3),
so x′ = (2q, 1 − 3q2)
and
x1 × x2 = (−q2 , −q1 , 1),
p p
kx′ k = 4q2 + (1 − 3q2)2 = 1 − 2q2 + 9q4, n = (−q2 A−1/2 , −q1 A−1/2, A−1/2 ),
!
2q 1 − 3q2 where A = 1 + (q1)2 + (q2)2 . Thus,
t= p ,p .
1 − 2q2 + 9q4 1 − 2q2 + 9q4 ∂ (−q2 A−1/2 ) +q2 −3/2
= A · 2q1 = q1 q2 A−3/2 ,
The curve x(q) is shown on the left, below. It has no in- ∂ q1 2
flections. Its unit tangent map, shown on the right, Points ∂ (−q1 A−1/2 )
= (q1 )2 A−3/2 − A−1/2 = − 1 + (q2)2 A−3/2,
to the southwest initially, then turns clockwise through ∂q 1
north and ends pointing to the southeast.
∂ (A−1/2 )
= −q1 A−3/2 .
∂ q1
The derivatives with respect to q2 are analogous. Hence
1
n1 = (q1 q2 , −1 − (q2)2 , −q1 ),
A3/2
1
n2 = (−1 − (q1)2 , q1 q2 , −q2 ),
A3/2
3. The Gauss map is the map of the unit tangent vector of
a curve. Suppose x(q) is one parametrization of the curve. By direct inspection, we see that
Introduce a second parametrization as X(r) = x(ϕ (r)),
where q = ϕ (r) and either ϕ ′ (r) > 0 for all r in the do- q1 q2 −1 − (q2)2
n1 = 3/2 x1 + x2 ,
main, or ϕ (r) < 0 for all r in the domain.
′ A A3/2
To find the unit tangent T for X, we compute −1 − (q1)2 q1 q2
n2 = x 1 + x2 .
A3/2 A3/2
X′ (r) = x′ (q)ϕ ′ (r) and kX′ (r)k = kx′ (q)k|ϕ ′ (r)|

Thus,
!
1 q1 q2 −1 − (q2)2
e =
B(q) ,
A3/2 −1 − (q1)2 q1 q2
and
e
K(P) = det B(q)
(q1 )2 (q2 )2 − 1 − (q1)2 − (q2 )2 − (q1)2 (q2 )2
=
A3
1 2
−1 − (q ) − (q ) 2 2 −1
= 3 = 2 .
1 2
1 + (q ) + (q ) )2 2 1 + (q )2 + (q2 )2 )
1
Gaussian curvature of S is the limit ratio of the area of
n to the area of x. Because the image of n has zero area,
At the origin, K = −1. Moreover, r2 = (q1 )2 + (q2 )2 , so Gaussian curvature of S must be zero everywhere.
the calculation of K(P) here agrees completely with the
calculation using polar coordinates in the text. c) Because n depends only on q1 , n2 = 0. The other
derivative is
1
6. a) The curve C, shown on the left, below, has a dou- n1 = 3 4q1 (1 + 3(q1)2 ), −2(1 − 9(q1)4 ), 0 ,
A
ble point at (x, y) = (1, 0); this is the image of the two so we can write
parameter values u = ±1.
2(1 + 3(q1)2 )
n1 = x1 + 0 · x2 ,
A3
n2 = 0 · x1 + 0 · x2.
Hence
1 2
e = 2(1 + 3(q ) ) 1 0 ,
B(q)
A3 0 0
e
from which it follows that det B(q) = 0 = K(P).
7. a) Given that S is parametrized by x(q1 , q2 ) =

( f (q1 ), g(q1 ), q2 ), we have
The surface S, above right, is the vertical cylinder over C.
The double point on C becomes a vertical line of double x1 = ( f ′ , g′ , 0),
points on the surface. x2 = (0, 0, 1),
x1 × x2 = (g′ , − f ′ , 0).
b) We have x(q1 , q2 ) = ((q1 )2 , (q1 )3 − q1, q2 ); therefore
By hypothesis, ( f ′ , g′ ) is never zero; therefore, x1 × x2 =
x1 = (2q1 , 3(q1 )2 − 1, 0), (g′ , − f ′ , 0) is never zero, either. By definition, S is there-
fore nonsingular. The unit normal is
x2 = (0, 0, 1), ′
g −f′
x1 × x2 = (3(q1 )2 − 1, −2q1, 0), n= , ,0 ,
A A
3(q1 )2 − 1 −2q1 p
n= , ,0 , where A = ( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2 . As in the previous exercise,
A A
and for the same reason, n2 = 0. The other derivative is
p 1
where A = 1 − 2(q1)2 + 9(q1)4 . Because n depends n1 = 3 f ′ ( f ′ g′′ − f ′′ g′ ), g′ ( f ′ g′′ − f ′′ g′ ), 0
1 ∗
only on the single parameter q , the image S of n on the A
unit sphere (see below) is only a curve, not a surface. Be- f ′ g′′ − f ′′ g′ ′ ′
= ( f , g , 0)
cause the third component of n is zero, this curve lies in A3
the plane z = 0; that is, it lies on the equator of the unit f ′ g′′ − f ′′ g′
= x1 .
sphere. A3

Therefore (following the pattern of the previous exercise),

we have
′ ′′ ′′ ′
e = f g −f g 1 0 ,
B(q)
A3 0 0
e = 0 = K(P).
from which it follows that det B(q)
8. • The Gauss map of an ellipsoid is a 1–1 cover of the
unit sphere. The image does not cover the unit sphere
uniformly, though. On a region of the ellipsoid were the
curvature is least, image points are “bunched up” on the
unit sphere; where the curvature is largest, image points The two boundary points on that meridian (one on the
are spread the farthest. outer equator, one on the inner) therefore have antipodal
The next two figure illustrate this. On the left is the images on the Gauss sphere. The image of the outer equa-
upper half of an ellipsoid whose axes are in the ratios 4 : tor covers the entire equator of the sphere, and the same is
2 : 1. The ellipsoid is least curved where the shortest axis true of the inner equator. To make the double cover of the
(the vertical z-axis) meets the ellipsoid, and most curved equator easier to see, the radius of image points has been
where the longest axis (the x-axis) meets it. varied.
The Gauss map of this surface (on the right) covers the
upper half of the unit sphere. The coordinate lines are Each circle of latitude is covered the same way. The points
most “bunched up” near the vertical axis and most spread on the “bottom” meridian of the torus all map to the south
out near the x-axis. pole of the unit sphere.
• Suppose the axis of rotation of the bell-shaped surface
(shown on the left, below, with a segment removed) is the 9. Given x(q1 , q2 ) = (q1 , q2 , aq1 + bq2 + c), we find
z-axis. x1 = (1, 0, a),
x2 = (0, 1, b),
x1 × x2 = (−a, −b, 1),

−a −b 1
n= , , .
1 + a2 + b2 1 + a2 + b2 1 + a2 + b2
The image of the Gauss map of a plane is a single point
on the unit sphere.
Then its Gauss map, shown on the right with the same 10. a) The solution to Exercise 5e in §5.1 (cf. Solutions
cutaway, covers a portion of the upper hemisphere of the page 41) provides
unit sphere (a “polar” region) and “folds back” on itself at
the points that are the images of the inflection points on x1 ×x2 = r(a+r cos q2 )(cos q1 cosq2 , sin q1 cos q2 , sin q2 ),
the bell. The radius of the image has been varied to make
the fold more readily visible. from which we obtain the unit normal
• The Gauss map of the torus is a double-cover of the n(q1 , q2 ) = (cos q1 cos q2 , sin q1 cosq2 , sin q2 )
unit sphere. To see this, consider just the bottom half of
a torus. The points on a single half-meridian on the torus that defines the Gauss map G : Ta,r → S2 as q → n(q).
have Gaussian images on the same half-meridian on the Some representative images of the Gauss map are shown
unit sphere. in the solution to Exercise 8.

b) We find K(P) by expressing n1 and n2 in terms of x1 d) The points P where K(P) = 0 are the top and bottom
and x2 . We have circles of latitude on the torus. The entire top circle is
mapped to the north pole of the Gauss sphere by G ; the
n1 = (− sin q1 cos q2 , cos q1 cos q2 , 0), entire bottom circle is mapped to the south pole.
n2 = (− cosq1 sin q2 , − sin q1 sin q2 , cos q2 ),
11. a) The text (pages 246–247) establishes that the cur-
and because vature of the sphere of radius R is 1/R2 at each point. The
solution to Exercise 5d in §5.1 (Solutions page 41) pro-
x1 = (a + r cosq2 )(− sin q1 , cos q1 , 0), vides
√
g = R2 cosq2 .
x2 = r(− cos q1 sin q2 , − sin q1 sin q2 , cos q2 ),
If D is the upper hemisphere, then 0 ≤ q2 ≤ π /2 while we
we can write still keep 0 ≤ q1 ≤ 2π . Therefore, total curvature over D
  is
cos q2 cos q2
n1 = x1 , 0 Z 2π Z π /2 Z π /2
a + r cosq2 ; e = 2  1
B(q)  a + r cosq  dq 1
·R cosq dq = 2π
2 2 2
cosq2 dq2 = 2π .
1 1 0 0 R2 0
n2 = x2 . 0
r r
If D is the whole sphere, then −π /2 ≤ q2 ≤ π /2 and the
cos q2 integral with respect to q2 becomes
e =
and hence K(P) = det B(q) .
r(a + r cosq2 ) Z π /2
cos q2 dq2 = 2,
c) If Ta,r is an ordinary torus that avoids the z axis and −π /2
hence avoids self-intersections, the radius a of the “core”
of the torus is larger than the radius r of the meridian cir- implying that the total curvature is 4π . Neither of these
cle. Thus, total curvature values depends on R.
2
0 < a − r ≤ a + r cosq , b) When D is either the upper hemisphere or the whole
so the denominator in K(P) is always positive. Hence the sphere, its total curvature is exactly equal to the area of
sign of K(P) is the sign of its numerator cosq2 . Thus, its Gaussian image. The Gaussian image of any region
K(P) > 0 when |q2 | < π /2. This parametrizes the outside on the sphere of radius R is independent of R; it depends
half of each meridian circle and hence parametrizes the only on the shape of the region itself. The independence
outer half of the torus. Likewise, K(P) < 0 when either of the Gaussian image therefore does explain why the total
π < q2 < −π /2 or π /2 < q2 < π ; these values parametrize curvature is independent of R.
the inner half of the meridian circles and hence the inner
half of the torus. 12. a) For the torus Ta,r , we have
cos q2 √
K= and g = r(a + r cosq2 );
r(a + r cosq2 )
see the solutions to Exercise 10d, above, and Exercise 5e
in §5.1 (Solutions page 41). Therefore, the total curvature
of the region given by the parameter domain D is just
ZZ ZZ
√
K g dq1 dq2 = cos q2 dq1 dq2 .
D D
The figure on the left, above, is a small portion I of the in-
ner half of the torus; the figure on the right is its Gaussian For all three regions in question, 0 ≤ q1 ≤ 2π . For the
image G (I). The top (resp. bottom) half of I maps to the outer half of the torus, −π /2 ≤ q2 ≤ π /2. Using the peri-
top (resp. bottom) half of G (I). However, the right verti- odicity of cos q2 , we can take:
cal edge of I maps to the left vertical edge of G (I). As we
take vertical meridian lines from right to left along I, we outer : − π /2 ≤ q2 ≤ π /2,
find their images are meridian lines on the Gauss sphere, inner : π /2 ≤ q2 ≤ 3π /2,
but taken from left to right. This implies that G reverses
the orientation of I. entire : − π ≤ q2 ≤ π .

Thus, the total curvature of each region is

Z 2π Z π /2
outer = dq1 cos q2 dq2 = 4π ;
0 −π /2
Z 2π Z 3π /2
inner = dq1 cos q2 dq2 = −4π ;
0 π /2
Z 2π Z π
entire = dq1 cos q2 dq2 = 0.
0 −π
No value depends on either a or r.

b) The image of the outer half of the torus is the en-
tire unit sphere, positively oriented; its area is +4π . The
image of the inner half is again the entice unit sphere,
but negatively oriented; the area of that image is there-
fore −4π . These images are independent of a and r, thus
explaining why the total curvatures are independent of a
and r.
13. Partition D into two regions: D+ , on which the cur-
vature function K is nonnegative, and D− , on which K is
negative. The oriented area of G (D+ ) is nonnegative and
is the total curvature of D+ . The oriented area of G (D− )
is negative, and is the total curvature of D− . The total
curvature of D is the algebraic sum of these two numbers.
But the algebraic sum of these numbers is also the net ori-
ented area of G (D).

Intrinsic Geometry
6.1 Theorema Egregium 2. We compute b jk as x jk ·n and obtain bij by determining

the linear combinations n j = −bij xi .
1. • The plane Here x1 = (1, 0, a), x2 = (0, 1, b), so • The plane All x jk = 0, so b jk = 0. Furthermore, n is
constant, so ni = 0, implying all bij = 0. It is therefore
g11 g12 1 + a2 0
= immediately true that
g21 g22 0 1 + b2
and b jk = gik bij and bij = gik b jk

g11 g12 1/(1 + a2) 0 • The cylinder Here x1 × x2 = (g′ , − f ′ , 0), so
= .
g21 g22 0 1/(1 + b2) !
g′ −f′
• The cylinder Here x1 = ( f ′ , g′ , 0), x2 = (0, 0, 1), so n= p ,p ,0 .
′ 2 (g′ )2 + ( f ′ )2 (g′ )2 + ( f ′ )2
g11 g12 ( f ) + (g′ )2 0
= Moreover, x11 = ( f ′′ , g′′ , 0) while all other xi j = 0. There-
g21 g22 0 1
fore,
and 11 12 g′ f ′′ − f ′ g′′
g g 1/(( f ′ )2 + (g′)2 ) 0 b11 = x11 · n = p ,
= . ( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2
g21 g22 0 1
• The sphere Here while bi j = 0 otherwise. We also have
′ ′ ′′
x1 = R(− sin q1 sin q2 , cos q1 sin q2 , 0), f ( f g − g′ f ′′ ) g′ ( f ′ g′′ − g′ f ′′ )
n1 = , , 0
((g′ )2 + ( f ′ )2 )3/2 ((g′ )2 + ( f ′ )2 )3/2
x2 = R(cos q1 cos q2 , sin q1 cos q2 , − sin q2 ),
f ′ g′′ − g′ f ′′
= x1 + 0 · x2
so 2 2 2 ((g′ )2 + ( f ′ )2 )3/2
g11 g12 R sin q 0
=
g21 g22 0 R2 while n2 = 0. Hence
and 11 12
f ′ g′′ − g′ f ′′ g′ f ′′ − f ′ g′′
g g 1/(R2 sin2 q2 ) 0 b11 = − =
= . ′ 2 ′
((g ) + ( f ) ) 2 3/2 ((g′ )2 + ( f ′ )2 )3/2
g21 g22 0 1/R2
• The torus Ta,r The metric tensor while bij = 0 otherwise. Thus, using gi j from the solution
to Exercise 1,
g11 g12 (a + r cosq2 )2 0
=
g21 g22 0 r2 gi1 bi1 = g11 b11 + g21b21
was found in the solution to Exercise 5e, § 5.1 (Solutions g′ f ′′ − f ′ g′′
= (( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2 ) · +0·0
page 41); hence ((g′ )2 + ( f ′ )2 )3/2
11 12 g′ f ′′ − f ′ g′′
g g 1/(a + r cosq2 )2 0 = = b11 ,
= . ((g′ )2 + ( f ′ )2 )1/2
g21 g22 0 1/r2
53

54 SOLUTIONS: CHAPTER 6. INTRINSIC GEOMETRY
as required. In addition, In the other direction, we find
gi1 bi2 = g11 b12 + g21b22 = 0 + 0 = b12 = b21 , g1k b1k = g11 b11 + g12b12
gi2 bi2 = g12 b12 + g22b22 = 0 + 0 = b22 , 1 1
= 2 2 2 · − R sin2 q2 + 0 · 0 = − = b11 ,
R sin q R
also as required. In the other direction, we have
g2k b2k = g21 b21 + g22b22
1k 11
g b1k = g b11 + g b12 12
1 1
= 0·0+ · (−R) = − = b22 .
1 g′ f ′′ − f ′ g′′ R 2 R
= p +0·0
( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2 ( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2
In the other two sums, each term has at least on factor that
g′ f ′′ − f ′ g′′ is zero. Thus we confirm gik b jk = bij in every case.
= = b11 ,
(( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2 )3/2
• The torus Ta,r . From the solution to Exercise 5e, § 5.1
as required. In all other combinations gik b (Solutions page 41), we have
jk , at least one
ik i
factor is zero in each term, so g b jk = b j is satisfied vac-
x1 = (a + r cosq2 )(− sin q1 , cos q1 , 0),
uously.
• The sphere The unit normal n is just the radius vector x2 = r(− cos q1 sin q2 , − sin q1 sin q2 , cos q2 ),
x divided by its length, R:
and hence
1 2 1 2 2
n = (cos q sin q , sin q sin q , cos q ).
x11 = (a + r cosq2 )(− cos q1 , − sin q1 , 0),
Furthermore, x12 = x21 = −r sin q2 (− sin q1 , cos q1 , 0),
x11 = R(− cosq1 sin q2 , − sin q1 sin q2 , 0), x22 = r(− cos q1 cos q2 , − sin q1 cos q2 , − sin q2 ).
x12 = x21 = R(− sin q1 cos q2 , cos q1 cos q2 , 0),
Because n = (cos q1 cosq2 , sin q1 cos q2 , sin q2 ) (cf. the so-
x22 = R(− cosq1 sin q2 , − sin q1 sin q2 , − cos q2 ), lution to Exercise 10a, § 5.4, Solutions page 50), we have
so b11 = −(a + r cosq2 ) cos q2 ,
b11 = −R sin2 q2 , b12 = b21 = 0, b22 = −R. b12 = b21 = 0,
b22 = −r.
1
Because n = x, we also have
R Moreover,
1 1
n1 = x1 , n2 = x2 , cos q2
R R n1 = cos q2 (− sin q1 , cos q1 , 0) = x1 ,
a + r cosq2
implying 1
n2 = (− cos q1 sin q2 , − sin q1 sin q2 , cos q2 ) = x2 ,
1 1 r
b11 = − , b12 = b21 = 0, b22 = − .
R R implying
Using the gi j from the solution to Exercise 1, we find
cos q2 1
1 b11 = − , b12 = b21 = 0, b22 = − .
gi1 bi1 = g11 b11 + g21b21 = R2 sin2 q2 · − +0·0 a + r cosq2 r
R
Using the gi j from the solution to Exercise 1, we find
= −R sin2 q2 = b11 ,

1 gi1 bi1 = g11 b11 + g21b21
gi2 bi2 = g12 b12 + g22b22 = 0 · 0 + R2 · −
R − cos q2
= −R = b22 . = (a + r cosq2 )2 · +0·0
a + r cosq2
In the other two sums, gi1 bi2 = b12 and gi2 bi1 = b21 , at least = − cosq2 (a + r cosq2 ) = b11 ,
one factor in each term is zero. We have thus confirmed −1
gi2 bi2 = g12 b12 + g22b22 = 0 · 0 + r2 · = −r = b22 .
gi j bik = b jk in every case. r

6.1. THEOREMA EGREGIUM 55
In the other two sums, at least one factor in each term is • The sphere Referring to Exercises 1 and 2, we find
zero. This confirms gi j bik = b jk in every case.
In the other direction, we find Γ11,1 = 0,
Γ11,2 = −R2 sin q2 cos q2 ,
g1k b1k = g11 b11 + g12b12
1 Γ12,1 = Γ21,1 = R2 sin q2 cos q2 ,
= · (a + r cosq2 ) cos q2 + 0 · 0
(a + r cosq2 )2 Γ12,2 = Γ21,2 = 0,
cos q2 Γ22,1 = 0,
=− = b11 ,
a + r cosq2 Γ22,2 = 0.

2k 21 22 1
g b2k = g b21 + g b22 = 0 · 0 + 2
r
· (−r) To compute Γ jk,l as a sum of partial derivatives, note that
the only nonconstant g jk is g11 , and it depends only on q2 :
1
= − = b22 .
r ∂ g11
= 2R2 sin q2 cos q2 ,
In the other two sums, at least one factor in each term is ∂ q2
zero. This confirms gik b jk = bij in every case. ∂ g jk
= 0 otherwise.
3. We refer to the solutions to Exercises 1 and 2 for xl ∂ ql
and x jk .
It follows that the only nonzero Γ jk,l are those that have
• The plane All x jk = 0, so two indices equal to 1 and one equal to 2. Thus

Γ jk,l = 0 for all j, k, l. 1 ∂ g12 ∂ g12 ∂ g11
Γ11,2 = + −
2 ∂ q1 ∂ q1 ∂ q2
Alternatively, to compute Γ jk,l as a sum of partial deriva-
1
tives, note that all g jk are constant, so = (0 + 0 − 2R2 sin q2 cos q2 ) = −R2 sin q2 cos q2 ,
2
∂ g jk 1 ∂ g11 ∂ g21 ∂ g12
= 0 and hence Γ jk,l = 0 Γ12,1 = + −
∂ ql 2 ∂ q2 ∂ q1 ∂ q1
1
for all j, k, l. The two ways of obtaining Γ jk,l agree. = (2R2 sin q2 cos q2 + 0 − 0) = R2 sin q2 cos q2 .
2
• The cylinder We have
By symmetry, Γ21,1 = Γ12,1 = R2 sin q2 cos q2 . The two
Γ11,1 = ( f ′′ , g′′ , 0) · ( f ′ , g′ , 0) = f ′ f ′′ + g′ g′′ , ways of obtaining Γ jk,l agree.
Γ11,2 = ( f ′′ , g′′ , 0) · (0, 0, 1) = 0, • The torus Ta,r Referring to the solution to Exercise 2,
Γi j,k = 0, we find
for all other i, j, k because xi j = 0 unless i = j = 1. To Γ11,1 = 0,

compute Γ jk,l as a sum of partial derivatives, note that the
Γ11,2 = r sin q2 (a + r cosq2 ),
only nonconstant gi j is g11 , and it depends only on q1 .
Hence, Γ12,1 = Γ21,1 = −r sin q2 (a + r cosq2 ),
Γ12,2 = Γ21,2 = 0,
∂ g11
= 2 f ′ f ′′ + 2g′g′′ , Γ22,1 = 0,
∂ q1
∂ g jk Γ22,2 = 0.
= 0 otherwise.
∂ ql
As was true with the sphere, the only nonconstant g jk is
Therefore, the only nonzero Γ jk,l is the one whose three g11 , and it depends only on q2 :
indices are all 1:
∂ g11
1 ∂ g11 ∂ g11 ∂ g11 = −2r sin q2 (a + r cosq2 ),
Γ11,1 = + − = f ′ ′′
f + g ′ ′′
g . ∂ q2
2 ∂ q1 ∂ q1 ∂ q1 ∂ g jk
= 0 otherwise.
The two ways of obtaining Γ jk,l agree. ∂ ql

Hence, again as with the sphere, the only nonzero Γ jk,l as required. For any ( j, k) 6= (1, 1), the equation
has two indices equal to 1 and one equal to 2. Thus
x jk = Γijk xi + b jk n
1 ∂ g12 ∂ g12 ∂ g11
Γ11,2 = + − is true because b jk = 0, Γijk = 0, and x jk = 0.
2 ∂ q1 ∂ q1 ∂ q2
1 • The sphere We have
= 0 + 0 − (−2r sinq2 (a + r cosq2 ))
2 Γ111 = g11 Γ11,1 + g12Γ11,2
= r sin q2 (a + r cosq2 ), 1
= 2 2 2 · 0 + 0 · (−R2 sin q2 cos q2 ) = 0,
1 ∂ g11 ∂ g21 ∂ g12 R sin q
Γ12,1 = + −
2 ∂ q2 ∂ q1 ∂ q1 Γ211 = g21 Γ11,1 + g22Γ11,2
1
= − 2r sin q2 (a + r cosq2 ) + 0 − 0 1
2 = 0·0+ · (−R2 sin q2 cos q2 )
R2
= −r sin q2 (a + r cosq2 ).
= − sin q2 cos q2 ,
By symmetry, Γ21,1 = Γ12,1 = −r sin q (a + r cos q ). The
2 2
Γ112 = Γ121 = g11 Γ12,1 + g12Γ12,2
two ways of obtaining Γ jk,l agree.
1
4. • The plane From the solution to Exercise 3, we know = 2 2 2 · (R2 sin q2 cos q2 ) + 0 · 0
R sin q
all Γ jk.l = 0; hence,
cosq2
= = cot q2 ,
Γijk = gil Γ jk,l = 0 for all i, j, k. sin q2
Γ212 = Γ221 = g21 Γ12,1 + g22Γ12,2
Moreover, b jk = 0 and x jk = 0 for all j, k. Therefore, it is
immediately true that x jk = Γijk xi + b jk n. 1
= 0 · (R2 sin q2 cos q2 ) + · 0 = 0.
R2
• The cylinder We have
Because Γ22,1 = Γ22,2 = 0, it follows immediately that
Γ111 = g1l Γ11,l = g11 Γ11,1 + g12 Γ11,2 Γ122 = Γ222 = 0.
1 It remains to show x jk = Γijk xi + b jk n. Consider first
= ′ 2 · ( f ′ f ′′ + g′ g′′ ) + 0 · 0
( f ) + (g′ )2 ( j, k) = (1, 1); because Γ111 = 0, we have
f ′ f ′′ + g′ g′′
= ′ 2 , Γi11 xi = Γ211 x2
( f ) + (g′ )2
Γ211 = g2l Γ11,l = g21 Γ11,1 + g22 Γ11,2 = −R sin q2 cos q2 (cos q1 cos q2 , sin q1 cos q2 , − sin q2 ),
= 0 · ( f ′ f ′′ + g′ g′′ ) + 0 · 0 = 0. b11 n = −R sin2 q2 (cos q1 sin q2 , sin q1 sin q2 , cos q2 ),
Suppose ( j, k) 6= (1, 1); then Γ jk,l = 0 from Exercise 3. Γi11 xi + b11 n

Hence, for the same j, k, we have = −R sin q2 (cos q1 , sin q2 , 0) = x11 .
Γijk = gil Γ jk,l = gi1 Γ jk, 1 + gi2Γ jk,2 = 0 + 0 = 0. Next, let ( j, k) = (1, 2); because Γ212 = 0, we have
Next, we verify that (noting Γ211 = 0) Γi12 xi = Γ112 x1

R cos q2
x11 = Γi11 xi + b11n = Γ111 x1 + b11 n. = (− sin q1 sin q2 , cos q1 sin q2 , 0)
sin q2
p
For simplicity, let A = ( f ′ )2 + (g′)2 ; then = R cos q2 (− sin q1 , cos q2 , 0),
f ′ f ′′ + g′g′′ ′ ′ b12 n = 0 · n = 0,
Γ111 x1 = ( f , g , 0),
A2 Γ12 xi + b12n
i
= R cos q2 (− sin q1 , cos q2 , 0) = x12 .

g′ f ′′ − f ′ g′′ g′ − f ′
b11 n = , ,0 , By symmetry, we get the same result with ( j, k) = (2, 1).
A A A
When ( j, k) = (2, 2), we have Γi22 = 0 so
( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2 ′′ ′′
Γ111 x1 + b11n = ( f , g , 0) Γi22 xi + b22n = b22 n
A2
′′ ′′
= ( f , g , 0) = x11 , = −R(cosq1 sin q2 , sin q1 sin q2 , cos q2 ) = x22 .

• The torus Ta,r Because Γ11,1 , Γ12,2 and g12 = g21 are all Therefore, ∂ Γ111 /∂ q1 is the only nonzero partial deriva-
zero, we have ′ )2 + (g′ )2 . Then we have
tive. To determine it, let A = ( f √
′ ′
Γ11 = 2 A /A = 2 ln A = ln A and hence the com-
1 1 ′ 1
Γ111 = g11 Γ11,1 + g12Γ11,2 = 0, pact form
Γ211 = g21 Γ11,1 + g22Γ11,2 ∂ Γ111 √ ′′
= ln A .
1 ∂q 1
= 0 + 2 · (r sin q2 (a + r cosq2 ))
r Now consider the mixed Riemann tensor. If even one in-
sin q2 (a + r cosq2 ) dex in Rijkl is different from 1, then
= ,
r
Γ112 = Γ121 = g11 Γ12,1 + g12Γ12,2 ∂ Γijl ∂ Γijk
= = 0.
1 2 2
∂ qk ∂ ql
= · − r sin q (a + r cosq ) + 0
(a + r cosq2 )2
2
Moreover, if a term in Γ pjl Γipk or Γ pjl Γipk is to be nonzero, it
−r sin q
= , must have the form Γ111 Γ111 , but this is impossible. There-
a + r cosq2 fore, Rijkl = 0 unless i = j = k = l = 1. For the remaining
Γ12 = Γ21 = g Γ12,1 + g Γ12,2 = 0 + 0 = 0.
2 2 21 22
component,
In addition, Γ22,1 = Γ22,2 = 0, so Γ122 = Γ222 = 0 as well. ∂ Γ111 ∂ Γ111

R1111 = − + Γ11 Γ p1 − Γ11
p 1 p 1
Γ p1
To show x jk = Γijk xi + b jk n, first take ( j, k) = (1, 1). ∂ q1 ∂ q1
then = ϕ (q1 ) − ϕ (q1) + Γ111 Γ111 + Γ211 Γ121
sin q2 (a + r cosq2 ) − Γ111Γ111 − Γ211Γ121 = 0.
Γi11 xi = Γ211 x2 = ×
r
r(− cos q1 sin q2 , − sin q1 sin q2 , cos q2 ) Hence Rijkl = 0 for all i, j, k, l.
b11 n = − cos q2 (a + r cosq2 )× Up to this point, it has been easy to calculate the 16
1 2 1
(cos q cos q , sin q cos q , sin q ),2 2 components of the mixed Riemann tensor RIjkl because all,
or nearly all, have been obviously zero. For the sphere and
Γi11 xi + b11n = the torus this is no longer true; therefore, we reduce the
= (a + r cosq2 )(− cos q1 , − sin q1 , 0) = x11 . computational labor by exploiting a symmetry, namely
Next, let ( j, k) = (1, 2); because Γ212 and b12 are zero, we Rijlk = −Rijkl .
have
(See Exercise 8, below.) Think of the symmetry this way:
Γi12 xi + b12n = Γ112 x1 for each fixed i and j, the 2 × 2 matrix whose kth row and
−r sin q2 lth column is Rijkl is skew-symmetric:
= · (a + r cosq2 )(− sin q1 , cos q1 , 0)
a + r cosq2 i
2 1 1 R j11 Rij12 0 Aij
= −r sin q (− sin q , cos q , 0) = x12 . M ij = = , Aij = Rij12 .
Rij21 Rij22 −Aij 0
By symmetry, Γi21 xi + b21 n = x21 . When ( j, k) = (2, 2),
we have Γi22 = 0, so Thus, there is just one component AiJ = Rij12 in each of the
four matrices M ij , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 2, to compute.
Γi22 xi + b22n = b22 n • The sphere The nonzero Christoffel symbols are those
= (−r) · (cosq1 cosq2 , sin q1 cos q2 , sin q2 ) = x22 . in which the index 1 appears exactly twice. Furthermore,
they depend only on q2 , so the only nonzero partial deriva-
tives are
5. • The plane Because all Γijk = 0, it follows that all
∂ Γijk /∂ ql and all Rijkl are zero. ∂ Γ211
= sin2 q2 − cos2 q2 ,
• The cylinder From the solution to Exercise 4, ∂ q2
∂ Γ112 ∂ Γ121 −1
f ′ f ′′ + g′ g′′ = = 2 2.
Γ111 = , Γijk = 0 otherwise. ∂ q2 ∂ q2 sin q
( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2

Now take i = j = 1; then ∂ Γ121

R1212 = − − Γ121 Γ112
∂ q2
∂ Γ112 ∂ Γ111
R1112 = − + Γ112Γ111 + Γ212Γ121 r2 + ar cosq2 r2 sin2 q2
∂ q1 ∂ q2 = 2 2
−
(a + r cosq ) (a + r cosq2 )2
− Γ111 Γ112 − Γ211 Γ122
r2 cos2 q2 + ar cosq2 r cos q2
= 0 − 0 + 0 + 0 − 0 − 0 = 0. = = .
(a + r cosq2 )2 a + r cosq2
For i = 1, j = 2, we have Finally, when i = 2, j = 1, we have
∂ Γ122 ∂ Γ121 ∂ Γ211
R1212 = − + Γ122Γ111 + Γ222Γ121 R2112 = − + Γ112 Γ211
∂ q1 ∂ q2 ∂ q2
a
− Γ121 Γ112 − Γ221 Γ122 =− cos q2 + cos2 q2 − sin2 q2
r
−1 cos2 q2
= 0− 2 2
+0+0− 2 2 −0 −r sin q2 sin q2 (a + r cosq2 )
sin q sin q + ·
a + r cosq2 r
2
1 − cos q 2
a
= = 1. = − cos q − cos q + sin2 q2 − sin2 q2
2 2 2
sin2 q2 r
For i = 2, j = 1, we have cosq2
=− (a + r cosq2 ).
r
∂ Γ212 ∂ Γ211
R2112 = − + Γ112 Γ211 + Γ212Γ221 6. The symmetry Rh jlk = gih Rijlk = −gih Rijkl = −Rh jkl
∂ q1 ∂ q2
means that there are, once again, at most four nonzero
− Γ111 Γ212 − Γ211 Γ222 components to determine: Rh j12 , 1 ≤ h, j ≤ 2.
= 0 − (sin2 q2 − cos2 q2 ) • The plane Because all Rijkl = 0, it is also true that
cos q2 Rh jkl = 0 and hence that K = 0 at all points.
+ (− sin q2 cos q2 ) + 0 − 0 − 0 • The cylinder Again all Rijkl = 0 = Rh jkl , so K = 0 at all
sin q2
points.
= − sin2 q2 .
• The sphere We have
Finally, for i = j = 2 we have
R1112 = g11 R1112 + g21R2112 = 0 + 0 = 0,
∂ Γ222 ∂ Γ221 R1212 = g11 R1212 + g21R2212
R2212 = − + Γ122Γ211 + Γ222Γ221
∂ q1 ∂ q2
= R2 sin2 q2 · 1 + 0 = R2 sin2 q2 ,
− Γ121 Γ212 − Γ221 Γ222
R2112 = g12 R1112 + g22R2112
= 0.
= 0 + R2 · (− sin2 q2 ) = −R2 sin2 q2 ,
• The torus Ta,r . As with the sphere, the only nonzero R2212 = g12 R1212 + g22R2212 = 0 + 0 = 0.
Christoffel symbols are those in which the index 1 ap-
pears exactly twice, and they depend only on q2 . The only Because g = R4 sin2 q2 , Gaussian curvature has the value
nonzero partial derivatives are therefore
R1212 R2 sin2 q2 1
K= = 4 2 2 = 2.
∂ Γ11
2
a g R sin q R
= cos q2 + cos2 q2 − sin2 q2 ,
∂ q2 r • The torus Ta,r Referring to the expressions for the var-
∂ Γ112 ∂ Γ121 r + a cosq2 ious Rh jkl in the solution for the sphere, we find R1112 =
= = −r .
∂ q2 ∂ q2 (a + r cosq2 )2 R2212 = 0 and
Because the same Christoffel symbols and their deriva- r cos q2
R1212 = g11 R1212 = (a + r cosq2 )2 ·
tives are nonzero for the torus and the sphere, we see al- a + r cosq2
ready that = r cos q2 (a + r cosq2 ),
R1112 = R2212 = 0,
2 2 cosq2 2
because that is true for the sphere. The only nonzero terms R2112 = g22 R112 = r · − (a + r cosq )
r
in the remaining two components will be those that were
nonzero for the sphere. Thus, when i = 1, j = 2, we have = −r cos q2 (a + r cosq2 ).

Because g = r2 (a + r cos q2 )2 , Gaussian curvature has the Next, in computing the sum Γijk = gil Γ jk,l , we exclude the
value term containing g12 = g21 = 0:
R1212 r cos q2 (a + r cosq2 ) cos q2 Γ111 = g11 Γ11,1 = 0,
K= = = .
g r2 (a + r cosq2 )2 r(a + r cosq2 ) −rr′
Γ211 = g22 Γ11,2 = ,
This agrees with the value found in the solution to Exer- (r′ )2 + (z′ )2
cise 10b in § 5.4 (Solutions page 51). rr′ r′
Γ112 = Γ121 = g11 Γ12,1 = 2
= ,
7. a) Transposition interchanges the rows and columns r r
of a matrix, so aij = mij . Γ212 = Γ221 = g22 Γ12,2 = 0,
b) The element Bkq in the kth row and the qth column Γ122 = g11 Γ22,1 = 0,
of the matrix B = GM is the sum Bkq = gkl mlq . The el- r′ r′′ + z′ z′′
ement γ pq in the pth row and qth column of the matrix Γ222 = g22 Γ22,2 = .
(r′ )2 + (z′ )2
Γ = Mt B = Mt GM is the sum γ pq = mkp Bkq = mkp gkl mlq .
As explained in the solution to Exercise 5, the only
We can rewrite this as
components of the mixed Riemann tensor we need to find
γ pq = gkl mkp mlq . are Rij12 , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 2. We now work these out in detail.
For i = j = 1, we have
8. a) For every i, j, k, l, we have ∂ Γ112 ∂ Γ111
R1112 = − + Γ112 Γ111 + Γ212 Γ121
∂ Γijk ∂ Γijl ∂ q1 ∂ q2
Rijlk = − + Γ pjk Γipl − Γ pjl Γipk − Γ111Γ112 − Γ211 Γ122
∂ ql ∂ qk
! = 0 − 0 + 0 + 0 − 0 − 0 = 0,
∂ Γijl ∂ Γijk
=− − + Γ jl Γ pk − Γ jk Γ pl
p i p i
∂ qk ∂ ql
− Rijkl . For i = 1, j = 2, first set A = (r′ )2 + (z′ )2 ; then we have
∂ Γ122 ∂ Γ121
R1212 = − + Γ122Γ111 + Γ222Γ121
b) Setting l = k in the identity, we have = Rijkk −Rijkk , ∂ q1 ∂ q2
i i
implying R j11 = R j22 = 0 for 1 ≤ i, j, ≤ 2. These make up − Γ121 Γ112 − Γ221 Γ122
8 of the 16 components of the mixed Riemann tensor. ′ ′ ′ 2
r r′ r′′ + z′ z′′ r′ r
= 0− +0+ · − −0
9. a) Let r = r(q2 ), z = z(q2 ); we have r A r r
11 12 2 rr′′ − (r′ )2 (r′ )2 r′′ + r′ z′ z′′ (r′ )2
g g 1/r 0 =− + − 2
= . r2
g21 g22 0 1/ (r′ )2 + (z′ )2 rA r
−rr′′ (r′ )2 r′′ + r′ z′ z′′ −r′′ A (r′ )2 r′′ + r′ z′ z′′
Each Γi j,k is obtained as a sum of partial derivatives of = 2 + = +
r rA rA rA
the gi j . The only nonzero derivatives are
−r′′ (r′ )2 − r′′ (z′ )2 + (r′ )2 r′′ + r′ z′ z′′
∂ g11 ∂ g22 rA
= 2rr′ , = 2r′ r′′ + 2z′ z′′ .
∂ q2 ∂ q2 z′ (r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ ) z′ (r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ )
= =
Thus either all three indices of Γi j,k have the value 2, or rA r((r′ )2 + (z′ )2 )
else precisely one does; hence For i = 2, j = 1, we have
Γ11,1 = Γ12,2 = Γ21,2 = Γ22,1 = 0. ∂ Γ212 ∂ Γ211
R2112 = − + Γ112 Γ211 + Γ212 Γ221
In the following, only nonzero terms are written. ∂ q1 ∂ q2
− Γ111Γ212 − Γ211Γ222
1 ∂ g11
Γ11,2 = − 2 = −rr′ , −rr′ ′ r′ −rr′
2 ∂q = 0− + · +0
A r A
1 ∂ g11
Γ12,1 = Γ21,1 = = rr′ , −rr′ r′ r′′ + z′ z′′
2 ∂ q2 −0− ·
A A
1 ∂ g22
Γ22,2 = = r′ r′′ + z′ z′′ . rz′ (r′′ z′ − r′ z′′ ) rz′ (r′′ z′ − r′ z′′ )
2 ∂ q2 = = .
A2 ((r′ )2 + (z′ )2 )2

In the final step, a number of calculations have been car- see the connection between concavity and the expression
ried out. For the last component, we have i = j = 2 and r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ .
To do this we express the curve as the graph of a func-
∂ Γ222 ∂ Γ221 tion r = R(z). This can be done near any point where the
R2212 = − + Γ122Γ211 + Γ222Γ221
∂ q1 ∂ q2 curve is not horizontal, i.e., at any point q where z′ (q) 6= 0.
− Γ121 Γ212 − Γ221 Γ222 By the implicit function theorem, we can then solve the
equation z = z(q) for q near q. Write the solution as
= 0.
q = Q(z) and then set
For R1212 we find
r = R(z) = r(Q(z)).
z′ (r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ ) rz′ (r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ )
R1212 = g11 R1212 = r2 · = . Concavity of the curve near q is then determined by the
rA A sign of R′′ (z). We have
Because g = r2 [(r′ )2 + z′ )2 = r2 A,
r′ (Q(z))
R′ (z) = r′ (Q(z)) · Q′ (z) = .
R1212 rz′ (r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ ) 1 z′ (Q(z))
K= = · 2
g A r A Here we use the fact that the inverse function z(q) and
′ ′ ′′
z (r z − r z )′′ ′ z (r z − r′′ z′ )
′ ′ ′′
= = . Q(z) have derivatives that are reciprocals of each other:
rA 2 r((r′ )2 + (z′ )2 )2 Q′ (z) = 1/z′ (q) = 1/z′ (Q(z)). Therefore,
z′ · r′′ Q′ − r′ · z′′ Q′ z′ r′′ − r′ z′′

b) In the formula for K, we see K = 0 requires either R′′ (z) = ′
= .
z′ = 0 or r′ z′′ = r′′ z′ . (z )2 (z′ )3
c) Because r is assumed positive, we see K < 0 precisely For comparison with K = z′ (r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ )/rA2 , we write R′′
when in the form
′ ′ ′′ ′′ ′
z (r z − r z ) < 0.
z′ (r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ ) rA2
R′′ (z) = − = −K · .
We can relate this expression more closely to the shape of (z′ )4 (z′ )4
the generating curve c for the surface of revolution. The
surface is given parametrically as Because the factor rA2 /(z′ )4 is always positive, we see R′′
is a negative multiple of K.
x(q1 , q2 ) = r(q2 ) cos q1 , r(q2 ) sin q1 , z(q2 ) . We can now confirm the our earlier observations. At
those points on the generating curve (r(q), z(q)) where
The parametric curve c(q) = (r(q), z(q)) in the vertical z′ (r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ ) < 0, K < 0 but R′′ > 0, so the curve is
(r, z)-plane generates this surface when the plane is rotated concave away from the z-axis. At those points where
around the z-axis. z′ (r′ z′′ − r′′ z′ ) > 0, K > 0 but R′′ < 0, so the curve is con-
z z′ = 0 cave towards the z-axis.
K>0
K<0
R′′ = 0
6.2 Geodesics
1. According to the solution to Exercise 4, § 6.1 (Solu-
tions page 56), all Γijk = 0. Therefore, the geodesic equa-
K<0 tions are
d 2 q1 d 2 q2
r 2
= 0, = 0.
dt dt 2
The sketch indicates that the sign of K depends on the The solutions are
concavity of the curve with respect to the z-axis: K > 0
where the curve is concave toward the axis (shown in q1 (t) = α 1t + β 1 , q2 (t) = α 2t + β 2 ,
black), and K < 0 where the curve is concave away from
the axis (shown in gray). Concavity switches if either where α 1 , α 2 , β 1 , β 2 are arbitrary constants of integration.
z has an extreme value (i.e., at a point where z′ = 0) The solutions are are all constant-speed parametrized
or the curve has a regular inflection point. We need to straight lines in the (q1 , q2 )-plane.

6.2. GEODESICS 61
2. a) This surface of revolution is a special case of the or

surface analyzed in the solution to Exercise 9, § 6.1 (Solu- dq2 1
2 2 ′ ′′
=p .
tions page 59) for which z(q ) = q (so z = 1 and z = 0). ds ′
(r )2 + 1
Therefore, the Christoffel symbols reduce to
For the second derivative of q2 (s), we find (keeping in
Γ11 = 0,
1 mind that r′ = r′ (q2 (s)))
−rr′ d 2 q2 −3/2 ′ ′′ dq
2 −r′ r′′
Γ211 = , = − 1
(r ′ 2
) + 1 · 2r r = .
(r′ )2 + 1 ds2 2 ds ((r′ )2 + 1)2
r′
Γ112 = Γ121 = , The geodesic equation for q2 now reads
r
Γ212 = Γ221 = 0, !2
−r′ r′′ r′ r′′ 1
Γ122 = 0, 2
+ ′ 2 p = 0,
((r′ )2 + 1) (r ) + 1 (r′ )2 + 1
r′ r′′
Γ222 = . as desired.
(r′ )2 + 1
c) Parametrize the parallel of latitude as (q1 , q2 ) = (t, k).
In their turn, the geodesic equations reduce to
We first note that this is a constant-speed parametrization,
d 2 q1 r′ dq1 dq2 because
+ 2 = 0, 1 2
dt 2 r dt dt dqi dq j dq
2 2 2 gi j = g11 = r2 (k) · 1 = constant.
d 2 q2 rr′ dq1 r′ r′′ dq dt dt dt
2
− ′ 2 + ′ 2 = 0.
dt (r ) + 1 dt (r ) + 1 dt
The only nonzero first or second derivative is dq1 /dt = 1.
Therefore, the first geodesic equation is satisfied, and the
b) Suppose q1 = k on the meridian; then, in the (q1 , q2 )-
second becomes
plane, we can parametrize this meridian as
rr′
(q1 , q2 ) = (k,t). 0− · 1 + 0 = 0,
(r′ )2 + 1
Therefore, or just
r(k) r′ (k)
dq1 d 2 q1 = 0.
= = 0, (r′ (k))2 + 1
dt dt 2
dq2 d 2 q2 Because r depends only on q2 , and q2 = k, the left-hand
= 1, = 0. side is a constant. Moreover, the only way this constant
dt dt 2
can equal zero is if r′ (k) = 0. Geometrically, this means
These expressions do indeed satisfy the first geodesic that the generating curve r = r(z) (recall that z = q2 for the
equation, but the second geodesic equation becomes surface of revolution) has either a maximum, a minimum,
r′ r′′ or an inflection with a vertical tangent. In other words,
0−0+ ′ 2 = 0, a parallel of latitude is a geodesic if and only if the gen-
(r ) + 1
erating curve for the surface has an extreme or a vertical
which is not true, in general. When the meridian is given inflection.
a simple linear parametrization, it is not a geodesic. In
fact, this is not even a constant-speed parametrization, as 3. a) According to the solution to Exercise 4 in § 6.1 (So-
a geodesic must be (Theorem 6.2, text page 270). The lutions page 56),
square of the parameter speed is f ′ f ′′ + g′g′′
Γ111 = ′ 2 ′ )2
, Γijk = 0 otherwise.
i
dq dq j dq 2 2
( f ) + (g
gi j = g22 = (r′ )2 + 1 · 1 = (r′ )2 + 1.
dt dt dt The geodesic equations are therefore
Suppose instead that the meridian is parametrized by arc 2
d 2 q1 f ′ f ′′ + g′g′′ dq1
1 2 2
length s, so that (q , q ) = (k, q (s)). Then + = 0,
dt 2 ( f ′ )2 + (g′)2 dt
2 2 d 2 q2
dq dq2 2
1 = g22 = (r′ )2 + 1 , = 0.
ds ds dt 2

b) By assumption, q1 is arc length on the plane curve Because the geodesic equation for q2 is still
c(q1 ) = ( f (q1 ), g(q1 )), so
d 2 q2
′ 2 ′ 2 ′ 2
kc k = ( f ) + (g ) = 1, = 0,
ds2
and consequently the geodesics are the parametrized curves
2 f ′ f ′′ + 2g′g′′ = 0.
(q1 , q2 ) = (ϕ (α 1 s + β 1 ), α 2 s + β 2 )
This implies that the geodesic equations reduce to
that depend on the four arbitrary constants α 1 , α 2 , β 1 , β 2 .
d 2 q1 d 2 q2
= = 0, 4. The solution to Exercise 4, § 6.1 (Solution page 58)
ds2 ds2
provides the Christoffel symbols for the geodesic equa-
(where q1 = s) and the geodesics are therefore all tions of the torus:
constant-speed parametrized straight lines in the (q1 , q2 )-
plane. d 2 q1 r + a cos q2 dq1 dq2
2
− 2r = 0,
dt (a + r cosq2 )2 dt dt
c) The arc-length parameter on c is now
d 2 q2 a dq1 2
Z q1 Z q1 p + cos q 2
+ cos2q 2
= 0.
s(q1 ) = kc′ k dq1 = ( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2 dq1 . dt 2 r dt
Let q1 = ϕ (s) be the inverse; then To analyze the meridian q1 = k, note first that the
parametrization of this meridian as (q1 , q2 ) = (k,t) is a
dq1 1 1 constant-speed parametrization:
= ϕ ′ (s) = ′ 1 = √ .
ds s (q ) ( f ) + (g′ )2
′ 2
2
dqi dq j dq2
Keeping in mind that = f′ f ′ (ϕ (s)) and g′ = g′ (ϕ (s)), we gi j = g22 = r2 · 1 = constant.
dt dt dt
find the second derivative is
d 2 q1 −3/2 With this parametrization,
= − 21 ( f ′ )2 + (g′)2 · 2 f ′ f ′′ + 2g′g′′ · ϕ ′ (s)
ds2 dq1 d 2 q1 d 2 q2
f ′ f ′′ + g′ g′′ = 2
= = 0;
=− . dt dt dt 2
(( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2 )2
therefore every term in each geodesic equation is zero.
Thus, when q1 = ϕ (s), the geodesic equation for q1 is Hence, every meridian is a geodesic when parametrized
satisfied, because by q2 .
f ′ f ′′ + g′ g′′ ′ 2
ϕ ′′ + (ϕ ) 5. a) The text, on pages 274–275, describes the steps of
( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2
2 the solution.
d 2 q1 f ′ f ′′ + g′g′′ dq1
= + ′ 2 b) Taking the plots below from the left side and from the
ds 2 ( f ) + (g′)2 ds
2 top down, the value of α is, successively, –2, 0, 1, 2, 25.
f ′ f ′′ + g′ g′′ f ′ f ′′ + g′g′′ 1
=− + √ Π
2
(( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2 )2 ( f ′ )2 + (g′ )2 ( f ) + (g′)2

′ 2
= 0. Π
4
If, more generally, q1 = ϕ (α 1 s + β 1 ), we have

Π Π Π Π
- -
2 4 4 2
dq1 d 2 q1
= α 1ϕ ′, = (α 1 )2 ϕ ′′ ,
ds ds2 -
Π
4
and thus we still have

2 -
Π
d 2 q1 f ′ f ′′ + g′g′′ dq1
2
+ ′ 2
ds2 ( f ) + (g′)2 ds
c) Let q1 = q1 + β , q2 = q2 , where q1 and q2 are as given
f ′ f ′′ + g′g′′ ′ 2 in part (a). Then qi has the same derivatives as qi , so q1
= (α ) ϕ + ′ 2
1 2 ′′
(ϕ ) = 0.
( f ) + (g′ )2 and q2 satisfies the same geodesic equations as q1 and q2 .

6.2. GEODESICS 63
Thus each Cα ,β is a geodesic. On the sphere, Cα is This implies

a great circle that crosses the equator at q1 = 0, π . On α 2 + sec2 δ = α 2 + 1 + tan2 δ
the sphere, Cα ,β is Cα after it has been rotated β radians
around the polar axis so that it crosses the equator at q1 = = α 2 + 1 + (1 + α 2) tan2 (a1 − β )
β , π + β . Therefore, each Cα ,β is a great circle, and hence = (1 + α 2)(1 + tan2 (a1 − β ))
is a geodesic.
= (1 + α 2) sec2 (a1 − β ),
d) If we set qβ (t) = (q1 (t), q2 (t)) = (β + q1 (t), q2 (t)), and also
then the argument used in the previous part can just be
repeated to show that qβ is a geodesic whenever q is. sec2 δ = sec2 (a1 − β ) + α 2 sec2 (a1 − β ) − α 2
= sec2 (a1 − β ) + α 2 tan2 (a1 − β )
e) To meet the four given conditions, we need a four-
parameter family of geodesics. In addition to α and β 1 + α 2 sin2 (a1 − β ) 1 + tan2 a2
= = .
already introduced, rescaling the arc-length variable as cos2 (a1 − β ) cos2 (a1 − β )
σ = γ s + δ provides the two additional parameters. Our The last equality relies on the second initial condition,
four-parameter family of geodesics is rewritten as
 α tan δ α tan(a1 − β )
 tan σ tan a 2
= √ = = α sin(a1 − β ).
q = β + arctan √
 1 , α 2 + sec2 δ sec(a1 − β )
q(s) : 1+α 2
σ = γs + δ .

 2 α tan σ Now assume b1 6= 0; we consider the case b1 = 0 later on.
q = arctan √ ,
α 2 + sec2 σ The last two initial conditions then imply
√
The derivatives can be determined from formulas in the b2 α α 2 + sec2 δ
= √
text on page 274: b1 1 + α 2 sec2 δ
√
 1 √ α 1 + α 2 sec(a1 − β )
=√
 dq = γ 1 + α sec σ ,
2 2
 1 + α 2(1 + tan2 a2 )/ cos2 (a1 − β )

′ ds α 2 + sec σ2
q (s) :
 dq2 α α cos(a1 − β )

 =γ √ . = .
1 + tan2 a2
ds α + sec σ
2 2
The pair of equations
In terms of these expressions, the four initial conditions
α sin(a1 − β ) = tan a2 ,
are
2
2 2 b
tan δ α cos(a 1
− β ) = (1 + tan a ) ,
a1 = β + arctan √ , b1
1 + α2 allow us to write
2 2
α tan δ
a2 = arctan √ , 2 2 2 b
α 2 + sec2 δ α 2
= tan 2 2
a + (1 + tan a ) ,
b1
√
1 + α 2 sec2 δ b1 tan a2
b1 = γ , tan(a1 − β ) = 2 .
α + sec δ
2 2 b (1 + tan2 a2 )2
α We have thus determined α and β in terms of the given
b2 = γ √ .
α + sec2 δ
2 values a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 as
s
2 2
It is not immediately obvious how to solve these equations b
for α , β , γ , δ . The first initial condition gives us α = ± tan 2 a2 + (1 + tan2 a2 )2 ,
b1

tan δ b1 tan a2
tan(a − β ) = √
1 β = a − arctan 2
1
.
1 + α2 b (1 + tan2 a2 )2
Note that α 6= 0. The sign for α is chosen so that the
or equation
p α sin(a1 − β ) = tan a2
tan δ = tan(a − β ) 1 + α 2.
1
will be satisfied. Using these expressions, we can now

determine γ and δ : The geodesic equations are therefore

√ √
b2 α 2 + sec2 δ b2 sec(a1 − β ) 1 + α 2 2
γ= = , d 2 q1 dq2
α α
+ sinh q1 cosh q1 = 0,
p dt 2 dt
δ = arctan tan(a1 − β ) 1 + α 2 .
d 2 q2 1
1 dq dq
2
+ 2 tanhq = 0.
If b1 = 0, then the geodesic is a vertical great circle that dt 2 dt dt
passes through the poles of the sphere. It is not obvious 1 2 2
that the family q(s) contain these geodesics. However, On the first set of coordinate curves, q = t, q = k , so
the discussion in § 5.2 of the text suggests that we take
dq1 d 2 q1 dq2 d 2 q2
α → ∞. In this case, in the formula for q1 we have = 1, = 0, = 0, = 0.
dt dt 2 dt dt 2
tan σ
√ → 0,
1 + α2 The geodesic equations reduce to
so q1 = β . In the formula for q2 we have 0 + sinht cosht · 0 = 0, 0 + 2 tanht · 1 · 0 = 0,
α tan σ tan σ
√ =p → tan σ , so all these coordinate curves are geodesics. On the sec-
α + sec σ
2 2 1 + sec2 σ /α 2
ond set of coordinate curves, q1 = k1 , q2 = t, so
so q2 = arctan(tan σ ) = σ and dq2 /ds = γ . Therefore,
1 dq1 d 2 q1 dq2 d 2 q2
α= (= ∞), β = a1 , γ = b2 , δ = a2 . =, = 0, = 1, = 0.
b1 dt dt 2 dt dt 2
6. To investigate geodesics, we first need to determine The geodesic equations reduce to

the Christoffel symbols. Because we begin with the met-
0 + sinhk1 cosh k1 · 1 6= 0, 0 + 2 tanhk1 · 0 · 1 = 0.
ric intrinsically defined—rather than with an embedding
(such as X in § 5.3)—we’ll start the computations with
The first expression will be zero only if sinh k1 = 0, im-
1 ∂ g jl ∂ glk ∂ g jk plying that only the coordinate curve for which k1 = 0 is
Γ jk,l = + − .
2 ∂ qk ∂qj ∂ ql a geodesic.
The only nonzero derivative is
∂ g22 6.3 Curved Spacetime
= −2 cosh q1 sinh q1 ,
∂ q1
so the only nonzero Christoffel symbols will have pre- 1. The geodesic equations for the hyperbolic plane are
cisely two indices equal to 2:
1 d 2 q1 2 dq1 dq2
Γ12,2 = Γ21,2 = · −2 sinhq cosh q = − sinh q cosh q ,
1 1 1 1 0 = − ,
2 dt 2 q2 dt dt
2 2
1 d 2 q2 1 dq1 1 dq2
Γ22,1 = · sinh q1 cosh q1 = sinh q1 cosh q1 , 0= + 2 − 2 ,
2 dt 2 q dt q dt
Γ jk,l = 0 otherwise.
(text, page 283). If q1 = c, q2 = t, then all derivatives
To obtain the Christoffel symbols of the second kind, we
are zero except dq2 /dt = 1. The first geodesic equation is
use
therefore satisfied, but the second is not: the term
g11 = 1, g12 = g21 = 0, g22 = − cosh−2 q1 ,
2
1 dq2 1
and find − 2 = − ·1
q dt t
Γ122 = g11 Γ22,1 + g12Γ22,2 = sinh q1 cosh q1 ,
Γ212 = Γ221 = g21 Γ12,1 + g22Γ12,2 fails to vanish, but all others do vanish. If, instead, q2 = et ,
then dq2 /dt = d 2 q2 /d 2t = et . The first geodesic equation
− sinh q1 cosh q1 1 is still satisfied. The second is now satisfied, too, because
= = tanh q
− cosh2 q1 it becomes
Γijk = 0 otherwise. 1 1
et + t · 0 − t · (et )2 = 0.
e e

6.3. CURVED SPACETIME 65
2. For the curve q(t) we have In other words, q(s) is a unit-speed parametrization, so
the length of the portion of q(s) from s = s1 to s = s2 is
dq1 dq2 just |s2 − s1 |. Because the parameter domain for q(s) is
= r sin t, = r cost.
dt dt the entire s-axis, the values of s1 and s2 , and hence the
The square of the length of q′ (t) is length |s2 − s1 |, can be arbitrarily large. Thus the whole
geodesic has infinite length.
dqi dq j
gi j (q1 , q2 ) 4. The first and second derivatives of the components of
dt dt qβ (t) are the same as the corresponding components of
1 2 2 2
1 2 dq 1 2 dq q(t). Since the geodesic equations depend only on these
= g11 (q , q ) + g22(q , q )
dt dt first and second derivatives, if q(t) satisfies the geodesic
1 equations then so must qβ (t), for every β .
= 2 2 r2 sin2 t + r2 cos2 t
r cos t 5. The solution to Exercise 5e in § 6.2 (see Solution
1 page 63) noted that a four-parameter family of geodesics
= .
cos2 t is needed to meet the four initial conditions. In the present
Therefore the speed kq′ (t)k = 1/ cost is non-constant, so case we can take
(
q(t) cannot be a geodesic. q1 = c + r tanh σ ,
q(s) : σ = γs + δ ;
q2 = r sech σ ,
3. a) For q(s) we have
q1 = c + r tanhs, q2 = r sech s, the parameters are c, r, γ , and δ . The derivative is

 1
dq1 dq2 
 dq
= r sech2 s, = −r sech s tanh s,  = rγ sech2 σ ,
ds ds q (s) : ds2
′

d 2 q1
= −2r sech2 s tanh s,  dq = −rγ sech s tanh s,

ds2 ds
d 2 q2 and the four initial conditions become the equations
. 2
= −r sech s sech2 s − tanh2 s
ds
a1 = c + r tanh δ , b1 = rγ sech2 δ ,
The right-hand side of the first geodesic equation (from
a2 = r sech δ , b2 = −rγ sech δ tanh δ .
the solution to Exercise 1, above) is
2 Now assume b1 6= 0 (we consider b1 = 0 below); then
−2r sech2 s tanh s − · r sech2 s · (−r sech s tanh s)
r sech s b2 tanh δ
= −2r sech2 s tanh s + 2r sech2 s tanh s = 0. =− = − sinh δ .
b1 sech δ
The right-hand side of the second geodesic equation is Therefore, δ = − arcsinh(b2 /b1 ); standard identities for
the hyperbolic functions then give
−r sech s sech2 s − tanh2 s
1 1 −b2 /b1
+ r2 sech4 s − r2 sech2 s tanh2 s = 0. sech δ = p , tanh δ = p .
r sech s 1 + (b2/b1 )2 1 + (b2/b1 )2
The geodesic equations are indeed satisfied. we can now solve the remaining initial conditions:
p
b) Because g11 = g22 = 1/(q2 )2 = 1/r2 sech2 s, the
r = a2 / sech δ = a2 1 + (b2/b1 )2 ,
square of the length of q′ (s) is
c = a1 − r tanh δ = a1 − sinh δ = a1 + b2 /b1 ,
dqi dq j √
gi j (q1 , q2 ) −b2 −b1 1 + (b2/b1 )2
ds ds γ= 2 = .
1 2 2 2 a tanh δ a2
dq dq
= g11 (q1 , q2 ) + g22(q1 , q2 ) If b1 = 0 then the geodesic is vertical so we write the
ds ds
1 geodesic in the form (cf. the solution to Exercise 1, above)
= 2 2
r2 sech4 s + r2 sech2 s tanh2 s (
r sech s q1 = c,
= sech2 s + tanh2 s ≡ 1. q(s) : σ = γs + δ .
q 2 = eσ ,

(We need only three parameters because one condition, As noted in the solution to Exercise 6, §6.1, we need
namely b1 = 0, has been fixed and satisfied by making q1 determine only Rh j12, 1 ≤ h, j ≤ 2. Using
constant.) The three remaining initial conditions are
1
a1 = c, a2 = eδ , b2 = γ eδ ; g11 = g22 = 2 2 , g12 = g21 = 0,
(q )
the solutions are
we find
c = a1 , δ = ln a2 , γ = b2 /a2 .
R1112 = g11 R1112 + g21R2112 = 0,
6. a) We use the Christoffel symbols given in the text on R1212 = g11 R1212 + g21R2212
pages 282–283 and make use of the fact noted in the solu- 1 1 1
tion to Exercise 5 of § 6.1 (Solutions page 57) that we need = 2 2 ·− 2 2 = − 2 4,
(q ) (q ) (q )
determine only the four components Rij12 , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 2.
The nonzero Christoffel symbols have the values R2112 = g12 R1112 + g22R2112
1 1 1
−1 1 = 2 2 · 2 2 = 2 4,
Γ112 = Γ121 = Γ222 = , Γ211 = , (q ) (q ) (q )
q2 q2
R2212 = g12 R1212 + g22R2212 = 0.
and the nonzero derivatives have the values
∂ Γ112 ∂ Γ121 ∂ Γ222 1 ∂ Γ211 −1
= = = 2 2, = 2 2. b) We find immediately that
∂ q2 ∂ q2 ∂ q2 (q ) ∂ q2 (q )
Therefore, when we take i = j = 1, we have R1212 −1/(q2)4
K= = ≡ −1.
g 1/(q2 )4
∂ Γ112 ∂ Γ111
R1112 = − + Γ112Γ111 + Γ212Γ121
∂ q1 ∂ q2
− Γ111 Γ112 − Γ211 Γ122 = 0. 7. a) By definition, X∗i · X∗j = (Xi∗ )t GX j∗ . But we can re-
formulate this expression two ways (using Gt = G):
When i = 1, j = 2, we have
∂ Γ122 ∂ Γ121 (Xi∗ )t GX j∗ = (Xi∗ )t (λ j X j∗ ) = λ j (Xi∗ )t X j∗ ,
R1212 = − + Γ122 Γ111 + Γ222 Γ121
∂ q1 ∂ q2 (Xi∗ )t GX j∗ = (GXi∗ )t X j∗ = λi (Xi∗ )t X j∗ .
− Γ121Γ112 − Γ221 Γ122
2 It follows that (λ j − λi )(Xi∗ )t X j∗ = 0. When i 6= j, we
1 −1 −1 2 know λ j − λi 6= 0, so (Xi∗ )t X j∗ = 0, and hence
= 0− 2 2 +0+ − −0
(q ) q2 q2
1 X∗i · X∗j = (Xi∗ )t GX j∗ = λ j (Xi∗ )t X j∗ = 0.
=− 2 2.
(q )
For any scalar multiples of these vectors, the dot product
When i = 2, j = 1, we have must still be zero; thus Xi · X j = 0 for every i 6= j.
∂ Γ212 ∂ Γ211 b) When i = j, we have
R2112 = − + Γ112 Γ211 + Γ212 Γ221
∂ q1 ∂ q2
− Γ111 Γ212 − Γ211 Γ222 X∗i · X∗i = (Xi∗ )t GXi∗ = λi (Xi∗ )t Xi∗ .
−1 −1 1 1 −1 Because the factor (Xi∗ )t Xi∗ is the square of the ordinary
= 0− 2 2 + 2 · 2 +0−0− 2 · 2
(q ) q q q q Euclidean length of X∗i in R4 , it is positive. Therefore,
1 the rescaling factors for the vectors Xi are all real, and we
= 2 2.
(q ) have
Finally, when i = j = 2 we have 1 λ0 (X0∗ )t X0∗
X0 · X0 = X∗0 · X∗0 = = 1,
∂ Γ222 ∂ Γ221 λ0 (X0 )
∗ t λ0 (X0∗ )t X0∗
R2212 = − + Γ122Γ211 + Γ222Γ221
∂ q1 ∂ q2 1 λα (Xα∗ )t Xα∗
Xα · Xα = X∗α · X∗0 = = −1,
− Γ121 Γ212 − Γ221 Γ222 −λα (Xα ) Xα
∗ t ∗ −λα (Xα∗ )t Xα∗
= 0. for α = 1, 2, 3.

6.4. MAPPINGS 67
c) Any four linearly independent vectors in R4 constitute • spherical coordinates

a basis. To show {Xi } are linearly independent, suppose  
we have a sum ai Xi = 0 (summation convention). Then, sin ϕ cos θ r cos ϕ cos θ −r sin ϕ sin θ
for each k = 0, 1, 2, 3, we have dMP =  sin ϕ sin θ r cos ϕ sin θ r sin ϕ cos θ 
cos ϕ −r sin ϕ 0

0 = Xk · ai Xi = ai (Xk · Xi ) = ±ak .
The determinant of dMP is r2 sin ϕ ; the matrix of cofactors
In other words, a0 = a1 = a2 = a3 = 0, so the vectors are of dMP is
linearly independent and hence are a basis.  2 2 
r sin ϕ cos θ r2 sin2 ϕ sin θ r2 sin ϕ cos ϕ
d) Let us write Y = yi Xi (summation convention). Then r sin ϕ cos ϕ cos θ r sin ϕ cos ϕ sin θ −r sin2 ϕ  ;
−r sin θ r cos θ 0
Y · Y = y i Xi · y j X j = y i y j Xi · X j
to get the inverse, divide by det dMP :
= (y0 )2 X0 · X0 + (y1 )2 X1 · X1 + (y2 )2 X2 · X2  
sin ϕ cos θ sin ϕ sin θ cos ϕ
+ (y3 )2 X3 · X3
(dMP )−1 =  cos ϕ cos θ /r cos ϕ sin θ /r − sin ϕ /r
= (y0 )2 − (y1 )2 − (y2 )2 − (y3 )2 . − sin θ /r sin ϕ cos θ /r sin ϕ 0
c) • polar coordinates We have

6.4 Mappings
∂θ 1 −y −y
= · = 2 ,
1. The element in the kth row and ith column of dMP is ∂x 1 + (y/x)2 x2 x + y2
∂ f k /∂ ξ i . Given that f k (ξ j ) = aki ξ j , we have ∂θ 1 1 x
= · = 2 ;
∂y 1 + (y/x) x x + y2
2
∂ fk ∂ξ j
= akj i = akj δi = aki ,
j
therefore
∂ξ i ∂ξ p p !
−1 x/ x2 + y2 y/ x2 + y2
which is the element in the kth row and ith element of M. d(M )Q = .
(The tensor δi is the Kronecker delta; it has the value 1
j −y/x2 + y2 x/x2 + y2
when i = j and 0 otherwise; see the proof of Proposi- p
tion 6.3, text page 297.) Now set x2 + y2 = r, x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ ; then

cos θ sin θ
2. a) • polar coordinates The inverse is d(M −1
) = = (dMP )−1 ,
Q
− sin θ /r cos θ /r
( p
−1 r = x2 + y2 , where Q = M(P).
M :
θ = arctan(y/x). • spherical coordinates For compactness, we write
•pspherical coordinates We have tan θ = y/x and tan ϕ = ∂r x x ∂r y ∂r z

=p = , = , = ;
x2 + y2/z; hence ∂x 2 2
x +y +z2 r ∂y r ∂z r
 p p
 2 2 2 for the derivatives of ϕ , we set ρ = x2 + y2 to obtain
r = x + yp+ z ,
M : ϕ = arctan( x + y2/z),
−1 2 ∂ϕ 1 x xz xz

 = · = = 2,
θ = arctan(y/x). ∂x 1 + (x + y2 )/z2
2 zρ ρ (z + x + y ) ρ r
2 2 2
∂ϕ yz
= 2,
b) • polar coordinates ∂y ρr
∂ϕ 1 −ρ −ρ
cos θ −r sin θ ∂z
=
1 + (x2 + y2 )/z2
·
z2
= 2 .
r
dMP =
sin θ r cos θ
With these identifications, we have
The determinant of dMP is r, and  
x/r y/r z/r
cos θ sin θ d M −1 Q = xz/ρ r2 yz/ρ r2 −ρ /r2  .
(dMP )−1 = .
− sin θ /r cos θ /r −y/ρ 2 x/ρ 2 0

Using the map M to replace x, y, and z by their spherical Rotating by θ radians is accomplished by
coordinate values, and noting that
cos θ − sin θ ṙ ṙ cos θ − θ̇ sin θ
= .
x2 + y2 = r2 sin2 ϕ or ρ = r sin ϕ , sin θ cos θ θ̇ ṙ sin θ + θ̇ cos θ
we find The composition of these actions is the product

 
sin ϕ cos θ sin ϕ sin θ cos ϕ cos θ − sin θ 1 0 cos θ −r sin θ
 cos ϕ cos θ /r cos ϕ sin θ /r − sin ϕ /r = = dMP ,
d M −1 Q
= sin θ cos θ 0 r sin θ r cos θ
− sin θ /r sin ϕ cos θ /r sin ϕ 0
thus proving the claim about dMP .
= (dMP )−1 .
5. a) direct calculation gives
αζ
3. a) With P = (r, θ ) = (2, π /3), the map dMP (X) from e cosh ατ eαζ sinh ατ
dMP = αζ
the solution to the previous exercise is e sinh ατ eαζ cosh ατ
√
αζ cosh ατ sinh ατ
dMP (X) = √1/2 − 3 ṙ = e = eαζ Hατ .
3/2 1 θ̇ sinh ατ cosh ατ
By factoring dMP (X) as b) We have det dMP = e2αζ because detHu = 1 for ev-
√ ery u. Moreover, Hu−1 = H−u for every u, so
√1/2 − 3/2 1 0 ṙ
, −1
3/2 1/2 0 2 θ̇
(dMP )−1 = eαζ Hαζ = e−αζ Hαζ
−1
= e−αζ H−αζ .
we see that (reading from right to left) dMP acts on the
(ṙ, θ̇ )-plane by first doubling θ̇ and then rotating the result c) The four partial derivatives in d(M −1 ) are
Q
by π /3 radians.
b) The four images are shown below. In the first row, ∂τ 1 1 1 z
= · · = ,
−1 −2
the mesh sizes are 10 and 10 ; in the second, 10 −3 ∂ t α 1 − (t/z)2 z α (z2 − t 2)
and 10−4 . The last image certainly looks linear, with the ∂τ 1 1 −t −t
= · · = ,
action of doubling in the second coordinate direction, fol- ∂z α 1 − (t/z)2 z2 α (z2 − t 2)
lowed by rotation by 60◦ . ∂ζ 1 −2t α 2 −t
= · 2 2 2 = ,
∂t 2α α (z − t ) α (z2 − t 2 )
∂ζ 1 2zα 2 z
= · 2 2 2 = ;
∂z 2α α (z − t ) α (z2 − t 2 )
hence
 z −t 
 α (z2 − t 2) α (z2 − t 2 ) 
d(M −1 )Q =  −t z 
α (z − t ) α (z − t )
2 2 2 2
Using the definitions of t and z in M, and noting that
e2αζ
z2 − t 2 = ,
α2
we find

4. Stretching the (ṙ, θ̇ )-plane by the factor r in the θ̇ is z eαζ /α · cosh αζ
= = e−αζ cosh αζ ,
accomplished by α (z2 − t 2) α · e2αζ /α 2

−t eαζ /α · − sinh αζ
1 0 ṙ ṙ = = −e−αζ sinh αζ .
0 r θ̇
=
rθ̇
. α (z2 − t 2) α · e2αζ /α 2

6.4. MAPPINGS 69
Now − sinh(u) = sinh(−u) and cosh(u) = cosh(−u), so 8. a) With the standard Minkowski metric, the hyper-
bolic angle uJ between two vectors ξ and η satisfies
cosh(−αζ ) sinh(−αζ )
d M −1 Q = e−αζ ξ t J1,1 η
sinh(−αζ ) cosh(−αζ ) cosh uJ = p p ,
= e−αζ H−αζ = (dMP )−1 . ±ξ t J1,1 ξ ±η t J1,1 η
where the signs are chosen to make the argument within
6. a) With α = 0.1 and P = (τ , ζ ) = (−2, 1), each square root nonnegative.
With the new metric ΓP = e2αζ J1,1 , the hyperbolic an-
cosh(0.2), − sinh(0.2) gle uΓ satisfies
dMP = e−0.2 H−0.1 = e0.1
− sinh(0.2) cosh(0.2)
ξ t ΓP η
1.13 −0.22 cosh uΓ = p √
= . ±ξ t ΓP ξ ±η t ΓP η
−0.22 1.13
e2αζ ξ t J1,1 η
=p p
±e2αζ ξ t J1,1 ξ ±e2αζ η t J1,1 η
e2αζ ξ t J1,1 η
= p p = cosh uJ ,
(eαζ )2 ±ξ t J1,1 ξ ±η t J1,1 η
where the signs are chosen the same way. Because the
hyperbolic angle between two vectors is determined only
up to sign (the angle from ξ to η is the negative of the
angle from η to ξ ), we see uΓ = ±uJ . The angles are
b) The four images are shown below. In the first row, equal because Γ = λ J , where λ = λ (P) = e2αζ > 0.
P 1,1
the mesh sizes are 10−1 and 10−2; in the second, 10−3
and 10−4 . Even the first image resembles the image of the b) The quadratic forms associated with the two metrics
linear map, above; the match is virtually complete in The satisfy
last image. QΓ (ξ ) = ξ t ΓP ξ = e2αζ ξ t J1,1 ξ = e2αζ QJ (ξ ).
A vector in lightlike in a given metric if its value on the
quadratic form is zero; thus if ξ is lightlike in ΓP it is
lightlike in J1,1 , and conversely.
9. The contravariant metric tensor is
11 12 −2αζ !
e−2αξ
2
γ γ e 0 0
= = .
γ 21 γ 22 −e−2αζ −e−2αξ
2
0 0
To determine the Christoffel symbols of the first kind, note
that the only nonzero partial derivatives of the γi j are
∂ γ11 ∂ γ22
= 2α e2αξ , = −2α e2αξ ;
2 2
∂ξ 2 ∂ξ 2
therefore, as we noted earlier in the solution to Exercise 9a

in §6.1 (Solutions page 59) either all three indices of Γi j,k
have the value 2 or precisely one index does. That is,
Γ11,1 = Γ12,2 = Γ21,2 = Γ22,1 = 0,
7. Because dMP = eαζ Hατ , we have dMPt = eαζ Hατ
t =
αζ
e Hατ as well. Then and in the following only the nonzero terms are written:

2αζ 2αζ 1 ∂ γ11
− 2 = −α e2αξ ,
2
ΓP = (e )Hαζ J1,1 Hατ = e J1,1 ,
t
Γ11,2 =
2 ∂ξ

because hyperbolic rotation preserves J1,1 (the Minkowski 1 ∂ γ11
= α e2αξ ,
2
metric). That is, Γ12,1 = Γ21,1 =
2 ∂ξ 2
2αζ !
γ11 γ12 2 αξ 2
1 ∂ γ22
e 0 e 0 = −α e2αξ .
2
Γ= = = . Γ22,2 =
γ21 γ22 0 −e 2 αζ
0 −e 2 αξ 2
2 ∂ξ 2

Because γ 12 = γ 21 = 0, the Christoffel symbols of the sec- 10. a) When we use the Γijk obtained in the previous ex-
ond kind follow the same pattern: ercise, the geodesic equations
Γ111 = Γ212 = Γ221 = Γ122 = 0, d2ξ i i dξ dξ

j k
+ Γ jk =0
du2 du du
while
reduce to
−2αξ 2 2αξ 2

Γ211 = γ Γ11,2 = −e
22
· − αe = α, d2ξ 1 dξ 1 dξ 2
+ 2α = 0,
−2αξ 2 2αξ 2 2
Γ112 = Γ121 = γ Γ12,1 = e
11
· αe = α, du du du
1 2 2 2
−2αξ 2
d2ξ 2 dξ dξ
· − α e2αξ
2
Γ222 = γ 22 Γ22,2 = −e = α. 2
+ α + α = 0.
du du du
Therefore, the partial derivatives of all Γklj are zero. In terms of the original variables τ = ξ 1 , ζ = ξ 2 , these
As mentioned in the solution to Exercise 9, § 6.1, the equations are
only components of the mixed Riemann tensor we need
to find are Rij12 , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 2. We now work these out in d 2τ dτ dζ
+ 2α = 0,
detail. For i = j = 1, we have du 2 du du
2
d2ζ dτ 2 dζ
∂ Γ12 ∂ Γ11
1 1
+α +α = 0.
1
R112 = − + Γ12Γ11 + Γ12Γ21
1 1 2 1
du 2 du du
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2
− Γ111 Γ112 − Γ211 Γ122 = 0. b) The geodesic equations depend only on the first and
second derivatives of ξ 1 (u) and ξ 2 (u). Translates leave
For i = 1, j = 2, we have derivatives unchanged, so translates of geodesics are still
geodesics.
∂ Γ122 ∂ Γ121
R1212 = − + Γ122 Γ111 + Γ222Γ121 c) The metric γi j (P) in G is just the metric J1,1 on R
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2
carried back to the tangent plane T GP by the differential
− Γ121 Γ112 − Γ221 Γ122 = Γ222 Γ121 − Γ112Γ121 = 0.
dMP . Thus all metric properties of G come from those
For i = 2, j = 1, we have in R. In particular, the image of geodesic in G must be a
geodesic in R.
∂ Γ212 ∂ Γ211
R2112 = − + Γ112 Γ211 + Γ212 Γ221 11. a) In terms of τ and ζ , the curve ξ ti is defined by
∂ q1 ∂ q2
− Γ111Γ212 − Γ211Γ222 = Γ112 Γ211 − Γ211 Γ222 = 0 1 1
τ= tanh−1 (α u), ζ= ln(1 − α 2 u2 );
α 2α
For i = j = 2, we have
note that the formulas require |α u| < 1, or |u| < 1/|α |.
∂ Γ222 ∂ Γ221 The derivatives are
R2212 = − + Γ122Γ211 + Γ222Γ221
∂ q1 ∂ q2 dτ 1 dζ −α u
= , = ,
− Γ121 Γ212 − Γ221 Γ222 = 0. du 1 − α 2u2 du 1 − α 2 u2
d2τ 2α 2 u d 2ζ −α (1 + α 2u2 )
For the covariant Riemann tensor, we have = , = .
du 2 (1 − α 2u2 )2 du 2 (1 − α 2u2 )2
R1112 = γ11 R1112 + γ21R2112 = 0, In these terms, the first geodesic equation is
R1212 = γ11 R1212 + γ21R2212 = 0, 2α 2 u 1 −α u
+ 2α · · = 0.
R2112 = γ12 R1112 + γ22R2112 = 0, (1 − α 2u2 )2 1 − α 2 u2 1 − α 2 u2
R2212 = γ12 R1212 + γ22R2212 = 0. The second is
Finally, because γ = det ΓP = −e4αξ , we find

2
−α (1 + α 2u2 ) 1 α 2 u2
+α · +α · = 0,
(1 − α u )
2 2 2 (1 − α u )
2 2 2 (1 − α 2u2 )2
R1212 0
K= = 2 = 0. so ξ ti is a geodesic.
γ −e4αξ

6.4. MAPPINGS 71
The curve ξ sp is defined by Because e2αξ > 0, it is sufficient to check the sign of the
2
simpler quadratic form (ξ̇ 1 )2 − (ξ̇ 2 )2 . For ξ ti , the tangent

1 1 1 vector is
τ = tanh−1 , ζ= ln(α 2 u2 − 1),
α αu 2α
dτ dζ

1 −α u

ξ ti (u) =
′
, = , ,
and now |α u| > 1, or |u| > 1/|α |. The domain therefore du du 1 − α 2 u2 1 − α 2 u2
has two separate parts and ξ sp consists of two separate, so the simple quadratic form has the value
disconnected curves; see the figure below. The derivatives
are 1 α 2 u2 1
− = > 0.
(1 − α 2u2 )2 (1 − α 2 u2 )2 1 − α 2 u2
dτ −1 dζ αu
= , = 2 2 , The inequality holds because |α u| < 1 on the domain of
du α 2 u2 − 1 du α u −1
d τ
2 2α u2 d ζ
2 −α (1 + α u )2 2 ξ ti (u); thus ξ ti is timelike.
= , = . For ξ sp , the tangent vector is
du2 (α 2 u2 − 1)2 du2 (α 2 u2 − 1)2

dτ dζ −1 αu
The first geodesic equation is , = ,
du du α 2 u2 − 1 α 2 u2 − 1
2α 2 u −1 αu and the simple quadratic form has the value
+ 2α · · = 0.
(α 2 u2 − 1)2 α 2 u2 − 1 α 2 u2 − 1
1 α 2 u2 −1
− = < 0.
The second is (α 2 u2 − 1)2 (α 2 u2 − 1)2 α 2 u2 − 1
−α (1 + α 2u2 ) 1 α 2 u2 This inequality holds because |α u| > 1 on the domain of

+α · 2 2 +α · 2 2 = 0, ξ sp (u), so ξ sp is indeed spacelike.
(α u − 1)
2 2 2 (α u − 1)2 (α u − 1)2
Proper time T on ξ ti is given by the integral
so ξ sp is a geodesic. Z u
In the figure on the left, below, ξ ti is the curve that T= kξ ′ti kdu
0
passes through the origin. Above it is a vertical translate,
and down to the left is a curve that has been translated where s
q
e2αξ
2
both vertically and horizontally. For all three, α = 0.3.
kξ ′ti k = Q(ξ ′ti ) = .
In the figure on the right, the curve with positive slope 1 − α 2 u2
in the first and fourth quadrants is ξ sp when α = −0.3. On ξ ti , we know ξ 2 = ζ = ln(1 − α 2u2 )/2α , so
For the other four, α = +0.3. The three with negative
slope are ξ sp , a translation vertically downward, and a e2αξ = 1 − α 2u2
2
translation horizontally to the left. For these five, the pa-

rameter u is positive. The last curve, with positive slope, and thus kξ ′ti k ≡ 1. It follows that u itself is a proper-time
is the portion of ξ sp for which the u parameter is negative. parameter on ξ ti .
c) By what was explained in the solution to Exercise 10c,
4 4
above, the timelike (resp. spacelike) geodesics in G should
2 2 correspond to timelike (resp. spacelike) geodesics in R.
To prove this, we map arbitrary translates of ξ ti and ξ sp
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4 using M. Along the way, we need to simplify expressions
of the form
-2 -2

sinh tanh−1 x and cosh tanh−1 x .
-4 -4
−1
p suppose y = tanh
So √ x; that is, x = tanh y. Then sech y =
2
b) A curve is timelike or spacelike at a point if its tangent 1 − tanh y = 1 − x2 and hence
vector at that point is. By definition, a vector ξ = (ξ̇ 1 , ξ̇ 2 ) 1 1
in T GP is timelike or spacelike depending on the sign of cosh tanh−1 x = cosh y = =√ ,
the quadratic form sech y 1 − x2
tanh y x
sinh tanh−1 x = sinh y = =√ .
2αξ 2
QP (ξ ) = γi j ξ̇ ξ̇ = e
i j
(ξ̇ ) − (ξ̇ ) .
1 2 2 2 sech y 1 − x2

Therefore, the image M((p, q) + ξ (u)) in the (t, z)-plane consequently,

(where ξ is either a timelike or a spacelike geodesic) is
eαζ sinh(ατ ) = ±1, eαζ cosh(ατ ) = ±α u,
given by
and the minus sign is chosen in both formulas precisely
eα (q+ζ ) when α u is negative. Finally
t= sinh(α (p + τ ))
α
e α q t = ±(α Au + B), z = ±(α Bu + A).
= eαζ (sinh(α p) cosh(ατ ) + cosh(α p) sinh(ατ )) ,
α The image is again a straight line with a linear parame-
eα (q+ζ ) ter, and thus is a geodesic in R. Its slope is B/A, so it is
z= cosh(α (p + τ )) spacelike.
α
e α q
= eαζ (cosh(α p) cosh(ατ ) + sinh(α p) sinh(ατ )) . 12. a) We begin by parametrizing the coordinate line as
α ξ (u) = (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = (k, u). Then ξ ′ (u) = (0, 1) and
When ξ = ξ ti , we know dξ i dξ j
= γ22 · 12 = −e2αξ = −e2α u .
2
p Q(ξ ′ ) = γi j
1 du du
eαζ = 1 − α 2u2 , cosh(ατ ) = √ , p
1 − α 2 u2 The curve is spacelike, so kξ ′ k = −Q(ξ ′ ) = eα u and its
αu arc-length function is
ατ = tanh−1 (α u), sinh(ατ ) = √ ;
1 − α 2 u2 Z u
eα u u
eα u − 1
s = s(u) = eα u du = = .
consequently, 0 α 0 α
αζ αζ
e cosh(ατ ) = 1, e sinh(ατ ) = α u, The inverse function is
1
and u = u(s) = ln(α s + 1),
α
t = A + α Bu, z = B + α Au,
and thus η (s) = ξ (u(s)) = (k, ln(α s + 1)/α ). We verify
where that kη ′ (s)k ≡ 1 by computing
e α q e α q 2 2 2
A= sinh(α p), B = cosh(α p). dη 2α u(s) 1
α α Q(η ) = γ22 ·
′
= −e
ds αs + 1
The image is thus a straight line with a linear parameter; 2
1
it is a geodesic in R. Moreover, its slope is A/B and we = −(α s + 1)2 ≡ −1.
have αs + 1
A
= | tanh α p| < 1, b) In deciding whether η (s) is a geodesic, note that the
B
only nonzero derivatives involved are
so the geodesic is timelike.
dη 2 1 d2η 2 −α
For the images of ξ sp and its translates, we need simple = and = .
expressions for ds αs + 1 ds 2 (α s + 1)2
The first geodesic equation (from the solution to Exer-
sinh tanh−1 (1/x) and cosh tanh−1 (1/x) . cise 10a) is immediately satisfied. The second equation
−1 is 2
If we set y = tanh √ (1/x), then tanh y = 1/x, sech y =
p −α 1
2 2
1 − (1/x) = x − 1/|x|, and so +α = 0;
(α s + 1)2 αs + 1
1 |x| therefore η (s) is a geodesic.
cosh tanh−1 (1/x) = cosh y = =√ ,
sech y x2 − 1 13. No parametrization of the horizontal line ζ = k will
−1
tanh y |x|/x turn it into a geodesic. The reason is that there is a unique
sinh tanh (1/x) = sinh y = =√ .
sech y x2 − 1 geodesic passing through a given point with a given veloc-
ity. Take the point to be (τ , ζ ) = (0, k) and take the veloc-
When ξ = ξ sp , we know ατ = tanh−1 (1/α u) and
ity to be (0, 1). The line ζ = k passes through this point;
p
αζ
e =e ln(α 2 u2 −1)/2
= α 2 u2 − 1, because it is horizontal, it can be parametrized so its ve-
locity there is (0, 1). However, the curve (0, k) + ξ ti (u) is
|α u|/α u |α u|
sinh(ατ ) = √ , cosh(ατ ) = √ ; the unique geodesic that satisfies these initial conditions,
α u −1
2 2 α 2 u2 − 1 but this curve is not a horizontal line.

6.5. TENSORS 73
6.5 Tensors ∂ Γijl ∂ Γijk

2. We show Rijkl = − + Γ pjl Γipk − Γ pjk Γipl is a
∂ xk ∂ xl
R G I,i (1, 3) tensor by assembling the transformed version in the
1. We are given that T K,k L,l ↔ T J, j is a tensor of type (p, q). Greek frame (with variables like ξ ) of each term in the
a
Then, by definition, i
Roman frame (with variables like x ). In the process, non-
tensorial terms appear; we show that they cancel. To help
R K,k G I,i ∂ xK ∂ ξ J ∂ xk ∂ ξ j
T L,l = T J, j . clarify the process, we break it into a number of smaller
∂ ξ I ∂ xL ∂ ξ i ∂ xl steps.
Step 1. The key to eliminating the nontensorial terms is
To raise the covariant index l ↔ j, we multiply this tensor the identity
by glh ↔ γ pm : i
∂ ∂x ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ x p ∂ xi
= − ,
pm ∂ x ∂ x ∂ xk ∂ ξ a ∂ xk ∂ x p ∂ ξ a ∂ ξ g
R R l h R
T K,kh = g lh K,k
T = γ T K,k
L L,l ∂ ξ p ∂ ξ m L,l
which, in effect, “inverts” the more familiar expression
pm ∂ x ∂ x I,i ∂ x ∂ ξ ∂ x ∂ ξ
l h G K J k j
=γ i
T
∂ ξ p ∂ ξ m J, j ∂ ξ I ∂ xL ∂ ξ i |{z} ∂ xl ∂ 2 xi ∂ ξ f ∂ ∂x
|{z} = k .
∂ ξ f ∂ ξ a ∂ xk ∂x ∂ξa
∂ xh G ∂ xK ∂ ξ J ∂ xk
= γ pm δ pj m T I,i To prove the new identity, we begin with the basic fact
∂ξ J, j
∂ ξ I ∂ xL ∂ ξ i δ pi = ∂ xi /∂ ξ a · ∂ ξ a /∂ x p and differentiate:
G I,i ∂ xK ∂ ξ J ∂ xk ∂ xh
= γ jm T J, j i i a
∂ ξ I ∂ xL ∂ ξ i ∂ ξ m ∂ ∂x ∂ξa ∂ ∂x ∂ξ ∂ xi ∂ 2 ξ a
0= k = + .
G I,im ∂ xK ∂ ξ J ∂ xk ∂ xh ∂ x ∂ ξ a ∂ xp ∂ xk ∂ ξ a ∂ x p ∂ ξ a ∂ xk ∂ x p
= TJ .
∂ ξ I ∂ xL ∂ ξ i ∂ ξ m Now replace the dummy index a 7→ g in the second term
on the right, and then solve for the first term. The result is
R K,kh G I,im i
This demonstrates that T L ↔ T J is a tensor of type ∂ ∂x ∂ xi ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ x p
(p + 1, q − 1). The demonstration uses =− g k p · a.
∂x ∂ξ
k a ∂ξ ∂x ∂x ∂ξ
∂ xl ∂ ξ j ∂ Γijl
= δ pj , γ pm δ pj = γ jm . Step 2. Transform . The starting point is
∂ ξ p ∂ xl ∂ xk
a ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x ∂ 2 ξ f ∂ xi
b d i
To lower the contravariant index k ↔ i, first note that the Γijl = Γbd j +
multi-indices I, J, K, L were not involved in the previous ∂ x ∂ xl ∂ ξ a ∂ x j ∂ xl ∂ ξ f
demonstration, and will not be involved in this one, either.
(Corollary 6.2, text page 314). We use an “overline” to
For clarity, then, we shall write the tensors without these
denote a Christoffel symbol in the Greek frame. We have
indices. Thus, we begin with
∂ Γijl a
∂ Γbd ∂ ξ c ∂ ξ b ∂ ξ d ∂ xi a ∂ ξ
2 b
∂ ξ d ∂ xi
R G ∂ xk ∂ ξ j = + Γ
T kl = T ij , ∂ xk ∂ ξ c ∂ xk ∂ x j ∂ xl ∂ ξ a bd
∂ xk ∂ x j ∂ xl ∂ ξ a
∂ ξ i ∂ xl i
a ∂ξ ∂ ξ ∂x a ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ ∂x
b 2 d i b d
+ Γbd j k l + Γbd j · k
and multiply by gkh ↔ γqm : ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ξ a ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ξa
l
i
∂ ξ
3 f ∂x i ∂ ξ
2 f ∂ ∂x
∂ξ ∂ξ + + ·
i ∂x ∂ξ
R R q m G k j
T lh = gkh T l = γqm k
k
Tj , ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ξ
k j l f ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ξ f
j l k
∂
|{z}x ∂ x h ∂ ξ i ∂ xl
a
|{z} ∂ Γbd ∂ ξ c ∂ ξ b ∂ ξ d ∂ xi a ∂ ξ
2 b ∂ ξ d ∂ xi
= + Γbd k j
∂ξ m G ∂ξ j
∂ξ ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ξ
c k j l a ∂ x ∂ x ∂ xl ∂ ξ a
= γqm δiq h T ij l
∂x ∂x a ∂ξ
b ∂ 2 ξ d ∂ xi
a ∂ξ ∂ξ
b d ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ x p ∂ xi
G ∂ξ j ∂ξm G ∂ ξ j ∂ξm + Γbd j k l − Γbd j
= γim T ij = T jm l . ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ξ a ∂ x ∂ x ∂ xk ∂ x p ∂ ξ a ∂ ξ g
l
∂x ∂xl h ∂x ∂x h
∂ 3ξ f ∂ xi ∂ 2 ξ f ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ x p ∂ xi
+ k j l − ,
R G ∂ x ∂ x ∂ x ∂ ξ f ∂ x j ∂ xl ∂ xk ∂ x p ∂ ξ f ∂ ξ g
This demonstrates that T lh ↔ T jm is a tensor and is of
type (p − 1, q + 1). using Step 1 twice.

∂ Γijk The first and third terms on the right simplify, owing to
Step 3. Transform .
∂ xl the factors
We can do this by copying Step 2 with the index substi-
tutions k ↔ l, c ↔ d. ∂ xp ∂ ξ h ∂ ξ h ∂ xp
= δeh and = δ fh ;
∂ ξ e ∂ xp ∂ xp ∂ ξ f
∂ Γijk a
∂ Γbc ∂ ξ d ∂ ξ b ∂ ξ c ∂ xi a ∂ ξ
2 b ∂ ξ c ∂ xi
= + Γ the result is
∂ xl ∂ ξ d ∂ xl ∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ ξ a bc
∂ xl ∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ ξ a
a ∂ξ
b ∂ 2 ξ c ∂ xi
a ∂ξ ∂ξ
c ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ x p ∂ xi e a ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x
b b d c i
+ Γbc j l k − Γ Γ pjl Γipk = Γbd Γec j
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ξa bc
∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ xl ∂ x p ∂ ξ a ∂ ξ g ∂ x ∂ xl ∂ xk ∂ ξ a
e ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x
p ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ xi
∂ ξ3 f ∂x i ∂ ξ
2 f ∂ ξ ∂x ∂x
2 g p i b d
+ l j k − . + Γbd j
∂ x ∂ x ∂ x ∂ ξ f ∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ xl ∂ x p ∂ ξ f ∂ ξ g ∂ x ∂ xl ∂ ξ e ∂ x p ∂ xk ∂ ξ g
a ∂ξ ∂x ∂ ξ
c i 2 f
∂ Γijl ∂ Γijk + Γfc k
Step 4. Compute the difference − . ∂ x ∂ ξ a ∂ x j ∂ xl
∂ xk ∂ xl
In the third and fifth terms on the right in steps 2 ∂ ξ f ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ x p ∂ xi
2
+ .
and 3, the variables xk and xl appear symmetrically; there- ∂ x j ∂ xl ∂ x p ∂ xk ∂ ξ f ∂ ξ g
fore, those terms vanish when the difference is taken (and p
Step 6. Transform Γ jk Γipl .
dummy indices are adjusted):
! We can do this by copying Step 5 with the index substi-
∂ Γijl ∂ Γijk a a
∂ Γbd ∂ Γbc ∂ ξ b ∂ ξ c ∂ ξ d ∂ xi tutions k ↔ l, c ↔ d. The result is
− = −
∂ xk ∂ xl ∂ξc ∂ ξ d ∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ xl ∂ ξ a
e a ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x
b c d i
Γ p i
Γ = Γ Γ
a ∂ ξ ∂ξ ∂x a ∂ ξ ∂ξ ∂x
2 b d i 2 b c i
+ Γbd k j − Γbc l j k
jk pl bc ed
∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ xl ∂ ξ a
∂ x ∂ x ∂ xl ∂ ξ a ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ξa e ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x
b c p ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ xi
+ Γ
a ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ ξ ∂x ∂x
b d 2 g p i
− Γbd j
bc
∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ ξ e ∂ x p ∂ xl ∂ ξ g
∂ x ∂ xl ∂ xk ∂ x p ∂ ξ a ∂ ξ g a ∂ξ ∂x ∂ ξ
d i 2 e
+ Γ
a ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ ξ ∂x ∂x
b c 2 g p i
+ Γbc j
ed
∂ xl ∂ ξ a ∂ x j ∂ xk
∂ x ∂ xk ∂ xl ∂ x p ∂ ξ a ∂ ξ g ∂ ξ f ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ x p ∂ xi
2
∂ ξ
2 f ∂ ξ ∂x ∂x
2 g p i ∂ ξ 2 f ∂ ξ ∂x ∂x
2 g p i + .
− j l k p + . ∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ x p ∂ xl ∂ ξ f ∂ ξ g
∂ x ∂ x ∂ x ∂ x ∂ ξ f ∂ ξ g ∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ xl ∂ x p ∂ ξ f ∂ ξ g
Step 7. Compute the difference Γ pjl Γipk − Γ pjk Γipl .
On the right only the first term is tensorial; the other six
will cancel with terms in the remaining two terms of Rijkl , The result is one tensorial term, the first, and six non-
which we now compute. tensorial ones:
Step 5. Transform Γ pjl Γipk . The product of e a e a ∂ ξ b ∂ ξ c ∂ ξ d ∂ xi

Γ pjl Γipk − Γ pjk Γipl = Γbd Γec − Γbc Γed
∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ xl ∂ ξ a
∂ ξ b ∂ ξ d ∂ xp ∂ 2ξ f ∂ xp
e
Γ pjl = Γbd + j l e ∂ ξ b ∂ ξ d ∂ x p ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ xi
∂x ∂x ∂ξ
j l e ∂x ∂x ∂ξ f + Γbd
∂ x j ∂ xl ∂ ξ e ∂ x p ∂ xk ∂ ξ g
and
e ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x
b c p ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ xi
∂ ξ h ∂ ξ c ∂ xi
a ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ xi − Γbc j
Γipk = Γhc + ∂ x ∂ xk ∂ ξ e ∂ x p ∂ xl ∂ ξ g
∂ x p ∂ xk ∂ ξ a ∂ x p ∂ xk ∂ ξ g
a ∂ξ ∂x ∂ ξ a ∂ξ ∂x ∂ ξ
c i 2 e d i 2 e
contributes four terms: + Γec k − Γ
∂ x ∂ ξ a ∂ x j ∂ xl ed
∂ xl ∂ ξ a ∂ x j ∂ xk
e ∂ ξ b ∂ ξ d ∂ x p ∂ ξ h ∂ ξ c ∂ xi
a
Γ pjl Γipk = Γbd Γhc ∂ ξ
2 f ∂ ξ ∂x ∂x
2 g p i ∂ 2 ξ f ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ x p ∂ xi
∂ x j ∂ xl ∂ ξ e ∂ x p ∂ xk ∂ ξ a + j l p k − .
∂ x ∂ x ∂ x ∂ x ∂ ξ f ∂ ξ g ∂ x j ∂ xk ∂ x p ∂ xl ∂ ξ f ∂ ξ g
e ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x
b d p ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ xi
+ Γbd j
∂ x ∂ xl ∂ ξ e ∂ x p ∂ xk ∂ ξ g Step 8. In this final step, note that the six nontensorial
a ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x ∂ ξ
h c i 2 f
∂ xp terms obtained in Step 4 exactly cancel the six nontenso-
+ Γhc p k rial terms in the previous step (when dummy indices are
∂ x ∂ x ∂ ξ a ∂ x j ∂ xl ∂ ξ f
adjusted properly).
∂ ξ f ∂ 2 ξ g ∂ x p ∂ xi
2
Proposition 6.7 (text page 309) guarantees that the con-
+ j l p k .
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ξ f ∂ξg traction R jl = Rhjhl is a tensor, covariant of rank 2.

6.5. TENSORS 75
3. Using overlines to denote expressions in the Greek With the substitutions obtained in part (a), we can rewrite
frame, we are given that this as

K
SIJ11 ↔ SL11 and TIJ22 ↔ T L22
K ∂ ξ 1 ∂ ξ 1 22 ∂ξ1 ∂ξ1
γ = 2
11
g + − 2 (−g12 )
∂ x ∂ x2 ∂x ∂ x1
are tensors of type (p1 , q1 ) and (p2 , q2 ), respectively. This
∂ξ1 ∂ξ1 ∂ ξ 1 ∂ ξ 1 11
means + 1 − 2 (−g21 ) + 1 g
∂x ∂x ∂ x ∂ x1
K ∂ x J1 ∂ ξ L1
K ∂ x J2 ∂ ξ L2
SIJ11 = SL11 K , TIJ22 = T L22 K , ∂ ξ 1 ∂ ξ 1 22 ∂ ξ 1 ∂ ξ 1 12 ∂ ξ 1 ∂ ξ 1 21
∂ ξ 1 ∂ xI1 ∂ ξ 2 ∂ xI2 = 2 g + 1 g + 2 g
∂ x ∂ x2 ∂ x ∂ x2 ∂ x ∂ x1
and consequently multiplication gives
∂ ξ 1 ∂ ξ 1 11 pq ∂ ξ ∂ ξ
1 1
+ g = g .
K K ∂x ∂ξ ∂x ∂ξ
J L J L
SIJ11 TIJ22 = SL11 T L22 K
1 1 2 2
. ∂ x1 ∂ x1 ∂ x p ∂ xq
∂ ξ 1 ∂ x 1 ∂ ξ K2 ∂ x 2
I I
For γ 12 (and thus for γ 21 = γ 12 ), we condense some of the
This establishes that argument to
K ,K K K
SIJ11 TIJ22 = UIJ11,I,J22 ↔ U L11,L22 = SL11 T L22 γ12 −1 ∂ xi ∂ x j gi j
γ 12 = − = 2
is a tensor of type (p1 + p2 , q1 + q2 ). γ m ∂ξ1 ∂ξ2 g
4. We have −1 ∂ x ∂ x1 g11 −1 ∂ x1 ∂ x2 g12
1
= 2 + 2
m ∂ξ1 ∂ξ2 g m ∂ξ1 ∂ξ2 g
γ = det ΓP = det dMPt · GM(P) · dMP
−1 ∂ x ∂ x g21 −1 ∂ x2 ∂ x2 g22
2 1
= det dMPt · detGM(p) · det dMP = (det dMP )2 g. + 2 + 2

m ∂ξ1 ∂ξ2 g m ∂ξ1 ∂ξ2 g
∂ ξ ∂ ξ 22 ∂ ξ ∂ ξ 1 12 ∂ ξ 2 ∂ ξ 1 21
2 1 2
= 2 g + 2 g + 1 g
5. a) We know (∂ ξ j /∂ xq ) = d(M −1 )M(p) = (dMP )−1 . ∂ x ∂ x2 ∂ x ∂ x1 ∂ x ∂ x2
Therefore, since ∂ ξ 2 ∂ ξ 1 11 ∂ξ1 ∂ξ2
 1  + 1 g = g pq p q .
∂x ∂ x1 ∂x ∂x 1 ∂x ∂x
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2  For γ 22 , we have
dMP = 
 ∂ x2
,
∂ x2 
γ11 1 ∂ xi ∂ x j g i j
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2 γ 22 = = 2
γ m ∂ξ1 ∂ξ1 g
we can write
 1   1 ∂ x1 ∂ x1 g11 1 ∂ x1 ∂ x2 g12
∂ ∂ 1 = +
∂ξ ∂ξ 1 x 2 x m2 ∂ ξ 1 ∂ ξ 1 g m2 ∂ ξ 1 ∂ ξ 1 g
 ∂ x1 ∂ x2  1  ∂ξ2 −∂ξ2 
  −1 
 ∂ ξ 2 ∂ ξ 2  = (dMP ) = m  ∂ x2 ∂ x1  ,
 1 ∂ x ∂ x g21
2 1 1 ∂ x2 ∂ x2 g22
+ 2 +
− 1 m ∂ξ1 ∂ξ1 g m2 ∂ ξ 1 ∂ ξ 1 g
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ξ ∂ξ1
∂ ξ ∂ ξ 22 ∂ ξ ∂ ξ 2 12 ∂ ξ 2 ∂ ξ 2 21
2 2 2
proving the claim. The components of the inverses of γi j = 2
∂ x ∂ x2
g + 2
∂ x ∂ x1
g + 1
∂ x ∂ x2
g
and g pq are
∂ ξ 2 ∂ ξ 2 11 ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2
γ γ g g + 1 g = g pq p q .
γ 11 =
22
, γ 12 = − ,
12
g11 =
22
, g12 = −
12
, ∂x ∂x 1 ∂x ∂x
γ γ g g Thus we have
γ21 γ11 g21 22 g11
γ 21 = − , γ 22 = g21 = − , g = . ∂ξi ∂ξ j
γ γ g g γ i j = g pq p q for all i, j,
∂x ∂x
b) With m = det dMP , the transformation law for γ ↔ g
so γ ↔ g is a contravariant tensor of rank 2.
i j pq
from Exercise 4 is γ = m2 g. Therefore,
γ22 1 ∂ xi ∂ x j 1 ∂ xi ∂ x j g i j 6. a) To determine a covariant derivative on a surface,
γ 11 = = 2 g i j = we need the Christoffel symbols of the second kind for
γ m g ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2 m2 ∂ ξ 2 ∂ ξ 2 g
that surface. In the present case, they are provided in the
1 ∂ x1 ∂ x1 g11 1 ∂ x1 ∂ x2 g12
= 2 + 2 text (page 272):
m ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2 g m ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2 g
1 ∂ x2 ∂ x1 g21 1 ∂ x2 ∂ x2 g22 Γ211 = sin(q2 ) cos(q2 ), Γ112 = Γ121 = − tan(q2 ),
+ 2 + 2 . Γijk = 0 otherwise.
m ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2 g m ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2 g

The covariant derivative of the contravariant vector ak is by differentiating components of the original tensor. But
suppose ϕ ↔ f is a tensor of type (0, 0); then
∂ ak
ak;i = + a j Γkij
∂ qi ϕ (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) = f (x1 (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ), . . . , xn (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n )),
Given that a1 = 0, a2 = 1, all partial derivatives are zero
so
and the sum a j Γkij reduces to the single term Γki2 : ∂ϕ ∂ f ∂ xp
= .
a1;1 = Γ112 = − tan(q2 ), a1;2 = Γ122 = 0,
∂ξi ∂ xp ∂ ξ i
|{z} |{z}
a2;1 = Γ212 = 0, a2;2 = Γ222 = 0. There is no nontensorial term, so no counterbalancing
term should be introduced. The equation shows that the
b) Now suppose bi = f i (q1 , q2 ); then gradient ∂ ϕ /∂ ξ i ↔ ∂ f /∂ x p is tensorial; therefore, the
covariant derivative is simply the gradient.
∂ b1 ∂ b1
b1;1 = + bk Γ11k = − b2 tan(q2 ),
∂ q1 ∂ q1 9. By using twice the definition of Christoffel symbols of
∂ b1 ∂ b1 the first kind, we find
b1;2 = 2 + bk Γ12k = 2 − b1 tan(q2 ),
∂q ∂q ∂ gi j ∂ gi j
gi j;k = − gl j Γlik − gil Γlk j = − Γik, j − Γk j,i
∂ b2 ∂ b2 ∂ xk ∂ xk
b2;1 = 1 + bk Γ21k = 1 + b1 sin(q2 ) cos(q2 ),
∂q ∂q ∂ gi j 1 ∂ gi j ∂ gk j ∂ gik
= − + −
∂ b2 ∂ b2 ∂ xk 2 ∂ xk ∂ xi ∂xj
b2;2 = 2 + bk Γ22k = 2 .
∂q ∂q 1 ∂ gi j ∂ gk j ∂ gik
− + − = 0.
2 ∂ xk ∂ xi ∂xj
7. We are given that a p ↔ αi is a covariant vector field;
hence Note that we can write gi j;k = 0 in the equivalent form
∂ξi
a p = αi p .
∂x ∂ gi j
= gl j Γlik + gil Γlk j .
To show that the covariant derivative a p;q ↔ α; j is a co- ∂ xk
variant tensor of rank 2, we must establish that
To analyze the contravariant metric, we begin by noting
∂ξi ∂ξ j that δip = gi j g p j and hence
a p;q = αi; j p q .
∂x ∂x
∂ δ p ∂ gi j p j ∂ gp j
We have (using Corollary 6.2) 0 = ik = g + gi j k .
∂x ∂x k ∂x

∂ ap ∂ ∂ ξ i
a p;q = q − ar Γrpq = q αi p Therefore, using the fact that gqi gi j = δ j , we can write
q
∂x ∂x ∂x
 

∂ξ h ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x ∂ ξ ∂x  ∂ g pq qi p j ∂ gi j
i j k r 2 j r
− αi r Γ jk p q + = −g g = −g qi p j
g g l j Γl
+ g il Γl
∂x ∂ x ∂ x ∂ ξ h ∂ x p ∂ xq ∂ ξ j ∂ xk ∂ xk ik k j
|{z} |{z} |{z} = −g δl Γik − g p j δlq Γlk j = −gqiΓikp − g p j Γqk j .
qi p l
∂ αi ∂ ξ i ∂ ξ2 i
= q p + αi p q
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x This means
h ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ ξ
j k 2 j
− αi Γ jk p q δhi − αi p q δ ji ∂ g pq
k = ∂ xk + g Γik + g Γk j = 0,
g;pq iq p pj q
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂ αi ∂ ξ j ∂ ξ i h ∂ξ ∂ξ
i j
= − αh Γi j p q
∂ξ ∂x ∂x
j q p ∂x ∂x as required.
i
∂ αi h ∂ξ ∂ξ j ∂ξ ∂ξ
i j
10. We noted in the solution to Exercise 1, above (Solu-
= − αh Γi j = αi; j p q .
∂ξ j ∂ x p ∂ xq ∂x ∂x tions page 73) that the multi-indices I, J are unaffected in
an analysis of something like gi j TJ,I j = TJI,i , so we omit
At various points, dummy indices have been relabeled.
them in our discussion. Thus our aim is to show that
8. The additional terms in a covariant derivative are intro-
duced to counterbalance the nontensorial terms generated T;li = gi j T j ;l = gi j T j;l .

6.5. TENSORS 77
To begin, Expanding the terms, and then permuting the indices j

and k, we find
∂Ti ∂
T;li = + T j Γil j = l gi j T j + g j pTp Γil j
∂x l ∂x ∂ 2 ah ∂ ai h ∂ Γi j ∂ am h
h
ah; j;k = + Γ +a i
+ Γ
∂ gi j ∂ T j ∂ xk ∂ x j |∂ x{z
k i j
∂ xk |∂ x{z
j mk
= T j + gi j l + g j pTp Γil j . } }
∂ xl ∂x A B
At this point we use the equation

ij
= 0 (established in
g;l ∂ ah
+ ai Γm
i j Γmk −
h
Γ p − ai Γhip Γ pjk ,
the solution to the previous exercise), in the form ∂ x p jk
| {z } | {z }
C D
∂ gi j j
= −g p j Γipl − giq Γlq , ∂ 2 ah ∂ ai i ∂ Γik
h
∂ am h
∂ xl ah;k; j = + Γh
+a + Γ
∂ x j ∂ xk ∂xj ik
| {z } ∂xj |∂ x{z }
k mj
to replace the first term in the expansion of T;li : B A
∂ Tj ∂ ah p
T;li = −g p j T j Γipl −giq T j Γlq
j
+ gi j l + g j pTp Γil j + ai Γm Γh
− Γ − ai Γhip Γkpj .
| {z } ∂x | {z }
ik m j
∂ x p kj
| {z } | {z }
D
∂ Tj C
= gi j − TpΓlpj = gi j T j;l .
∂x l The second derivatives and the terms with corresponding
labels are equal and thus cancel when the difference is
With the exchange p ↔ j of dummy indices in the first
taken; the result is
term, we see that term cancels with the fourth. The ex- !
changes j ↔ p and q ↔ j then transform the second term ∂ Γhij ∂ Γhik
into the form it has in the last line.
h h
a; j;k − a;k; j = a i
− + Γi j Γmk − Γik Γm j
m h m h
∂ xk ∂xj
11. To simplify the formulation of the covariant deriva-
= −Rhijk ai .
tive of a tensor TJI (Definition 6.5, text page 317), we use
the following abbreviation for expansion with respect to
the contravariant indices: b) Let bi = giq bq ; because index-raising commutes with
hi ...i i ...i h ip b ı̂
covariant differentiation, we have
TJ 2 p Γhm i1
+ · · · + TJ 1 p−1 Γhm = TJhI Γhm
giq bq;k;l − bq;l;k = bi;k;l − bi;l;k = −Rimkl bm .
b the circumflex indicates an index is missing, and ı̂ is
In I,
that missing index. We use an analogous abbreviation for The last step follows from part (a). Therefore,
the covariant indices. Then
bh;k;l − bh;l;k = ghi giq bq;k;l − bq;l;k = ghi bi;k;l − bi;l;k
∂ b b k̂
TJI SLK ;m = m (TJI SLK ) + TJhI SLK Γhm ı̂
+ TJI SLhK Γhm = −ghi Rimkl bm = −Rhmkl bm .
∂x
− ThIJbSLK Γhjˆm − TJI ShKbL Γhlm ˆ 13. By Definition 6.6 (text page 320), the covariant
I
∂ TJ hIb ı̂ derivative of yl (t) = dxl /dt along xk (t) is
= + T Γ − T Γ
I h
S K
∂ xm J hm hJb jˆm L
K Dyl dyl dxk
I ∂ SL b k̂ = + Γljk y j
+ TJ + SL Γhm − ShLb Γlm
hK K h dt dt dt
∂ xm ˆ
d 2 xl dx j dxk
I K
= TJ;m SL + TJ SL;m .I K = + Γ l
jk
dt 2 dt dt
=0
12. a) We have
because the curve xl (t) is itself a geodesic. Thus yl is
h
a; j parallel along xk .
ah; j;k = k + am Γh
− a h p
Γ
∂x ; j mk ;p jk
h m 14. a) The tangent vector along the curve q(t) =
∂ ∂a ∂a
= k + a Γ
i h
+ + a Γ
i m
Γh
(q1 , q2 ) = (t, π /6) is y(t) = (y1 , y2 ) = (1, 0), and its co-
∂x ∂xj i j
∂xj i j mk
variant derivative there is
h
∂a
− + a Γip Γ jk
i h p
Dyl d 2 ql dq j dqk
∂ xp = 2 + Γljk .
dt dt dt dt

Using so ∆ = π . The figure below shows the vector z(t) for t =

nπ /4, n = 0, 1, . . . , 8, rescaled for greater clarity.
dq2 d 2 q1 d 2 q2
= = = 0, q2
dt dt 2 dt 2 √ π/2
3
Γ111 = 0, Γ211 = sin(π /6) cos(π /6) = ;
4
π/6
we reduce the covariant derivative equations to
π/2 π 3π/2 2π q1
√
Dy1 Dy2 3
= 0, = .
dt dt 4
−π/2
b) The parallel vector field z(t) = (z1 (t), z2 (t)) along
q(t) must satisfy the parallel-transport equations and the c) The approach here is similar to the approach in the
initial conditions (z1 (0), z2 (0)) = (1, 0). The parallel- previous part, except that now
transport equations for zi (t) make use of the following
facts: Γ112 = Γ121 = − tan k, Γ211 = sin k cosk.
dq1 dq2 For simplicity we write z for zk . The parallel-transport

= 1, = 0, equations are
dt dt √
−1 3 dz1 dz1
Γ12 = Γ21 = − tan(π /6) = √ , Γ11 =
1 1 2
,
3 4 + z2 Γ112 = − (tan k) z2 = 0,
dt dt
dz2 dz2
The equations are then + z1 Γ211 = + (sin k cos k) z1 = 0.
dt dt
dz1 dz1 1 Combining these two equations the same way we did
+ Γ121 · z2 · 1 = − √ z2 = 0,
dt dt 3 above, we get
2 2
√
dz dz 3 1
+ Γ211 · z1 · 1 = + z = 0. d 2 z1 dz2
dt dt 4 = (tan k) = (tan k)(− sin k cos k)z1 = 0,
dt 2 dt
To solve these, we first form the combination
or (z1 )′′ = −(sin k)2 z1 . This implies
√
d 2 z1 1 dz2 1 − 3 1 1
=√ =√ z = − z1 = 0, z1 (t) = A cos(t sin k) + B sin (t sin k) ,
dt 2 3 dt 3 4 4
1 dz1
z2 (t) =
or (z1 )′′ = −z1 /4, implying tan k dt
= −A cosk · sin (t sin k) + B cosk · cos (t sin k) .
z1 (t) = A cos(t/2) + B sin(t/2),
√ √ The initial conditions z1 (0) = 1, z2 (0) = 0 then imply that
2
√ dz1 −A 3 B 3
z (t) = 3 = sin(t/2) + cos(t/2). A = 1 and B = 0, so
dt 2 2
z1 (t) = cos(t sin k), z2 (t) = − cos k · sin(t sin k).
The initial conditions z1 (0) = 1, z2 (0) = 0 imply that A =
1, B = 0, and hence For the angle ∆, we have
√
− 3 z(0) · z(2π )
z1 (t) = cos(t/2), 2
z (t) = sin(t/2). cos ∆ = ,
2 kz(0)kkz(2π )k
In one circuit, where v · w is computed in the metric as
z(0) = (1, 0), z(2π ) = (−1, 0), gi j (z(t))vi w j = gi j (t, k)vi w j = (cos2 k) · v1 w1 + (1) · v2w2 .

6.5. TENSORS 79
Consequently, since
(z1 (0), z2 (0)) = (1, 0),

(z1 (2π ), z2 (2π )) = (cos(2π sin k), − cos k · sin(2π sin k)),
north
we find z(π/2)
pole
z(0) · z(2π ) = (cos2 k) cos(2π sin k), x2

kz(0)k = cos k,
while kz(2π )k =
x1
q circle at latitude k
(cos2 k) cos2 (2π sin k) + (− cosk)2 sin2 (2π sin k)
= | cos k| = cosk.
Here cos k is positive because k is small. Hence

north
(cos2 k) cos(2π sin k)
cos ∆ = = cos(2π sin k), pole
cos k · cosk
or ∆ = 2π sin k. A similar analysis shows that, for any t,
the angle between x1 (t, k) and z(t) is t sin k. z(2π)
d) In the illustrations at the right, we take k = π /2 − 1/4;
∆ z(0)
this circle of latitude is about 14◦ away from the north
pole. Because our figure is intended to represent a small
portion of the surface itself, we must draw the basis vec-
tors x1 and x2 to scale on this
pcircle. Whereas x2 is always
a unit vector, x1 has length g11 (t, k) = cos k ≈ 0.25.
The upper figure shows x1 and x2 together with z(π /2),
all drawn to the same scale (in which the lengths have
been reduced for greater clarity).
The lower figure shows just z(t), but with a different
scaling to help reveal the change ∆ in z after one circuit.
For our chosen k, ∆ ≈ 349◦, so the smaller angle between
z(0) and z(2π ) is about 11◦ .

General Relativity
7.1 The Equations of Motion d) The Maxwell equations we use appear in the text on
page 23. In light of the conclusion in part (c) above, we
can write the Maxwell equation ρ = ∇· E as
1. a) Let us write H = (H 1 , H 2 , H 3 ); by definition,
∂A ∂
ρ = ∇· − − ∇A = − ∇· A − ∇2A0 .
0
∂t ∂t
∂ A2 ∂ A3 ∂ A3 ∂ A1
H1 = − , H2 = − ,
∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z For the second condition on A, we use the Maxwell equa-
tion ∇× H = J + ∂ E/∂ t in the form
∂ A1 ∂ A2
H3 = − .
∂y ∂x ∂E ∂ 2A ∂
J = ∇× H − = ∇× (∇× A) + 2 + (∇A0 )
∂t ∂t ∂t
Therefore,
We have used the definition of A and the solution to
∂ H1 ∂ H2 ∂ H3 part (c). By the solution to Exercise 1b, § 1.4 (Solutions,
∇· H = + + page 4), we can replace ∇× (∇× A) and get
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ A
2 2 ∂ A
2 3 ∂ 2 A3 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A2 ∂ 2A ∂
= − + − + − J = ∇(∇· A) − ∇2 A + + (∇A0 ),
∂ x∂ z ∂ x∂ y ∂ y∂ x ∂ y∂ z ∂ z∂ y ∂ z∂ x ∂ t2 ∂t
=0 as required.
e) This is Exercise 3, § 1.4; see Solutions, page 4.
because “equality of mixed partials” causes the six terms
2. The Christoffel symbols Γi j,k are linear combinations
cancel in pairs.
of certain partial derivatives of the metric tensor
b) If it is true that !
e2αξ
3
γ00 γ03 0
=
∂H ∂ ∂A γ30 γ33 0 −e2αξ
3
∇× E = − = − (∇× A) = − ∇× ,
∂t ∂t ∂t
Most derivatives are zero. If we set ψ = e2αξ , then the
3
then it follows that only nonzero derivatives are

∂ γ00 ∂ γ33
∂A ∂A = 2αψ , = −2αψ .
0 = ∇× E + ∇× = ∇× E + . ∂ξ3 ∂ξ3
∂t ∂t
A Christoffel symbol will therefore be zero unless its in-
dices are {0, 0, 3}, in some order, or {3, 3, 3}. We have
c) We apply the theorem from advanced calculus to the
vector field 1 ∂ γ03 ∂ γ30 ∂ γ00
∂A Γ00,3 = + − = −αψ ,
F = E+ 2 ∂ξ0 ∂ξ0 ∂ξ3
∂t
1 ∂ γ00 ∂ γ03 ∂ γ03
Γ03,0 = Γ30,0 = + − = αψ ,
to obtain a function ψ = −A for which
0 2 ∂ξ3 ∂ξ0 ∂ξ0

1 ∂ γ33 ∂ γ33 ∂ γ33
∂A ∂A Γ33,3 = + − = −αψ .
F = E+ = ∇ψ = −∇A , or E = −
0
− ∇A .0 2 ∂ξ3 ∂ξ3 ∂ξ3
∂t ∂t
80

7.1. THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION 81
A Christoffel symbol of the second kind will also be We must now compute the equation of the tangent line to
zero unless its indices are {0, 0, 3}, in some order, or this graph at a point τ = τ0 , find its ζ -intercept, and then
{3, 3, 3}. To compute them, we also need let τ0 → −∞.
Because ζ ′ = − tanh ατ , the equation of the tangent
γ 00 = 1/ψ , γ 33 = −1/ψ , γ i j = 0 otherwise. line at τ = τ0 is
We then have 1
ζ+ ln(cosh ατ0 ) = −(tanh ατ )(τ − τ0 ),
Γ003 = Γ030 = γ 00 Γ03,0 + γ 03 Γ03,3 = α , α
Γ300 = γ 30 Γ00,0 + γ 33 Γ00,3 = α , and the ζ -intercept is at

Γ333 = γ 30 Γ33,0 + γ 33 Γ33,3 = α . 1
ζ =− ln(cosh ατ0 ) + τ0 tanh(ατ0 ).
α
The geodesic equations for the geodesics ξ i (t) have the
form Keeping in mind that τ0 → −∞, we write
d2ξ i dξ j dξ k
= −Γijk , e−ατ0 + eατ0 e−ατ0
dt 2 dt dt cosh ατ0 = = (1 + e2ατ0 ),
2 2
and reduce to
In these terms, the ζ -intercept is
d2ξ 0 dξ 0 dξ 3 dξ 3 dξ 0
= −Γ003 − Γ030
dt 2 dt dt dt dt ln 2 − ln(1 + e2ατ0 )
ζ = τ0 + − τ0 tanh ατ0
dξ 0 dξ 3 α
= −2α ,
dt dt ln 2 ln(1 + e2ατ0 )
2 3 2 = − + τ0 (1 + tanh ατ0 )
d2ξ 3 dξ 0 dξ α α
2
3
= −Γ00 − Γ33
3
dt dt dt Now
0 2 3 2
dξ dξ eατ0 + e−ατ0 + eατ0 − e−ατ0
= −α −α . τ0 (1 + tanh ατ0 ) = τ0
dt dt eατ0 + e−ατ0
2τ0
3. The figure in the text on page 340 shows the graphs of = → 0 as τ0 → −∞,
1 + e−2ατ0
the family of functions
because the exponential function in the denominator dom-
1 eα k
ζk (τ ) = ln , inates the linear function in the numerator. Finally,
α cosh α (τ − k) because ln(1 + e2ατ0 ) → 0 as τ0 → −∞, we see once
and it indicates that the ζ -intercepts of these graphs ap- again that the ζ -intercept of the tangent line approaches
proach the ζ -intercept β of their common asymptote as (ln 2)/α .
k → ∞; that is, 4. The solution to Exercise 14b, §2.2 (Solutions, page 13)
β = lim ζk (0). expresses the inverse hyperbolic tangent as
k→∞

We have ζk (0) = (1/α ) ln(eα k / cosh α k), and 1 1+w
u = tanh−1 w = ln .
2 1−w
eα k eα k 2
= αk = ;
cosh α k (e + e−α k )/2 1 + e−2α k Therefore,

therefore −1 t 1 1 + t/(a ± t) 1 a±t +t
tanh = ln = ln .
a±t 2 1 − t/(a ± t) 2 a±t −t
ln 2 − ln(1 + e−2α k ) ln 2
β = lim = .
k→∞ α α With the plus sign, we have

Another way to find β is to use the fact that an asymp- 1 −1 t 1 a + 2t 1 ln a
tote is a “tangent at infinity.” Because the asymptote is α tanh = ln = ln (a + 2t)− .
a+t 2α a 2α 2α
common to all the graphs ζ = ζk (τ ), we can work just
with the graph for which k = 0, that is, with With the minus sign, we have

1 1 −1 1 t 1 a ln a 1
ζ = ζ0 (τ ) = ln = ln(cosh ατ ). tanh−1 = ln = − ln (a − 2t).
α cosh ατ α α a−t 2α a − 2t 2α 2α

82 SOLUTIONS: CHAPTER 7. GENERAL RELATIVITY
Because (ln a)/2α is a constant, we have confirmed that confirming the geodesic equation for ξ 0 (cf. page 81
above). We also have
1
ξ 0 (t) = ± ln(a ± 2t) + constant. 0 2
dξ
3 2
dξ
2α −α −α
dt dt
For ξ 3 we can write
1 1 1 1
= −α · 2 −α · 2
ln α 2 ((a ± t)2 − t 2 ) = ln α 2 (a ± t + t)(a ± t − t) . α (a ± 2t) 2 α (a ± 2t)2
−2 1 d2ξ 3
With the plus sign, this becomes = = ,
α (a ± 2t)2 dt 2
ln α 2 (a + 2t)a = ln(a + 2t) + ln(α 2 a), confirming the geodesic equation for ξ 3 .
and with the minus sign, 5. a) The given curve ξ ± (u) = (ξ 0 (u), ξ 3 (u)) is space-
like if
ln α 2 a(a − 2t) = ln(α 2 a) + ln(a − 2t).
dξ i dξ j
We have thus confirmed Q(ξ ± (u)) = γi j (ξ 0 (u), ξ 3 (u)) <0
du du
1 for all u in the specified ranges. We have
ξ 3 (t) = ln(a ± 2t) + constant.
2α dξ 0 −k2 1 dξ 0 1 u
= · 2 , = · 2 ,
To show that ξ (t) = (ξ 0 (t), ξ 3 (t)) is a lightlike curve dt α u − k22 dt α u − k22
we must verify that and
γ00 = e2αξ = α 2 (u2 − k22 ),
3
dξ dξ i j γ33 = −γ00 = −α 2 (u2 − k22 ).
Q(ξ (t)) = γi j (ξ (t), ξ (t))
0 3
≡ 0.
dt dt Therefore,
We have k22 1
Q(ξ ± (u)) = α 2 (u2 − k22 ) · · 2
dξ 0 1 1 dξ 3 1 1 α (u − k22 )2
2
= , =± ,
dt α a ± 2t dt α a ± 2t u2 1
− α 2 (u2 − k22 ) · ·
and α 2 (u2 − k22 )2
k22 − u2
γ00 = e2αξ
3 (t)
= eln(a±2t) = a ± 2t, = ≡ −1 < 0,
u2 − k22
γ33 = −e2αξ (t) = −(a ± 2t),
3
so the curves are spacelike. To see that they are geodesics,
γi j = 0 otherwise. we first need
d 2ξ 0 2k2 u d2ξ 3 −(u2 + k22 )
Hence = , = .
2 3 2 dt 2 α (u2 − k22 )2 dt 2 α (u2 − k22 )2
dξ 0 dξ
Q(ξ (t)) = γ00 + γ33 We have
dt dt
dξ 0 dξ 3 −k2 u
(a ± 2t) (a ± 2t) −2α = −2α · ·
= 2 − ≡ 0, dt dt α (u2 − k22 ) α (u2 − k22 )
α (a ± 2t)2 α 2 (a ± 2t)2
2k2 u d 2ξ 0
= = ,
so the curve is lightlike. To confirm that it is also a α (u2 − k22 )2 dt 2
geodesic, we need
confirming the geodesic equation for ξ 0 . We also have
d 2ξ 0 2 1 d2ξ 3 2 1 0 2 3 2
=∓ , =− . dξ dξ
dt 2 α (a ± 2t)2 dt 2 α (a ± 2t)2 −α −α
dt dt
We have k22 1 u2 1
= −α · · 2 − α · ·
dξ 0 dξ 3 1 1 ±1 1 α (u − k2 )2
2 2 α 2 (u2 − k22 )2
−2α = −2α · · ·
dt dt α a ± 2t α a ± 2t −(u2 + k22 ) d2ξ 3
= = ,
2 1 d 2ξ 0 α (u2 − k22 )2 dt 2
=∓ = ,
α (a ± 2t)2 dt 2
confirming the geodesic equation for ξ 3 .

b) For simplicity and ready comparison with the time- Using f± (τ ) = −(1/α ) ln(± sinh(α (τ − k)/α b), we
like graphs, let τ = ξ 0 , ζ = ξ 3 , k = k1 , b = k2 . Then the find
parametric equation for ξ 0 can be written as −α b
f±′ (τ ) = .
tanh(α (τ − k))
−1 b b
α (τ − k) = tanh or u = . Because tanh(α (τ − k)) → ±1 as τ → ±∞ (recall α > 0),
u tanh(α (τ − k))
we see
We are given that b > 0 and either u > b or u < −b. Be-
cause u tanh(α (τ − k)) = b and α > 0, we see lim f ′ (τ ) = −α b, lim f ′ (τ ) = +α b.
τ →+∞ + τ →−∞ −
u > b ⇒ τ − k > 0, u < −b ⇒ τ − k < 0.
Thus ζ = f+ (τ ) has an asymptote of slope −α b = −α k2
These define the “±” choices for the curve ξ ± . at +∞, and ζ = f− (τ ) has an asymptote of slope +α b =
Keeping in mind the parametric equation for ξ 3 = ζ , +α k2 at −∞.
we write
b) Fix k1 and consider the one-parameter family of
2 b2 (1 − tanh2 (α (τ − k)) b2 sech2 (α (τ − k))
2 curves
u −b = =
tanh2 (α (τ − k)) tanh2 (α (τ − k))
1 b
b2 ξb0 (u) = k1 + tanh−1 ,
= , α u
sinh (α (τ − k))
2 u > b > 0,
1
ξb (u) =
3
ln(α (u − b )),
2 2 2
and consequently 2α
p b
u2 − b2 = , The solution to Exercise 5 shows these curves are geo-
± sinh(α (τ − k)) desics, and the solution to Exercise 6a shows they have
where the sign is chosen to agree with the sign of τ − k the common asymptote τ = k1 . The vertical asymptote
(or, equivalently, with the sign of ξ ± ). We finally obtain is therefore a singular solution to the geodesic equations
(when the proper parametrization is used).
1 1 p
ζ= ln α 2 (u2 − b2) = ln α u2 − b2 To get the proper parametrization, suppose we start
2α α with ξ 0 (u) = k1 , ξ 3 (u) = ψ (u); then we must determine
1 αb ψ so that the geodesic equation for ξ 3 is satisfied. The
= ln = f± (τ ).
α ± sinh(α (τ − k)) equation is
c) The full eight-parameter family of spacelike geode- 0 2 3 2
d2ξ 3 dξ dξ
sics is given by formulas analogous to those of the time- 2
+ α + α = ψ ′′ + α (ψ ′ )2 = 0.
du du du
like family, using the formulas for ξ 0 and ξ 3 already given
above, in part (a): To solve this, first let ψ ′ (u) = χ (u); then χ ′ + α χ 2 = 0.
This differential equation can be solved by the method of
1 k2
ξ 0 (u) = k1 + tanh−1 , “separation of variables.” We write d χ /du = −α χ 2 as
α u
ξ 1 (u) = k3 u + k4, dχ
= −α du.
ξ (u) = k5 u + k6,
2 χ2
1 Integrating both sides, we get
ξ 3 (u) = ln(α 2 (u2 − k22 )),
2α
1 1
u = k7 t + k8 . − = − α u − c1 or χ (u) = .
χ α u + c1
6. a) To find the asymptotes of ξ ± , we can analyze the Because ψ ′ = χ , we finally obtain
graphs ζ = f± (τ ) obtained in the previous exercise. First
of all, f± (τ ) → ∞ as τ → k = k1 . Thus τ = ξ 0 = k1 is a 1
ξ 3 (u) = ψ (u) = ln(α u + c1 ) + c2.
vertical asymptote. α
For the asymptotes as τ → ±∞, note that we must use
ζ = f+ (τ ) when τ → +∞ (because τ > k) but ζ = f− (τ ) 7. Let Rθ : R2 → R2 be rotation by θ . Then (using τ = t)
when τ → −∞ (τ < k). In each case we show that the M has
derivative of the relevant function has a finite limit as τ
y η η y
approaches +∞ or −∞, as appropriate. = Rωτ , so = R −ω t
z ζ ζ z

Therefore 9. The Christoffel symbols of the first kind involve the

 nonzero partial derivatives of the entries γi j . Taking sym-

 τ = t, metries into account, there are only four:

ξ = x,
M −1 : ∂ γ00 ∂ γ03
 η = y cos ω t + z sin ω t, = −2ω 2η , = −ω ,

 ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2

ζ = −y sin ω t + z cos ω t. ∂ γ00 ∂ γ02
= −2ω 2ζ , = ω,
∂ξ3 ∂ξ3
In order to have compact expressions, let us set
For clarity, the results are expressed in terms of η and ζ .
YC = ωη cos ωτ , ZC = ωζ cos ωτ , We conclude that the only nonzero Christoffel symbols
involve (in some order) the indices {0, 0, 2}, {0, 0, 3}, or
Y S = ωη sin ωτ , ZS = ωζ sin ωτ ;
{0, 2, 3}. We find
then we can write Γ00,2 = ω 2 η ,
  Γ02,0 = Γ20,0 = −ω 2 η ,
1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0  Γ00,3 = ω 2 ζ ,
dMP =  .
−Y S − ZC 0 cos ωτ − sin ωτ 
Γ03,0 = Γ30,0 = −ω 2 ζ ,
YC − ZS 0 sin ωτ cos ωτ
1 ∂ γ03 ∂ γ02
Γ02,3 = Γ20,3 = − = −ω ,
To determine (dMP )−1 (a function of the Greek vari- 2 ∂ξ2 ∂ξ3

ables), we begin with d(M −1 )M(P) = 1 ∂ γ02 ∂ γ03
Γ03,2 = Γ30,2 = − = ω,
  2 ∂ξ3 ∂ξ2
1 0 0 0
1 ∂ γ03 ∂ γ02
 0 1 0 0  Γ23,0 = Γ32,0 = + = 0.

−ω y sin ω t + ω z cos ω t
. 2 ∂ξ2 ∂ξ3
0 cos ω t sin ω t 
−ω y cos ω t − ω z sin ω t 0 − sin ω t cos ω t For the Christoffel symbols of the second kind, we have
(not including Γkji when Γkij is given)
As soon as we convert Roman to Greek variables, we have
Γ000 = γ 02 Γ00,2 + γ 03 Γ00,3 = ωζ · ω 2 η − ωη · ω 2 ζ = 0,
the inverse we want:
  Γ100 = γ 12 Γ00,2 + γ 13 Γ00,3 = 0,
1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0  Γ200 = γ 22 Γ00,2 + γ 23 Γ00,3
(dMP )−1 =  
 ωζ 0 cos ωτ sin ωτ  = (−1 + ω 2ζ 2 )ω 2 η − ω 2 ηζ · ω 2 ζ = −ω 2 η ,
−ωη 0 − sin ωτ cos ωτ Γ300 = γ 32 Γ00,2 + γ 33 Γ00,3
= −ω 2 ηζ · ω 2 η + (−1 + ω 2η 2 )ω 2 ζ = −ω 2 ζ ,
8. The metric (γi j ) is given by dMPt · J1,3 · dMP . We have
Γ002 = γ 00 Γ02,0 + γ 03 Γ02,3 = 1 · (−ω 2η ) − ωη · (−ω ) = 0,
 
1 0 0 0 Γ102 = γ 10 Γ02,0 + γ 13 Γ02,3 = 0,
 0 −1 0 0 

J1,3 · dMP =   Γ202 = γ 20 Γ02,0 + γ 23 Γ02,3
Y S + ZC 0 − cos ωτ sin ωτ 
−YC + ZS 0 − sin ωτ − cos ωτ = ωζ · (−ω 2 η ) − ω 2 ηζ · (−ω ) = 0,
Γ302 = γ 30 Γ02,0 + γ 33 Γ02,3
and dMPt · J1,3 · dMP =
= −ωη · (−ω 2 η ) + (−1 + ω 2η 2 ) · (−ω ) = ω ,
 
1 − ω 2η 2 − ω 2ζ 2 0 ωζ −ωη Γ003 = γ 00 Γ03,0 + γ 02 Γ03,2 = 1 · (−ω 2ζ ) + ωζ · ω = 0,
 0 −1 0 0 
(γi j ) =  . Γ103 = γ 10 Γ03,0 + γ 12 Γ03,2 = 0,
 ωζ 0 −1 0 
−ωη 0 0 −1 Γ203 = γ 20 Γ03,0 + γ 22 Γ03,2
= ωζ · (−ω 2 ζ ) + (−1 + ω 2ζ 2 ) · ω = −ω ,
Let γ jk be the matrix given in the text; direct evaluation
shows that γi j γ jk = δik , confirming that γ jk is the inverse Γ03 = γ Γ03,0 + γ Γ03,2
3 30 32
of the metric tensor. = −ωη · (−ω 2 ζ ) − ω 2ηζ · ω = 0.

These calculations confirm that the only nonzero symbols Then

are 2
dτ
−ω η
2
=
Γ200 = −ω 2 η , Γ203 = Γ230 = −ω du
Γ300 = −ω 2 ζ , Γ302 = Γ320 = ω . − ω 2 (a0 )2 (a2 u + b2)C − ω 2 (a0 )2 (a3 u + b3)S,
dτ dζ
10. a) Because Γ0i j = Γ1i j = 0, the geodesic equations for −2ω =
du du
ξ 0 = τ and ξ 1 = ξ have only the second-order term: 2ω a0 a2 S + 2ω 2(a0 )2 (a2 u + b2)C − 2ω a3C
d 2τ d 2ξ + 2ω 2(a0 )2 (a3 u + b3)S,
2
= 0, = 0.
du du2
and these terms cancel with the terms in d 2 η /du2 . Thus
For the other two variables, the geodesic equations each
the geodesic equation for η is satisfied. For ζ , we need
have two first-order terms, as follows:
2
d2η
2
dτ dτ dζ dτ
− ω 2
η − 2ω = 0, −ω 2 ζ =
du 2 du du du du
2 ω 2 (a0 )2 (a2 u + b2)S − ω 2(a0 )2 (a3 u + b3)C,
d2ζ dτ dτ dη
−ω ζ 2
+ 2ω = 0. dτ dη
du2 du du du +2ω =
du du
b) In R, the metric is constant, so all Christoffel symbols 2ω a0 a2C − 2ω 2(a0 )2 (a2 u + b2)S + 2ω a3S
are zero. Consequently, the geodesic equations are simply
+ 2ω 2(a0 )2 (a3 u + b3)C;
d 2 xi
= 0, i = 0, 1, 2, 3. these terms cancel with those of d 2 ζ /du2 to confirm that
du2
ζ satisfies its geodesic equation.
The solutions are linear functions: xi = ai u + b1 , where
i = 0, 1, 2, 3. The images of these lines in G are given by 11. a) Writing ξ j = (t, 0, η j , ζ j ), we find the following:
the map M −1 . Thus, using (
η1′ = v cos ω t − ω vt sin ω t,
C = cos(ω (a0 u + b0)), S = sin(ω (a0 u + b0)), ξ ′1 :
ζ1′ = −v sin ω t − ω vt cos ω t,
to make the formulas easier to view, we have (
η1′′ = −2ω v sin ω t − ω 2vt cos ω t,
τ = a0 u + b0 , ξ ′′1 :
ζ1′′ = −2ω v cos ω t + ω 2 vt sin ω t;
ξ = a1 u + b1 , (
η2′ = −v cos ω t − ω (1 − vt) sin ω t,
η = (a2 u + b2)C + (a3 u + b3)S, ξ ′2 :
ζ2′ = v sin ω t + ω (vt − 1) cos ω t,
ζ = −(a2 u + b2)S + (a3u + b3)C. (
η2′′ = 2ω v sin ω t − ω 2 (1 − vt) cos ω t,
Because τ and η are linear functions of u, we see that their ξ ′′2 :
geodesic equations are immediately satisfied. To verify ζ2′′ = 2ω v cos ω t − ω 2 (vt − 1) sin ω t.
the geodesic equations for η and ζ , we note The geodesic equations for τ and ξ are immediately sat-
dτ isfied. For the others, we have
= a0 ,
du ω 2 η1 + 2ωζ1′ = ω 2 vt cos ω t − 2ω v sin ω t − 2ω 2 vt cos ω t
dη
= a2C − ω a0(a2 u + b2)S + a3 S + ω a0(a3 u + b3)C, = η1′′ ,
du
d2η ω 2 ζ1 − 2ωη1′ = −ω 2 vt sin ω t − 2ω v cos ω t + 2ω 2vt sin ω t
= −2ω a0a2 S + 2ω a0a3C − ω 2 (a0 )2 (a2 u + b2)C
du2 = ζ1′′ ,
− ω 2 (a0 )2 (a3 u + b3)S,
dζ ω 2 η2 + 2ωζ2′ = ω 2 (1 − vt) cos ω t + 2ω v sin ω t
= −a S − ω a (a u + b )C + a C − ω a (a u + b )S,
2 0 2 2 3 0 3 3
du + 2ω 2(vt − 1) cos ω t = η2′′ ,
d 2ζ ω 2 ζ2 − 2ωη2′ = ω 2 (vt − 1) sin ω t + 2ω v cos ω t
2
= −2ω a0a2C − 2ω a0a3 S + ω 2(a0 )2 (a2 u + b2)S
du
− ω 2 (a0 )2 (a3 u + b3)C. + 2ω 2(1 − vt) sin ω t = ζ2′′ .
this confirms that ξ 1 and ξ 2 are geodesics.

In the figure below, ξ 1 is the smaller curve and starts Within the brackets, the terms that are not positive squares
at the origin; ξ 2 starts at the point (η , ζ ) = (1, 0). Both either cancel or are positive by hypothesis. Therefore,
curves turn to the right. η ′ ζ ′′ − η ′′ ζ ′ is negative for all t, as required.
The condition a2 b3 − a3b2 > 0 is necessary. For exam-
ple, the geodesic ξ (t) with a2 = b3 = 0, a3 = b2 = 1, and
ω = 3/2 (shown below) does turn left for a short interval
when t is near zero.
0.5
-3 -2 -1 1
-0.5
b) The tangent vector ξ ′j and the “curvature” vector ξ ′′j -1.0
were both found in the previous part. They are plotted (at
-1.5
half-size) on the figure above.
c) By definition, ξ ′j ∧ ξ ′′j = η ′j ζ j′′ − η ′′j ζ j′ . A lengthy but
-2.0
straightforward computation gives The condition a2 b3 −a3 b2 > 0 guarantees that the parame-
ter point on the geodesic (y, z) = (a2t +b2 , a3t +b3 ) moves
η1′ ζ1′′ − η1′′ ζ1′ = −ω (2v2 + ω 2 v2t 2 ). clockwise with respect to the origin in the (y, z)-plane.
This expression is negative, because 2v + ω v t > 0 for
2 2 2 2
all t and because we can take ω > 0 without loss of gen-

erality. Another computation gives 7.2 The Vacuum Field Equations

η2′ ζ2′′ − η2′′ ζ2′ = −ω 2v2 + ω 2 (1 − vt)2 < 0, For the first three exercises, we need the following quan-
tities (taken, with modifications, from the solutions to Ex-
for a similar reason.
ercises 4 and 5 in § 6.1 on Solutions pages 56, 57).
12. The curve ξ (t) is just a special instance of the general
geodesic analyzed in the solution of Exercise 10b, above, Γ211 = sin(q2 ) cos(q2 ), Γ121 = Γ112 = − tan(q2 ),
with R1212 = 1, R2112 = − cos2 (q2 ), R1112 = R2212 = 0.
a0 = 1, b0 = a1 = b1 = 0.
The formulas for the general first and second derivatives 1. To verify, we calculate separately the second covariant
of η and ζ found there, and using the abbreviations C and derivative of ∂ x/∂ q along x = (x1 , x2 ) and collection of
S introduced there, along with terms involving the Riemann curvature tensor. We have
2 2 2 3 3 3
A = a t +b , A = a t +b , 1
∂x ∂ x ∂ x2
= , = (1, 0),
reduce to ∂q ∂q ∂q
η ′ = (a2 + ω A3 )C + (a3 − ω A2)S, and also
ζ ′ = (a3 − ω A2 )C − (a2 + ω A3)S, dx dx1 dx2
= , = (0, 1).
dq dq dq
η ′′ = ω (2a3 − ω A2)C − ω (2a2 + ω A3 )S
Therefore,
ζ ′′ = −ω (2a2 + ω A3 )C − ω (2a3 − ω A2)S.
A lengthy but straightforward calculation yields D ∂ x1 d ∂ x1 ∂ x1 dx2
= + Γ112
dt ∂ q dt ∂ q ∂ q dt
η ′ ζ ′′ − η ′′ ζ ′ =
= 0 − tan(t) · 1 · 1 = − tan(t),
− ω (a2 + ω A3)(2a2 + ω A3)(2a3 − ω A2 )(a3 − ω A2)
D ∂ x2 d ∂ x2 ∂ x1 dx1
= −ω (a2 + ω A3)2 + a2(a2 + ω A3) + a3(a3 − ω A2 ) = + Γ211 = 0 − Γ211 · 1 · 0 = 0.
dt ∂ q dt ∂ q ∂ q dt

+ (a3 − ω A2)2
The new contravariant vector field
= −ω (a2 + ω A3)2 + (a3 − ω A2 )2 + (a2 )2 + (a3 )2
D ∂ x1 D ∂ x2
+ ω a2 a3t − ω a3a2t + ω (a2 b3 − a3b2 ) . F 1 (t) = = − tan(t), F 2 (t) = = 0,
dt ∂ q dt ∂ q

7.2. THE VACUUM FIELD EQUATIONS 87
has, for its covariant derivative along x, the second covari- To compute the covariant derivatives along zi (s) we need
ant derivative of ∂ x/∂ q. We have the values of the Christoffel symbols along zi (s); but they
are
DF 1 dF 1 1 dx
2
= + Γ12 · F ·
1
dt dt dt Γ211 (z1 , z2 ) = sin(z2 ) cos(z2 ) = 0,
= − sec2 (t) + (− tan(t))(tan(t)) · 1 = −1, Γ1 (z1 , z2 ) = Γ1 (z1 , z2 ) = − tan(z2 ) = 0.
12 21
DF 2 dF 2 dx1
= + Γ211 · F 1 · This means that covariant derivatives along zi (s) are just
dt dt dt
= 0 + (sin(t) cos(t)) · (− tan(t)) · 0 = 0. ordinary derivatives, so the geodesic separation equations
reduce to
That is,
D2 ∂ x 1 D2 ∂ x 2 d 2 w1 d 2 w2 w2
= −1, = 0. = 0 and = − .
dt 2 ∂ q dt 2 ∂ q ds2 ds2 r2
For each index i, all terms but one in the Riemann curva- Linear functions solve the first differential equation, and
ture tensor have at least one factor equal to zero; we have linear combinations of sin(s/r) and cos(s/r) solve the
second.
1 dx ∂ x dx 1 dx ∂ x dx
j k l 2 1 2
R jkl = R212 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 = 1,
dt ∂ q dt dt ∂ q dt 4. a) From the solution to Exercise 6, § 6.2 (Solutions
dx j
∂ x k
dx l
dx 2
∂ x 1
dx 2 page 64), the only nonzero Christoffel symbols are
R2jkl = R2212 = 0 · 1 · 1 · 1 = 0.
dt ∂ q dt dt ∂ q dt
Γ122 = sinh(q1 ) cosh(q1 ), Γ221 = Γ212 = tanh(q1 ).
Thus we see
The only nonzero derivatives of these are
D2 ∂ x i i dx ∂ x dx
j k l
+ R = 0, i = 1, 2.
dt 2 ∂ q jkl
dt ∂ q dt ∂ Γ122 2 1 2 1 ∂ Γ212
= cosh (q ) + sinh (q ), = sech2 (q1 ).
∂ q1 ∂ q1
2. Along the equator q2 = 0, all Christoffel symbols of
the second kind equal zero. By definition, (q1 , q2 ) are Then, using the remarks about the solution to Exercise 5,
Fermi coordinates there. Along the prime meridian (the § 6.1 (Solutions page 57), we obtain the essential elements
q2 -axis), the coordinate lines q2 = constant are not geode- of the mixed Riemann curvature tensor as follow. (Each
sics (they are parallels of latitude). Therefore, by Corol- nonzero contribution is marked with a bracket.)
lary 7.2 (text page 355), (q1 , q2 ) cannot be Fermi coordi-
∂ Γ112 ∂ Γ111
nates along the prime meridian. R1112 = − + Γ112Γ111 + Γ212 Γ121
∂ q1 ∂ q2
3. a) We have dz1 /ds = 1/r, dz2 /ds = 0; therefore, − Γ111Γ112 − Γ211Γ122 = 0,
2
Rh1 j1 ∂ Γ122 ∂ Γ121
dz1 R1212 = − 2 + Γ122Γ111 + Γ222Γ121
K hj = Rh1 j1 = . ∂ q1 ∂q
ds r2 | {z }
We know immediately (because of the skew-symmetry − Γ121Γ112 − Γ221Γ122
| {z }
Rhjlk = −Rhjkl ) that Rh111 = 0, so K11 = K12 = 0. For j = 2,
we have = cosh2 (q1 ) + sinh2 (q1 )
− tanh(q1 ) · sinh(q1 ) cosh(q1 ) = cosh2 (q1 ),
R1121 = −R1112 = 0, R2121 = −R1112 = cos2 (z2 ) = 1,
∂ Γ212 ∂ Γ211
z2 R2112 = − 2 + Γ112Γ211 + Γ212Γ221
(because = 0); therefore ∂ q1 ∂q | {z }
| {z }
R1121 R2121 1 − Γ111Γ212 − Γ211Γ222
K21 = = 0, K22 = = 2.
r2 r2 r
= sech2 (q1 ) + tanh2 (q1 ) = 1,
The geodesic separation equations along the equator zi (s)
∂ Γ222 ∂ Γ221
are therefore R2212 = − + Γ122Γ211 + Γ222 Γ221
∂ q1 ∂ q2
D2 w1 D2 w2 w2
= 0 and = − . − Γ121Γ212 − Γ221Γ222 = 0.
ds2 ds2 r2

On the curve xi (τ , q) we have dx1 /d τ = 1, dx2 /d τ = 0. then

The geodesic separation tensor on xi is therefore Dw1 dw1 dq2 dq1
F1 = = + Γ112 · w1 · + Γ121 · w2 ·
2 ds ds ds ds
dx1
K hj = Rh1 j1 = Rh1 j1 . dw1
dτ = + w1 tanh(s) − w2 sech(s),
ds
Dw 2 dw 2 dq1 dq2
As in the solution to Exercise 3a, above, K11 = K12 = 0 F2 = = + Γ211 · w1 · + Γ222 · w2 ·
follows immediately, while ds ds ds ds
dw2
K21 = R1121 = −R1112 = 0, K22 = R2121 = −R2112 = −1. = + w1 sech(s) + w2 tanh(s).
ds
Straightforward calculations then confirm that
b) To compute the covariant derivatives of ∂ x j /∂ q along
xi , we need to evaluate the Christoffel symbols there: DF 1 D2 w1 DF 2 D2 w2
= 2
and =
ds ds ds ds2
Γ122 = sinh(x1 ) cosh(x1 ) = sinh(τ ) cosh(τ ), have the forms stated in the exercise.
Γ221 = Γ212 = tanh(x1 ) = tanh(τ ). b) We use the elements of the mixed Riemann curvature
tensor obtained in the solution to Exercise 6a of § 6.3 (So-
Now ∂ x1 /∂ q = 0, ∂ x2 /∂ q = 1; therefore lutions page 66), evaluated on the curve q:
D ∂ x1 d ∂ x1 ∂ x2 dx2 cosh2 (s)
F1 = = + Γ122 = 0, −R2121 = R2112 = = −R1212 = R1221 ,
dτ ∂q dτ ∂ q ∂ q dτ r2
D ∂ x2 d ∂ x2 ∂ x2 dx1 R1112 = R2212 = 0.
F2 = = + Γ221 = tanh(τ ).
dτ ∂q dτ ∂ q ∂ q dτ Therefore
Next, 1
2 2
dq dq2 dq
K11 = R1112 1
+ R212
DF 1 dF 1 dx2 ds ds ds
= + Γ122F 2 = 0,
dτ dτ dτ − cosh2 (s) 2
= · r sech2 (s) tanh2 (s) = − tanh2 (s),
DF 2 dF 2 dx1 r2
= + Γ221F 2 = sech2 (τ ) + tanh2 (τ ) = 1. 1 2
dτ dτ dτ 1 1 dq dq2 dq1
K2 = R121 + R1221
We can now see that the geodesic separation equations are ds ds ds
satisfied: cosh2 (s)
= · −r sech(s) tanh(s) · r sech2 (s)
r2
D2 ∂ x 1 ∂ x1 ∂ x2
+ K11 + K21 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0, = − sech(s) tanh(s),
dτ ∂ q
2 ∂q ∂q 2 2
D2 ∂ x 2 ∂ x1 ∂ x2 dq1 dq2 dq
+ K12 + K22 = 1 + 0 − 1 = 0. K12 = R2112 + R2212
dτ ∂ q
2 ∂q ∂q ds ds ds
cosh2 (s)
= · r sech2 (s) · −r sech(s) tanh(s)
r2
5. a) From the text, page 282, we have = − sech(s) tanh(s),
−1 1 −1 1 2
Γ112 = , Γ211 = , Γ222 = ; dq dq2 dq1
q2 q2 q2 K22 = R2121 + R2221
ds ds ds
therefore, on q, these have the values − cosh2 (s) 2
= · r sech4 (s) = − sech2 (s).
r2
− cosh(s) cosh(s)
Γ112 = Γ222 = , Γ211 = .
r r c) For the family xk (s, c) we have w1 = ∂ x1 /∂ c = 1,
w2 = ∂ x2 /∂ c = 0. Therefore, the equations in part (a)
To compute covariant derivatives along q, we also need
reduce to
dq1 dq2 D2 w1 D2 w2
= r sech2 (s), = −r sech(s) tanh(s); = tanh2 (s), = tanh(s) sech(s).
ds ds ds2 ds2

From part (b), For the hyperbolic plane, we use the values of Rhijk
given in the solution to Exercise 6a in § 6.3 (Solutions
K 1j w j = K11 = − tanh2 (s), page 66):
K 2j w j = K12 = − sech(s) tanh(s).
−1 +1
R1212 = = −R1221 , R2112 = = −R2121 ,
This confirms D2 wi /ds2 + K ij w j = 0 for i = 1, 2. (q2 )2 (q2 )2
d) For the family xk (s, r), we have Rhijk = 0 otherwise.
∂ x1 ∂ x2 Therefore,
w1 = = tanh(s), w2 = = sech(s).
∂r ∂r 2
R11 R12 R121 R1112 −1/(q2 )2 0
= =
The equations in part (a) now reduce to R21 R22 R2221 R1212 0 −1/(q2 )2
D2 w1 The discussion of the “cosmological constant” in § 7.3
= −2 sech2 (s) tanh(s) + 2 sech2 (s) tanh(s)
ds2 indicates how global curvature can effect the Ricci tensor
+ 2 sech2 (s) tanh(s) + tanh3 (s) even in the absence of matter. The sphere and the hyper-
− tanh(s) sech2 (s) = tanh(s), bolic plane are both globally curved.
D2 w2 b) We have Rhk = gh j R jk = gh1 R1k + gh2R2k . Therefore,
= sech(s) tanh2 (s) − sech3 (s) + 2 sech3 (s) for the sphere,
ds2
− 2 sech(s) tanh2 (s) + tanh2 (s) sech(s) 1 1
R11 = g11 R11 = · cos2 (q2 ) = ,
sech(s) tanh2 (s) = sech(s). r2 cos2 (q2 ) r2
1 1
From part (b), R22 = g22 R22 = ·1 = 2.
r2 r
K 1j w j = K11 w1 + K21 w2 = − tanh2 (s) tanh(s)
Consequently, the scalar curvature is R = Rii = 2/r2 .
− sech(s) tanh(s) sech(s) = − tanh(s), For the hyperbolic plane,
K 2j w j = K12 w1 + K22 w2 = − sech(s) tanh2 (s)
−1
− sech3 (s) = − sech(s). R11 = g11 R11 = (q2 )2 · = −1,
(q2 )2
This confirms D2 wi /ds2 + K ij w j = 0 for i = i, 2. −1
R22 = g22 R22 = (q2 )2 · 2 2 = −1,
(q )
6. Let p and q be arbitrary integers between 1 and n. Let
vi = 1 if i = p and vi = 0 otherwise; similarly, let w j = 1 so R = Rii = −2.
if j = q and w j = 0 otherwise. Then
8. From Exercise 4a, above, we have
A pq = Ai j vi w j = Bi j vi w j = B pq ;
R1212 = cosh2 (q1 ) = −R1221 ,
since 1 ≤ p, q ≤ n were arbitrary, we have established the
claim. R2112 = 1 = −R2121 , Rhijk = 0 otherwise.
7. a) For a 2-dimensional surface, the Ricci tensor is Therefore,

2
Rik = Rhihk = R1i1k + R2i2k R11 R12 R121 R1112 −1 0
= =
R21 R22 R2221 R1212 0 cosh2 (q1 )
For the sphere, we use the values of Rhijk given before the
solution to Exercise 1 in this section (Solutions page 86): Note that Ri j = −gi j ; using g11 = 1, g22 = −1/ cosh2 (q1 ),
we then have
R1212 = 1 = −R1221 , R2112 = − cos2 (q2 ) = −R2121 ,
Rhijk = 0 otherwise. R11 = g11 R11 = −1,
−1
Therefore, R22 = g22 R22 = · cosh2 (q1 ) = −1,
2 2 2 cosh2 (q1 )
R11 R12 R121 R1112 cos (q ) 0
= = and finally R = Rii = −2.
R21 R22 R2221 R1212 0 1

9. a) We make some preliminary observations. First, be- b) Becauseζ (0) = 0, we have e2αζ = 1 and the metric
cause Γ0i j = Γ1i j = 0, we have R0i jk = R1i jk = 0. Second, in the tangent plane T G(0,0) is the Minkowski metric J1,1 .
because Let Q be the quadratic form for this metric; then
Γ200 = −ω 2 η , Γ203 = Γ230 = −ω , Q(e0 ) = 1, Q(e3 ) = −1.

Γ300 = −ω 2 ζ , Γ302 = Γ320 = ω , Therefore e0 is a timelike unit vector and e3 is a spacelike
are the only nonzero Christoffel symbols, and unit vector.
Let V l (T ) denote the parallel translate of either e0 or e3
∂ Γ200 ∂ Γ200 ∂ Γ300 ∂ Γ200 along ζ (T ) = (τ (T ), ζ (T )) = (ξ 0 (T ), ξ 3 (T )). Then V l
= = −ω 2 , = = −ω 2 , satisfies the differential equation
∂ξ2 ∂η ∂ξ3 ∂ζ
are the only nonzero derivatives, the definition of R2jkl or DV l dV l dξ k

0= = + Γljk V j .
dT dT dT
R3jkl requires that two of the covariant indices j, k, l must
be 0. The only possibilities are We have d ξ 0 /dT = τ ′ and d ξ 3 /dT = ζ ′ , from above; fur-
thermore, the nonzero Christoffel symbols are
∂ Γ200
2
R002 = − + Γ02 Γ30 = ω + ω · (−ω ) = 0,
3 2 2
∂ξ2 Γ003 = Γ030 = Γ300 = Γ333 = α .
∂Γ 3
R3003 = − 00 + Γ203 Γ320 = ω 2 + (−ω ) · ω = 0. Therefore, the differential equations take the form
∂ξ3
dV 0 dξ 3 dξ 0
Therefore, = −Γ003 V 0 − Γ030 V 3
dT dT dT
R00 = R2020 + R3030 = −R2002 − R3003 = 0. α 2T α
= V0 − V 3,
1 − α 2T 2 1 − α 2T 2
For all other elements, we have dV 3 dξ 0 dξ 3
= −Γ300 V 0 − Γ333 V 3
Rik = Rhihk = R2i2k + R3i3k = 0; dT dT dT
α α 2
T
=− V0 + V 3.
the Ricci tensor is identically zero. 1 − α 2T 2 1 − α 2T 2
b) The τ -axis is a particular instance of a geodesic that Let V ⊕ = V 0 + V 3 , V ⊖ = V 0 − V 3 ; then
was established in the solution to Exercise 10b, § 7.1 (So-
lutions page 85; a1 = a2 = a3 = b1 = b2 = b3 = 0). How- dV ⊕ α 2T − α ⊕ −α (1 − α T )
= V = V ⊕,
ever, G’s coordinates are not Fermi coordinates along the dT 1 − α 2T 2 (1 − α T )(1 + α T )
τ -axis because some Christoffel symbols (namely Γ203 and dV ⊖ α 2T + α ⊖ −α (1 + α T )
Γ302 ) are nonzero there. = V = V ⊖.
dT 1 − α 2T 2 (1 − α T )(1 + α T )
10. a) The curve ζ (T ) is one of the timelike geodesics These differential equations are easier to solve; in partic-
given on page 338 of the text, with k1 = 0, k2 = 1/α , ular, by separating variables we get
t = T . To show that T is proper time, we must show
kζ ′ (T )k2 = 1. Because e2αζ = 1 − α 2 T 2 , we have dV ⊕ −α dV ⊖ α
= dT, = dT.
V ⊕ 1 + αT V⊖ 1 − αT
kζ (T )k = (τ ) − (ζ ) (1 − α T )
′ 2 ′ 2 ′ 2 2 2
The solutions are
1 −α T
= − (1 − α T ) ≡ 1,
2 2
1 − α 2T 2 1 − α 2 T 2 ln(V ⊕ ) = − ln(1 + α T ) + ln(A),
as required. The curve with α = 1 is sketched below. ln(V ⊖ ) = − ln(1 − α T ) + ln(B),
-2 -1 1 2 or
A B
-0.5
V⊕ = , V⊖ = ,
1 + αT 1 − αT
-1.0
where A and B are arbitrary constants, to be determined
-1.5
by the initial conditions on V l .

For e0 , V 0 (0) = 1, V 3 (0) = 0, so V ⊕ (0) = V ⊖ (0) = 1 implying k7 = 1, and the geodesic we seek is
and
1 T
1 ξ (S) = tanh
0 −1
,
V 0 (T ) = V ⊕ + V ⊖ = , α S + 1/α
1 − α 2T 2
1
−α T ξ 3 (S) = ln(α 2 ((S + 1/α )2 − T 2 )).
V 3 (T ) = V ⊕ − V ⊖ = . 2α
1 − α 2T 2
To determine the solution of the geodesic equations ab
For e3 , V 0 (0) = 0, V 3 (0) = 1, so V ⊕ (0) = 1, V ⊖ (0) = −1 initio, let xi = d ξ i /dS, i = 0, 3. In terms of xi , the geodesic
and equations are
−α T 1
V 0 (T ) = , V 3 (T ) = . dx0 dx3
1 − α 2T 2 1 − α 2T 2 = −2α x0 x3 , = −α (x0 )2 − α (x3 )2 .
dS dS
c) From the solution just obtained, Now let x⊕ = x0 + x3 , x⊖ = x0 − x3 ; then

−α T 1 dx⊕ dx⊖
v= , . = −α (x⊕ )2 , = α (x⊖ )2 .
1 − α 2T 2 1 − α 2T 2 dS dS
Because v is spacelike, the geodesic we seek is spacelike. The method of separation of variables gives
The entire eight-parameter family of spacelike geodesics
was found in the solution to Exercise 5c, §7.1 (Solutions 1 1
x⊕ = , x⊖ = .
page 83, with t = S). The part we need is c1 + α S c2 − α S

1 k2 The initial conditions
ξ 0 (u) = tanh−1 ,
α u −α T 1
1 x0 (0) = , x3 (0) = ,
ξ (u) =
3
ln(α (u − k2 )),
2 2 2 1 − α 2T 2 1 − α 2T 2
2α
u = k7 S + k8 . become
1 1 1 1
The initial conditions η (0) = ζ (T ) translate into u = k8 = x⊕ (0) = , = x⊖ (0) = ;
αT + 1 c1 αT − 1 c2
and
hence
1 k2 1
tanh−1 = tanh−1 (α T ),
α k8 α 1 1
x⊕ = , x⊖ = .
1 1 α T + 1 + α S α T − 1 − αS
ln(α 2 (k82 − k22 )) = ln(1 − α 2T 2 ).
2α 2α
In terms of d ξ 0 /dS = x0 and d ξ 3 /dS = x3 , we have
Hence
dξ 0 αT dξ 3 −(1 + α S)
k2 = , =
= α T, α (k8 − k2 ) = 1 − α T ,
2 2 2 2 2
dS (α T )2 − (1 + α S)2 dS (α T )2 − (1 + α S)2
k8
or We rewrite the first equation as
k2 = α T k8 , α 2 k82 (1 − α 2T 2 ) = 1 − α 2 T 2 . dξ 0 αT 1 −T
= 2 2 = ,
dS α (T − (S + 1/α )2) α (S + 1/α )2 − T 2
Thus we can take k8 = 1/α and k2 = T . To determine k7 ,
we use the initial condition η ′ (0) = v. In fact, we need and find (setting the constant of integration equal to zero)
only
dξ 0 d ξ 0 du −k2 1 T
= = ·
1
· k7 ξ 0
= tanh−1
.
dS du dS α u2 − k22 α S + 1/α
When S = 0, We rewrite the second equation as
d ξ 0 −k2 1 k7 · − α T −α T dξ 3 α (S + 1/α ) 1 2(S + 1/α )

= · 2 · k7 = = , = 2 = ,
dS α k8 − k22 1−α T 2 2 1 − α 2T 2 dS α ((S + 1/α ) − T ) 2α (S + 1/α )2 − T 2
2 2

and find (incorporating an additive integration constant in with

the form ln c3 /2α into the main expression) αT
tanh(ατ ) = .
αS + 1
1
ξ3 = ln c3 ((S + 1/α )2 − T 2 ) . Then
2α αT
sinh(ατ ) = p
The initial condition is (α S + 1)2 − α 2 T 2
1 1 Now q
ln(1 − α 2T 2 ) = ξ 3 (0) = ln c3 (1/α )2 − T 2 , αζ = ln (α S + 1)2 − α 2 T 2 ,
2α 2α
implying c3 = α 2 : so q
eαζ = (α S + 1)2 − α 2 T 2 ,
1
ξ3 = ln α 2 ((S + 1/α )2 − T 2 ) .
2α and hence
αT
sinh(ατ ) =
.
eαζ
d) We constructed (T, S) as Fermi coordinates. On the
geodesic C, given as ζ (T ) = (τ (T ), ζ (T )), we have Therefore, the curve T = constant is the graph of

tanh(ατ ) = α T. 1 αT
τ = sinh−1 αζ .
α e
An identity for hyperbolic functions then provides
In the figure below, α is chosen to equal 1; the curves
p p
1
= 1 − tanh (ατ ) = 1 − α 2 T 2 ;
2 S = constant are the ones that are horizontal when τ = 0.
cosh(ατ ) 1.0
hence
− ln(cosh(ατ )) 1
ln(1 − α 2T 2 ) = ζ .
0.5
=
α 2α
That is, C is the graph of ζ = − ln(cosh(ατ ))/α , and it is 0.0
also the curve for which S = 0.
For S = constant 6= 0, the analysis is similar.
αT
-0.5
T
tanh(ατ ) = = .
S + 1/α αS + 1
The hyperbolic function identity yields -1.0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
q p
1 (α S + 1)2 − α 2 T 2
= 1 − tanh (ατ ) =
2
.
cosh(ατ ) αS + 1 7.3 The Matter Field Equations
Therefore,
1. By the intrinsic definition of the Christoffel symbols
− ln(cosh(ατ )) 1 ln(α S + 1) of the first kind,
= ln((α S + 1)2 − α 2 T 2 ) − ,
α |2α α
{z } ∂ g jh ∂ gi j ∂ gih
ζ 2Γih, j = + h − ,
∂ xi ∂x ∂xj
or ∂ gih ∂ g ji ∂ g jh
− ln(cosh(ατ )) ln(α S + 1) 2Γ jh,i = + h − ,
ζ= + . ∂xj ∂x ∂ xi
α α ∂ gi j ∂ g ji ∂ gi j
This is a vertical translation of C by ∆ζ = ln(α S + 1)/α , 2Γih, j + 2Γ jh,i = + h =2 h,
∂x h ∂x ∂x
For the curves T = constant, we make use of the iden-
tity or Γih, j + Γ jh,i = ∂ gi j /∂ xh . Therefore,
tanh(ατ )
sinh(ατ ) = q , ∂ gi j j
1 − tanh2 (ατ ) gi j h = gi j Γih, j + gi j Γ jh,i = Γiih + Γ jh = 2Γkkh .
∂x

7.3. THE MATTER FIELD EQUATIONS 93
2. a) We use the fact that g21 = g12 ; then c) This is Theorem 5 in Ch. X, § 2 of A Survey of Modern
Algebra.
g22 1 ∂ g −g21 1 ∂ g
g11 = = , g12 = = ,
g g ∂ g11 g g ∂ g12 d) The symmetry of G allows us to write the result of
−g12 1 ∂ g g11 1 ∂g part (c) as
g21 = = , g22 = = , 1 1 ∂g
g g ∂ g21 g g ∂ g22 g i j = ∆i j = .
g g ∂ gi j
b) The solutions to Exercise 1 and 2a together with the The rest of the argument in the solution to Exercise 2 then
chain rule (∂ g/∂ xh = ∂ g/∂ gi j · ∂ gi j /∂ xh ) establish goes through unchanged, leading once again to
√
1 ∂ gi j 1 1 ∂ g ∂ gi j 1 1 ∂g 1 ∂ α h −g
Γkkh = gi j h = = ah;h = √ .
2 ∂x 2 g ∂ g i j ∂ xh 2 g ∂ xh −g ∂ xh
Then, quite generally,
4. a) By definition,
∂ 1 ∂g 1 ln |g|
ln |g| = , so Γkkh = .
∂x h g ∂ xh 2 ∂ xh ∂ Γhik ∂ Γhih
Rik = Rhihk = − + Γikp Γhph − Γih
p h
Γ pk
We are given that g < 0, so |g| = −g and ∂ xh ∂ xk
For the second term on the right, we have (Exercise 2b)
1 √
ln |g| = ln −g, √ √
2 ∂ ln −g ∂ Γhih ∂ 2 ln −g
Γhih = , so = .
so √ √ ∂ xi ∂ xk ∂ xi ∂ xk
∂ ln −g 1 ∂ −g
Γkkh = =√ . Replacing Γhph in the third term in a similar way, we obtain
∂ xh −g ∂ xh
√ √
c) By the definition of the covariant derivative and by the ∂ Γhik ∂ 2 ln −g p ∂ ln −g
Rik = − + Γ − Γih
p h
Γ pk .
solution to part (b), ∂ xh ∂ xi ∂ xk ik ∂ xp
√
∂ αh ∂ αh α k ∂ −g
α;hh = + α Γ
k h
= + √ . b) We must show that the terms are unchanged when we
∂ xh hk
∂ xh −g ∂ xk exchange i ↔ k. For the second term, this is obvious. For
It is also true (by the product rule) that the first and third, we have Γki∗ = Γik∗ . For the last term,
√ we use the following sequence of equalities that finish by
√ √
1 ∂ α h −g ∂ α h −g α h ∂ −g exchanging the dummy indices p ↔ h:
√ = √ + √ .
−g ∂ xh ∂ xh −g −g ∂ xh
Γkh
p h
Γ pi = Γhk
p h
Γip = Γhip Γhk
p
= Γih
p h
Γ pk .
Hence, with a change k → h in the dummy index, we get
√ All term remain unchanged, so Rki = Rik .
h 1 ∂ α h −g
a;h = √ . c) If g ≡ −1, then the Ricci tensor reduces to
−g ∂ xh
∂ Γhik
Rik = − Γih
p h
Γ pk .
3. a) This is a standard result in linear algebra; see, for ∂ xh
example, the classic text A Survey of Modern Algebra by
Birkhoff and MacLane, Ch. X, § 1. 5. We are given that G is the rest frame for the swarm and
that νe is the numerical density of the swarm at rest. [To
b) Each matrix Gip , p = 1, . . . , 4, excludes the entire ith distinguish density ν (Greek nu) from velocity v (Roman
row of G, and therefore excludes the element gi j in that vee), we continue to put a tilde over the nu; see the com-
row. Therefore, ∆ip = ± detGip is independent of that el- ment on page 18 above.] Suppose C’s 3-velocity in G’s
ement, so ∂ ∆ip /∂ gi j = 0. If frame is V; the text shows that√ the numerical density of
the swarm in C’s frame is νe / 1 − V 2 (where V denotes
g = gip ∆ , sum on p but not i,
ip
the Euclidean length of V in the usual way).
then we must have In G, we can write C’s proper 4-velocity in G as

∂g ∂ gip ip 1 1
= ∆ + gip · 0 = δ j p ∆ip = ∆i j . UG = √ ,√ V .
∂ gi j ∂ gi j 1 −V2 1 −V2

In G, the particle density 4-vector is of 4-velocity U all have the dimensions of velocity. Be-
cause the dimensions of µ and νe are mass and length−3,
NG = (νe , 0), respectively, the dimensions of each T i j are
because the swarm is at rest there. Their Minkowski inner mass × velocity2 energy
3
= .
product is length length3
νe
NG · UG = √ ,
1 −V2 b) Energy has dimensions of mass × velocity2 while mo-
the numerical density of the swarm in C’s frame. mentum has dimensions of mass × velocity. Because T α 0
3
Now suppose R moves with 3-velocity v with respect has dimensions of energy/length , it represents spatial
α
density of energy. By contrast, T 0 /c has dimensions of
to G; then the boost Bv maps G to R, and
momentum/length3 and thus represents spatial density of
UR = Bv (UG ), NR = Bv (NG ). of momentum in the α -direction.
By expressing the dimensions of T i j in the form
Because Minkowski inner product is invariant under
boosts, numerical density of the swarm in C’s frame is kg m 2 kg × m/sec 1
3
× = × 2
m sec sec m
νe we see that it represents the flow of momentum across a
√ = NG · UG = Bv (NG · UG ) = NR · UR ,
1 −V2 plane (namely, a plane perpendicular to the j-direction).
Therefore, c · T 0β represents the flow of energy across a
as we had to show.
plane perpendicular to the β -direction.
6. a) By definition, the energy–momentum tensor of a 8. a) First of all, the components qi of an event all have
swarm of noninteracting particles is defined as the dimensions of length; the components gi j of the met-
ric tensor are dimensionless. This can be seen from the
T i j = pi n j computation s
Z b
where dqi dq j
gi j dt
a dt dt
P = (p0 , p1 , p2 , p3 ), N = (n0 , n1 , n2 , n3 )
of the length of the curve qi (t). Therefore g and the gi j
are the 4-vectors of momentum and particle density of the are dimensionless; neither raising nor lowering an index
swarm, respectively, in a particular inertial frame. If the alters dimensions.
proper 4-velocity of the swarm is The Christoffel symbols, as combinations of ∂ gi j /∂ qk ,
have the dimensions of length−1 . The Riemann cur-
U = (u0 , u1 , u2 , u3 ), vature tensor, involving products of Christoffel symbols
and derivatives of them by the ql , has the dimensions of
µ is individual rest mass, and νe is rest density, then length−2 . The same is true of the Ricci tensor.
The text, page 171, reports that the potential function
pi = µ ui and ni = νeui . Φ has the dimensions of velocity2 . Therefore, after two
spatial derivatives are taken, ∇2 Φ has the dimensions of
It follows that time−2 .
T i j = µ νeui u j ,
and this expression holds whether traditional or dimen- 9. a) The solution to Exercise 8 established that g−2
i j is di-
sionally homogeneous coordinates are used. mensionless and Ri j has the dimensions of length . The
same must be true of the contraction R. The solution to
b) The previous result makes it immediate that T i j is Exercise 8 also notes that lowering an index does not alter
symmetric: dimensions, so Ti j has the dimensions
T ji = µ νeu j ui = µ νeui u j = T i j . energy mass × length2 /time2 mass

3
= = .
length length3 length × time2
7. a) When the components x0 , . . . , x3 of 4-position X all Because Λ is introduced in the equation ∇2 Φ − ΛΦ =
have the dimensions of length, the components u0 , . . . , u3 4π Gρ , it must have the dimensions length−2 .

b) The text, on page 375, establishes that the portion b) Let θ , ϕ , and ω be q1 , q2 , and q3 , respectively, with
Ri j − 21 gi j R has zero divergence. For the other portion we xi = ∂ x/∂ qi . Then
have 
(gi j Λ);k = gi j;k Λ = 0 
x1 = −r sin θ cos ϕ cos ω ,

y = r cos θ cos ϕ cos ω ,
1
by the solution to Exercise 9 of § 6.5 (Solutions page 76). x1 :

z1 = 0,
This implies zero divergence for the second portion and 

hence for the entire left-hand side. u1 = 0;

c) With Ti j ≡ 0, raising an index in the equation gives 
x2 = −r cos θ sin ϕ cos ω ,

y = −r sin θ sin ϕ cos ω ,
2
x2 :
0 = Rhi − 12 δih R − δih Λ.
 2 = r cos ϕ cos ω ,

z

u2 = 0;
Contraction then gives (with Rii = R, δii = 4) 
x3 = −r cos θ cos ϕ sin ω ,


0 = R − 2R − 4Λ = −R − 4Λ, y = −r sin θ cos ϕ sin ω ,
2
x3 :
z2 = −r sin ϕ sin ω ,

or R = −4Λ. Therefore, still with Ti j ≡ 0, we have 

u2 = r cos ω .

Ri j = gi j 2 R + Λ = gi j (−2Λ + Λ) = −gi j Λ.
1
Therefore the metric (ai j ) is given by the 3 × 3 diagonal
matrix
d) The equation Ri j = gi j Λ just obtained declares that the  2 2 
empty universe (Ti j ≡ 0) is not flat (i.e., Ri j 6= 0) if Λ 6= 0. r cos ϕ cos2 ω
 r2 cos2 ω .
e) For simplicity, let κ = 8π G/c , so the field equations
4
r2
have the form
Ri j − 12 gi j (R + 2Λ) = κ Ti j . c) A 4 × 3 matrix M defines a linear map M : R3 → R4 .

The image of the unit cube is a parallelepiped in R4 whose
Raising an index and contracting gives edges are the three columns of M. Theorem 7 of Ch. X,
§ 3 of Birkhoff and MacLane’s A Survey of Modern Alge-
R − 2R − 4Λ = κ T. bra declares that the square of the volume of that paral-
lelepiped is det Mt M. (Note: in the book, our linear map
Thus −R− 4Λ = κ T , so R+ 2Λ = −κ T − 2Λ. This allows M acts on a row vector as multiplication by Mt on the
us to rewrite the field equations as right; to compensate, we have interchanged √ M and Mt in
the statement of the theorem.) Thus, det M M is the vol- t
Ri j − 12 gi j (−κ T − 2Λ) = κ Ti j , ume magnification factor of the map M.
Let X be the 4 × 3 matrix whose columns √ are the vec-
or tors x , x , x , evaluated at a point q. Then detX t X is
1 2 3
Ri j + gi j Λ = κ Ti j − 2 gi j T .
1
the local volume magnification factor for the map x in the
3-dimensional tangent space to S3 (r) at x(q). The entry in
the ith row and jth column of X t X is xi ·xp j ; in other words,
10. a) We have √
the local magnification factor for x is det(ai j ) = a.
Therefore, if D is any region in Ω,
x2 + y2 = r2 cos2 ϕ cos2 ω ;
ZZZ
√
therefore vol D = a dθ dϕ dω .
D
x2 + y2 + z2 = r2 cos2 ω
Now a = r6 cos2 ϕ cos4 ω , so when D = Ω we have
and finally
Z 2π Z π /2 Z π /2
x2 + y2 + z2 + u2 = r2 .
V = vol Ω = r3 d θ cos ϕ d ϕ cos2 ω d ω
3 0 −π /2 −π /2
This implies that the image of x lies in S (r). The ranges
of θ , ϕ , and ω guarantee that x is onto. = 2π r3 · 2 · 12 π = 2π 2 r3 .

11. a) The Minkowski metric on E = R × S3(r) will just because of the symmetry Rki = Rik , it is sufficient to con-
be the unit metric on “time” factor R combined with neg- sider i ≤ k. There are no nonzero terms in which at least
ative of the metric (ai j ) on the “space” factor S3 (r). This one index is 0; thus all R0k = 0.
yields the given (gi j ). Now consider i = 1. When k = 1 the second derivative
of L is zero and we have
b) The only nonzero derivatives are
∂ Γ211 ∂ Γ311 ∂L ∂L
∂ g11 R 11 = + + Γ211 2 + Γ311 3
= 2r cos ϕ sin ϕ cos ω ,
2 2 ∂ x 2 ∂ x 3 ∂ x ∂ x
∂ x2
− Γ12 Γ11 − Γ13 Γ11 − Γ11 Γ21 − Γ311 Γ131
1 2 1 3 2 1
∂ g11
= 2r cos ϕ cos ω sin ω ,
2 2
= cos2 ϕ − sin2 ϕ + cos2 ϕ cos2 ω − cos2 ϕ sin2 ω
∂ x3
∂ g22 − sin2 ϕ − 2 cos2 ϕ sin2 ω + 2 sin2 ϕ + 2 cos2 ϕ sin2 ω
= 2r2 cos ω sin ω .
∂x 3
= cos2 ϕ 1 + cos2 ω − sin2 ω = 2 cos2 ϕ cos2 ω
Therefore, 2
= − 2 g11 .
Γ11,2 = −Γ12,1 = −r cos ϕ sin ϕ cos ω ,
2 2 r
Γ11,3 = −Γ13,1 = −r2 cos2 ϕ cos ω sin ω , When k = 2 or 3, then Γh1k = 0 when h = 2 or 3, so the
first and third terms in the formula for R1k are zero. The
Γ22,3 = −Γ23,2 = −r2 cos ω sin ω . second term continues to be zero. The fourth term has the
To determine the Christoffel symbols of the second kind form p
we need Γ1h Γhpk .
If p = 1, then h must be 2 or 3 for the first factor to be
−1 −1 −1
g11 = , g22 = , g33 = ; nonzero, but then the second factor is zero. If p = 2 or 3,
r cos ϕ cos2 ω
2 2 r cos2 ω
2 r2
then h must be 1 to make the first factor nonzero, but then
then the second factor is zero. Thus R1k = 0; because g1k = 0
also, R1k = −2g1k /r2 .
Γ211 = g22 Γ11,2 = sin ϕ cos ϕ , Now consider i = 2. When k = 2 we have
Γ311 = g33 Γ11,3 = cos2 ϕ sin ω cos ω , ∂ Γ322 ∂ 2L ∂L
R22 = − + Γ322 3
Γ322= g Γ22,3 = sin ω cos ω ,
33
∂ x3 ∂ (x2 )2 ∂x
− sin ϕ − Γ121 Γ112 − Γ223Γ322 − Γ322Γ232
Γ121 = Γ112 = g11 Γ12,1 = = − tan ϕ ,
cos ϕ = cos2 ω − sin2 ω + sec2 ϕ − 2 sin2 ω
− sin ω
Γ131 = Γ113 = g11 Γ11,3 = = − tan ω , − tan2 ϕ + 2 sin2 ω = 2 cos2 ω = −
2
cos ω r2
g22 .
− sin ω
Γ232 = Γ223 = g22 Γ23,2 = = − tan ω . When k = 3, the first and second terms are zero, and we
cos ω
have
c) We have g = −a = −r6 cos2 ϕ cos4 ω and ∂L
R23 = Γ223 2 − Γ121 Γ113 = tan ω tan ϕ − tan ϕ tan ω = 0.
√ ∂x
L = ln −g = ln(r3 cos ϕ cos2 ω )
Because g23 = 0, we have R23 = −2g23/r2 .
= 3 ln r + ln(cos ϕ ) + 2 ln(cos ω ). Finally, consider i = 3 and k = 3. We have
In preparation for computing Rik we note ∂ 2L
R33 = − − Γ131 Γ113 − Γ232Γ323
∂L ∂L ∂ (x3 )2
= − tan ϕ , = −2 tan ω ,
∂ x2 ∂ x3 = 2 sec2 ω − tan2 ω − tan2 ω = 2.
∂ 2L ∂ 2L
= − sec2 ϕ , = −2 sec2 ω , Because g33 = −r2 , we have R33 = −2g33/R2 . Thus
∂ (x2 )2 ∂ (x3 )2 R00 = 0 and Ri j = −2gi j /r2 for all (i, j) 6= (0, 0).
while all other first and second derivatives of L are zero.
We now compute Rik using the formula 12. a) For the mixed tensor we have
(
∂ Γhik ρ c2 , j = 0,
∂ 2L ∂L 0 0h 00
T j = T gh j = T g0 j =
Rik = − + Γikp p − Γih
p h
Γ pk ; 0, j 6= 0
∂ xh ∂ xi ∂ xk ∂x

If i 6= 0, then T ji = T ih gh j = 0. For the covariant tensor,

(
ρ c2 , j = 0,
T0 j = g0h T jh = g00 T j0 =
0, j 6= 0.
If i 6= 0, then Ti j = gih T jh = gii T ji = 0. In summary,
T00 = T00 = ρ c2 , T ji = Ti j = 0 otherwise.
The Laue scalar is T = Tii = ρ c2 .

b) First take i = j = 0; then the matter field equation re-
duces to
8π G 8 π G ρ c2
0+Λ·1= 4
ρ c2 − 12 · 1 · ρ c2 = 4 · ,
c c 2
or
4 π Gρ
Λ= .
c2
For (i, j) 6= (0, 0), we use Ri j = −2gi j /r2 and the matter
field equation becomes

2 8π G ρ c2 4 π Gρ
− 2 + Λ gi j = 4 · − gi j = − 2 gi j .
r c 2 c
When i = j, we can divide by gi j and get
2 4 π Gρ
− +Λ = − 2 .
r2 c

Consequences
8.1 The Newtonian Approximation 2. a) Let B = O(a) as a → 0; then O(B) = O(a) and
1
1. The determinant of (gi j ) consists of products of four = 1 − B + B2 + · · · = 1 + O(B),
1+B
factors, with one factor taken from each row and each col- √
umn. One possibility is to choose the factors on the main 1 + B = 1 + 12 B + · · · = 1 + O(B).
diagonal. The resulting product is
These translate to
3 (2) !
g 1 p
∏ Jii + cii2 + O c4
1
= 1 + O(a), 1 + O(a) = 1 + O(a).
i=0 1 + O(a)
(2) (2) (2) (2)
g g g g 1
= −1 − 002 + 112 + 112 + 112 + O 4 . b) By part (a),
c c c c c
s
Every other such product must exclude at least two of the dt 1 1
main diagonal entries, and thus has order at least 1/c4 . = 1+O 2 = 1+O 2 ,
dτ c c
Therefore,
(2) (2) (2) (2) and
g − g11 − g22 − g33 1
−g = 1 + 00 + O .
c2 c4 dτ 1 1 1
= = = 1 + O .
For the logarithm function we have dt dt/d τ 1 + O(1/c 2) c 2
ln(1 + A) = A + O(A2) as A → 0;
3. Page 392 of the text notes the following:
therefore, if we let
1 ∂ gkl 1
(2) (2) (2) (2)
g00 − g11 − g22 − g33 Γk0,k = O 3 , = O ,
A= + O
1
, c ∂ x0 c3
c 2 c4
while, in general
then A2 = O(1/c4 ) and
√ 1 ∂ gkl 1
ln −g = 21 ln(1 + A) Γkl,i = O 2 , =O 2 ,
c ∂x α c
(2) (2) (2) (2)
g00 − g11 − g22 − g33 1
= +O . (We keep the convention that Roman indices i, j, . . . run
2c2 c4
from 0 to 3 while Greek indices α , β , . . . run from 1 to 3.)
Finally, the inverse of g jk has the form We have

ij ij 1
g = J +O 2 Γhh0 = ghk Γho,k = ghh Γh0,h + ghl Γh0,l , l 6= h.
c
because The nondiagonal element ghl has order 1/c2 so every

1 1 ghl Γh0,l has order at least 1/c4. The diagonal element ghh
gi j g jk = J i j J jk + O = δki + O . has order 1, so the term ghh Γh0,h has order 1/c3; it domi-
c2 c2
nates Γhh0 , which thus has order 1/c3 .
98

8.1. THE NEWTONIAN APPROXIMATION 99
When (k, l) 6= (0, 0) we can write b) We must simply modify the argument in STEP 2, text
page 391:
Γhkl = ghh Γkl,h + gh j Γkl, j , j 6= h.
dx0 dx0 dt 1
hh h j
Because g has order 1 and g has order 1/c , while 2 = = c 1 + O = c + O(1),
d τ dt d τ c
Γkl,h and Γkl, j have order 1/c , the first term dominates
2
and gives Γhkl order 1/c2 . d 2 x0 d dt 1
= c + O(1) = O(1) 1 + O = O(1).
dτ 2 dt dτ c
4. We modify STEP 1 of the discussion in the text, pages
390–391, by incorporating the new assumption ẋα = O(c) In the Newtonian approximation, the first relativistic
0 k l 2
along with ẋ = c. We now have ẋ ẋ = O(c ) for all k, l, equation of motion is ignored as negligible because all
so terms have order at most 1/c. It then becomes possible
k
gkl ẋ ẋ l to identify the remaining three with the three Newtonian
2
= g00 + O(1) = 1 + O(1). equations.
c
Therefore, In the present circumstances, the first relativistic equa-
s tion is not negligible because the left-hand side, at least,
k
gkl ẋ ẋ l p has order 1. There are now four four significant relativis-
dτ = dt = 1 + O(1) dt = (1 + O(1)) dt. tic equations, so it is impossible to match them with the
c2
three Newtonian equations. In this way the Newtonian
As a consequence, the difference between the proper-time approximation breaks down.
and the world-time derivatives of the spatial variables is c) To find the dominant terms in Γα it will be enough to
00
not negligible. We have modify STEP 3 of the text (page 392). The new facts we
dxα dxα dt take into account are
= = ẋα (1 + O(1)) = ẋα + O(1),
dτ dt d τ ∂ gkl 1 ∂ gkl 1 ij ij 1
=O , =O 2 , g = J +O
d 2 xα d α dt ∂x α c ∂x 0 c c
= ẋ + O(1) = ẍα + O(1).
dτ 2 dt dτ Then
5. a) To determine the new relation between d τ and dt, Γα00 = gαα Γ00,α + gα 0Γ00,0 + gαβ Γ00,β

we still use the metric expression 1 1 ∂ g0α ∂ g00
= −1 + O 2 0 − α
c 2 ∂x ∂x
gkl ẋk ẋl ẋα ẋα Ẋ β
2
= g00 + 2g0α + gαβ 2 . 1 1 ∂ g00 1 1 ∂ g0β ∂ g00
c c c +O + O 2 −
c 2 ∂ x0 c 2 ∂ x0 ∂ xβ
If we now assume (1)
1 ∂ g00 1
1 (1) 1 = α
+O 2 ,
gkl = Jkl + g jk + O 2 , 2c ∂ x c
c c
and
then the metric expression becomes (using ẋα = O(1))
Γα0β = gαα Γ0β ,α + gα 0Γ0β ,0 + gαγ Γ0β ,γ
(1) (1)
1+
g00
+O 2 +2
1 g 0α
·O
1
+O 2
1 1 1 ∂ gαβ ∂ g0α ∂ g0β
c c c c c = −1 + O + −
c 2 ∂ x0 ∂ xβ ∂ xα
(1)
g 1 1 1 ∂ g00
= 1 + 00 + O 2 . +O
c c c 2 ∂ xβ

√ 1 1 ∂ gγβ ∂ g0β ∂ g0β
Therefore, because 1 + x = 1 + x/2 + O(x2), we have +O + −
s s c 2 ∂ x0 ∂ xγ ∂ xγ
(1)  
(1)
gkl ẋk ẋl 1  ∂ g 0β
g00 (1)
= 1 + + O
1 ∂ g 0α  1
c 2 c c2 = α
− + O .
2c ∂ x ∂x β c2
(1)
g 1
= 1 + 00 + O 2 . With these facts, the relativistic equation
2c c
α 2
d 2 xα α dx 0
α dx dx
β β
α dx dx
γ
(1)
Thus d τ = (1 + A/c + O(1/c2)) dt, where A = g00 /2. = −Γ − 2Γ 0β − Γβγ
dτ 2 00
dτ dτ dτ dτ dτ

100 SOLUTIONS: CHAPTER 8. CONSEQUENCES
assumes the form and

 
(1) (1)
∂ g 0β (1) γ
c ∂ g00 1 ∂ g 0α  β 1 ∂ Γαβ γ
∂ Γαγ
ẍα = − α
−  − ẋ + O γ γ
+ Γ p Γ γ − Γαγ
p γ
Γαβ
2 ∂x 2 ∂ xα ∂x β c Rαγβ = −
∂x ∂ xβ αβ p
γ

1 1 1 1
This differs from the Newtonian expression two ways: in = O 2 +O 2 +O 4 −O 4
c c c c
the presence of the factor c in the first term on the right,
and in the presence of a second term involving ẋβ . =O 2 ,
1
c
6. a) P = (mc, mv1 , mv2 , mv3 ) and N = (nc, nv1, nv2 , nv3 ),
with mn = ρ , vα = O(1); therefore Thus Rik = O(1/c2 ) for all i, k.
α0 0α α
T 00
= ρc ,
2
T =T = ρ cv = O(c),
T αβ = ρ vα vβ = O(1).
8.2 Spherically Symmetric Fields
To determine T = T00 + Tαα , we need
T00 = g00 T 00 + g0β T 0β 1. The sum of dx2 , dy2 and dz2 produces the following

= 1 + O(1/c2) ρ c2 + O(1/c2) · O(c) terms, with coefficients as indicated:
= ρ c2 + O(1),
dr2 : sin2 ϕ cos2 θ + sin2 ϕ sin2 θ + cos2 ϕ = 1,
Tαα = gαα T αα + gα 0T 0α + gαγ T γβ
dr d ϕ : 2r sin ϕ cos ϕ cos2 θ + 2r sin ϕ cos ϕ
2 2
= O(1) + O(1/c ) · O(c) + O(1/c ) − 2r cos ϕ sin ϕ = 0,
= O(1).
dr d θ : −2r sin2 ϕ sin θ cos θ + 2r sin2 ϕ sin θ cos θ = 0,
Therefore, T = ρ c2 + O(1).
The computations assume a d ϕ 2 : r2 cos2 ϕ cos2 θ + r2 cos2 ϕ sin2 θ + r2 sin2 ϕ = r2 ,
weak gravitional field, so gi j = Ji j + O(1/c2).
d ϕ d θ : −2r2 cos ϕ sin ϕ cos θ sin θ
b) The text (page 394) considers R00 but raises the ques-
tion of the value of R0000 . We note Rijkk = 0 for all i, j, k, + 2r2 cos ϕ sin ϕ sin θ cos θ = 0,
so R0000 = 0 as claimed. Thus we find d θ 2 : r2 sin2 ϕ sin2 θ + r2 sin2 ϕ cos2 θ = r2 sin2 ϕ .
(2)
1 3 ∂ 2 g00 1 Thus
R00 = 2 ∑ + O .
2c α =1 ∂ (xα )2 c3
x2 + dy2 + dz2 = dr2 + r2 d ϕ 2 + r2 sin2 ϕ d θ 2 .
i β
For Rα 0 = Rα i0 = Rαβ 0 we have
β
β ∂ Γβα 0 ∂ Γαβ β β 2. To compute the Christoffel symbols of the second
Rαβ 0 = − + Γp Γ − Γp Γ kind, we need the following expressions for γ hh = 1/γhh
xβ ∂ x0 α 0 pβ αβ α 0
∂
1 1 1 1 (which follow from 1/(1 + A) = 1 − A + O(A2)).
= O 2 +O 3 +O 4 −O 4
c c c c
1 2Ψ(r) 1
1 γ 00
= = 1− 2 +O 3 ,
=O 2 . 1 + 2Ψ(r)/c2 + O(1/c3) c c
c
−1 P(r) 1
γ
For Rαβ = Riα iβ = Rα0 0β + Rαγβ , γ 6= β , we have γ 11 = = −1 − 2 + +O 3 ,
1 − P(r)/c2 + O(1/c3) c c
−1
∂ Γ0αβ
∂ Γ0 γ 22 = ,
Rα0 0β = − αβ0 + Γαβ
p
Γ0p0 − Γαp 0 Γαβ
0 r2
∂x ∂ x
0
−1
1 1 1 1 γ 33 = .
= O 3 +O 2 +O 4 −O 4 r2 sin2 ϕ
c c c c

=O 2 ,
1 As noted in the text, Γhjk will involve just the single term
c γ hh Γ jk,h because γ hi = 0 if h 6= i. For the Christoffel sym-

8.2. SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC FIELDS 101
bols of he first kind, we have: Every term off the main diagonal involves either Γh11 with
h 6= 1 or else a symbol with three different indices and is
1 ∂ γ00 1 ∂ γ00 Ψ′ (r) 1
Γ10,0 = = = 2 +O 3 , thus zero. The remaining four terms are
2 ∂ξ1 2 ∂r c c
2 2 2 2
1 ∂ γ11 1 ∂ γ11 P′ (r) 1 Γ010 + Γ111 + Γ212 + Γ313 .
Γ11,1 = = = + O ,
2 ∂ξ1 2 ∂r 2c2 c3
The first two have order 1/c4 ; each of the remaining two
1 ∂ γ22 1 ∂ γ22 is 1/r2 .
Γ12,2 = = = −r,
2 ∂ξ1 2 ∂r
1 ∂ γ33 1 ∂ γ33 3. a) Using ln(1 + A) = A + O(A2), we have
Γ13,3 = = = −r sin2 ϕ .
2 ∂ξ1 2 ∂r 2Ψ 1 2Ψ 1
ln(γ00 ) = ln 1 + 2 + O 3 = 2 +O 3 ,
Therefore, c c c c

P 1 P 1
Γ010 = γ 00 Γ10,0 ln(−γ11 ) = ln 1 − 2 + O 3 = 2 +O 3 .
′ c c c c
2Ψ(r) 1 Ψ (r) 1
= 1− 2 +O 3 + O Therefore, because −γ = r4 sin2 ϕ · γ00 · −γ11 , we have
c c c2 c3
√
Ψ′ (r) 1 ln −γ = 12 ln(−γ )
= 2 +O 3 ,
c c = 2 ln r + ln sin ϕ + 12 ln(γ00 ) + 21 ln(−γ11 )
Γ111 = γ Γ11,1
11
Ψ P

1
′ = 2 ln r + ln sin ϕ + 2 − 2 + O 3
P(r) 1 P (r) 1 c 2c c
= −1 − 2 + +O 3 +O 3
c c 2c2 c

−P′ (r) 1 b) The partial derivatives we need are
= +O 3 , √
2c2 c ∂ ln −γ 2 Ψ′ P′ 1
−1 1 = + 2 − 2 +O 3 ,
Γ212 = γ 22 Γ12,2 = 2 · (−r) = , ∂ξ1 r c 2c c
r r √
∂ 2 ln −γ −2 Ψ′′ P′′ 1
−1 1 = 2 + 2 − 2 +O 3 .
Γ13 = γ Γ13,3 = 2 2 · (−r sin2 ϕ ) =
3 33
∂ (ξ )
1 2 r c 2c c
r sin ϕ r
Then R11 becomes
We list all other Christoffel symbols in R11 in order to √ √
show they are zero. First, consider Γh11 = γ hh Γ11,h with ∂ Γ111 ∂ 2 ln −γ 1 ∂ ln −γ
2 2
− + Γ11 − Γ212 − Γ313
h 6= 1. Because γhi = 0 for all h 6= i and γ11 depends on ξ 1 ∂ξ1 ∂ (ξ 1 )2 ∂ξ1

alone, we have −P′′ 2 Ψ′′ P′′ P′ 2 1
= + − + − − + O
γ 00 ∂ γ10 ∂ γ11 2c2 r2 c2 2c2 rc2 r2 c3
Γ11 = γ Γ11,0 =
0 00
2 1− = 0, Ψ′′ P′

2 ∂ξ ∂ξ0 = − 2 − 2 +O 3 .
1
c rc c
γ 22 ∂ γ12 ∂ γ11
Γ211 = γ 22 Γ11,2 = 2 1− = 0,
2 ∂ξ ∂ξ2
4. At the outset we can express the possibilities as the
γ 33 ∂ γ13 ∂ γ11 entries in the following four 4 × 4 symmetric matrices:
Γ311 = γ 33 Γ11,3 = 2 1− = 0.
2 ∂ξ ∂ξ3
Γ0i j , Γ1i j , Γ2i j , Γ3i j ,
0 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ 3.
This result also means that the only nonzero terms of the
sum Γ11 Γ ph occur when p = 1; the sum itself is computed Each
p h has 10 distinct entries. We have already found that
Γ001 , Γ111 , Γ212 , and Γ313 are nonzero.
in the text. The sum Γ1h Γ p1 expands into the following
p h
We now determine systematically which Γijk are zero.
sixteen terms:
In each matrix, 3 of the 10 entries are immediately zero
Γ010 Γ001 Γ011 Γ101 Γ012 Γ201 Γ013 Γ301 because their three indices are different. To proceed, we
consider various i, j index pairs, starting with the diagonal
Γ110 Γ011 Γ111 Γ111 Γ112 Γ211 Γ113 Γ311
elements i = j. We have
Γ210 Γ021 Γ211 Γ121 Γ212 Γ221 Γ213 Γ321
hh ∂ γhi 1 ∂ γii
Γ h
= γ hh
Γ = γ − .
Γ310 Γ031 Γ311 Γ131 Γ312 Γ231 Γ313 Γ331 ii ii,h
∂ξi 2 ∂ξh

If h 6= i, the first term is zero. In detail, Γhii will be zero in For Γ323 , we have
the following cases:
γ 33 ∂ γ33 cos ϕ
Γ323 = γ 33 Γ23,3 = = .
(i, h) = (0, 0), (0, 2), (0, 3), 2 ∂ξ2 sin ϕ
(1, 0), (1, 2), (1, 3),
Modulo terms of order 1/c3 , the distinct nonzero Christof-
(2, 0), (2, 2), (2, 3), fel symbols are
(3, 0), (3, 3).
Ψ′
Γ001 = ,
Now take i = 0 < j = h; then c2
Ψ′ Ψ′ 2rΨ
γ hh ∂ γ0h ∂ γ0h Γ100 = 2 , Γ111 = − 2 , Γ122 = −r − ,
Γh0h = γ hh Γ0h,h = − = 0. c c c2
2 ∂ξh ∂ξh
2rΨ sin2 ϕ
Γ133 = −r sin2 ϕ − ,
That is, Γ101 = Γ202 = Γ303 = 0. Next, when i = h = 0 < j, c2
1
γ 00 ∂ γ00 Γ212 = , Γ233 = − sin ϕ cos ϕ ,
Γ00 j = γ Γ0 j,0 =
00
= 0 if j = 2, 3. r
2 ∂ξ j 1
Γ13 = ,
3
Γ323 = cot ϕ .
That is, Γ002 = Γ003 = 0. When i = h = 1 < j, r
γ 11 ∂ γ11 5. To obtain the geodesic equations, we use the solution

Γ11 j = γ 11 Γ1 j,1 = = 0. to the previous exercise. Because ξ 0 = ct(τ ), we have
2 ∂ξ j
d ξ 0 /d τ = c · dt/d τ and d 2 ξ 0 /d τ 2 = c2 · d 2t/d τ 2 . The
That is Γ112 = Γ113 = 0. When i = h = 2, j = 3, first geodesic equation is
γ 22 ∂ γ11 d 2t Ψ′ (r) dt dr d 2t
Γ223 = γ 22 Γ23,2 = = 0. c2 = −2 ·c or =0
2 ∂ξ3 dτ 2 c2 dτ dτ dτ 2
This shows that, altogether, 31 of the 40 distinct Christof- up to terms of order 1/c . The equation for ξ = r is
2 1
fel symbols are zero. Thus, besides Γ01 , Γ11 , Γ12 , and Γ13 ,
0 1 2 3 2
d2r Ψ′ dt 2 Ψ′ dr 2 2Ψ dϕ
there are at most five more that are nonzero. We have, with =− 2 c + 2 +r 1+ 2
h = 1, i = j 6= 1, d τ 2 c d τ c d τ c dτ
2
2Ψ dϕ 1
γ 11 ∂ γii + r sin2 ϕ 1 + 2 +O 3
Γii = −
1
. c dτ c
2 ∂ξ1 2 2 2
dt dϕ dθ
According to Theorem 8.3, P(r) = 2Ψ(r)+O(1/c); there-
′
= −Ψ (r) +r + r sin ϕ
2
dτ dτ dτ
fore, we can now write
2Ψ(r)

1 up to terms of order 1/c2 . The equations for ξ 2 = ϕ and
γ = −1 − 2 + O 3 ,
11
ξ 3 = θ are
c c
2
d2ϕ 2 dr d ϕ dθ
and hence =− + sin ϕ cos ϕ ,
d τ 2 r d τ d τ dτ
Ψ′ (r) 1
Γ00 = 2 + O 3 ,
1
d 2θ 2 dr d θ dϕ dθ
c c =− − 2 cot ϕ .
dτ 2 r dτ dτ dτ dτ
2rΨ(r) 1
Γ22 = −r −
1
+O 3 ,
c2 c
6. a) Because ϕ and θ are constant,
2rΨ(r) sin2 ϕ 1
Γ33 = −r sin ϕ −
1 2
+O 3 . dϕ d 2ϕ dθ d 2θ
c2 c = 2 = = 2 = 0.
dτ dτ dτ dτ
For Γ233 , we have Therefore, the geodesic equations for ϕ and θ are iden-
γ 22 ∂ γ33 tically zero, and the other two are (up to terms of order
Γ233 = γ 22 Γ33,2 = − 1/c2)
2 ∂ξ2
1 2
= 2 · (−2r2 sin ϕ cos ϕ ) = − sin ϕ cos ϕ . d 2t d2r ′ dt
= 0, = −Ψ (r)
2r dτ 2 dτ 2 dτ

Because these equations involve only t and r, they have 8. In the solution to Exercise 4, we showed that only
solutions. In fact, t = kτ + b and the only equation left to 9 Christoffel symbols out of the 40 distinct possibilities
solve is were nonzero. The result followed from the fact that the
d2r k2 GM weak spherical metric had the general form
= −k Ψ
2 ′
(r) = .
dτ 2 r2
γ00 = f (r), γ11 = g(r), γ22 = −r2 ,
b) The goal is to show that ϕ (t) ≡ π /2 satisfies the γ33 = −r2 sin2 ϕ , γi j = 0 otherwise,
geodesic equations, assuming that (t(τ ), r(τ ), θ (τ )) also
satisfy them. The equation for ϕ is identically zero and and f (0) = 1, g(0) = −1. Because the Schwarzschild
the other three equations reduce to metric has the same general form, the indices of its
nonzero Christoffel symbols are the same as the indicies
d 2t of the nonzero symbols of the weak spherical metric. For
= 0,
dτ 2 the Schwarzschild metric, we note first that
2 2  11
d 2r ′ dt d θ  γ ∂ γ11
= −Ψ (r) + r ,  , i = 1,
dτ 2 dτ dτ 
2 ∂ξ1
Γ1ii = γ 11 Γii,1 =
d θ
2 2 dr d θ 
 γ ∂ γii
11
=− . − , i 6= 1.
dτ 2 r dτ dτ 2 ∂ξ1
Because ϕ is absent from these three equations, they have In particular, then,
solutions for (t(τ ), r(τ ), θ (τ )).
γ 11 ∂ γ00 e−Q ′ T T ′ T −Q
Suppose instead that ϕ (0) = ϕ0 6= π /2; we must show Γ100 = − = Te = e ,
2 ∂r 2 2
ϕ (τ ) ≡ ϕ0 is not part of a solution to the geodesic equa-
tions. On the one hand, d 2 ϕ /d τ 2 must still be zero. On γ 11 ∂ γ11 −e−Q Q′
Γ111 = = −Q′ eQ = ,
the other hand, the equation for ϕ is 2 ∂r 2 2
2 γ 11 ∂ γ
22 e −Q
d 2ϕ dθ Γ122 = − = (−2r) = −re−Q ,
= sin ϕ cos ϕ =
6 0. 2 ∂r 2
0 0
dτ 2 dτ γ 11 ∂ γ33 e−Q
Γ133 = − = (−2r sin2 ϕ ) = −re−Q sin2 ϕ .
Note: while ϕ0 = 0 or ϕ = π would make the right-hand 2 ∂ r 2
side equal to zero, each choice gives a radial line found For the other nonzero Christoffel symbols, we have
already in part (a) and thus excluded here. γ 00 ∂ γ00 e−T ′ T T ′
Γ001 = γ 00 Γ01,0 = = Te = ,
7. a) First of all, the geodesic equation for t implies that 2 ∂ξ1 2 2
dt/d τ = k, a constant. Now let r = r and ϕ = π /2; then γ ∂ γ22 −r
22 −2 1
Γ212 = γ 22 Γ12,2 = = (−2r) = ,
the equation for r reduces to 2 ∂ξ1 2 r
2 γ ∂ γ33 −r sin ϕ
33 −2 −2
dθ k2 GM dθ 2 Γ313 = γ 33 Γ13,3 = = −2r sin2 ϕ
0 = −k2 Ψ′ (r) − r = − r , 2 ∂ ξ 1 2
dτ r2 dτ
1
or = ,
2 r
dθ 2
k GM
= . γ 22 ∂ γ33 r−2
dτ r3 Γ233 = − = (−2r2 sin ϕ cos ϕ )
2 ∂ϕ 2
The right-hand side is a positive constant—call it ω 2 . = − sin ϕ cos ϕ ,
Thus d θ /d τ = ω (where ω may be positive or negative).
γ 33 ∂ γ33
b) We have θ = ωτ + ω0 , t = kτ + t0 . One period, T , is Γ23 = γ Γ23,3 =
3 33
2 ∂ϕ
defined as the change in t when θ changes by 2π . That is,
−r −2 sin−2 ϕ cos ϕ
T = ∆t, 2π = ∆θ = ω ∆τ , and therefore = −2r2 sin ϕ cos ϕ = .
2 sin ϕ
2π k
T = ∆t = k∆τ = .
ω 9. a) We have γ = γ00 · γ11 · γ22 · γ33 , so
√ q
c) From part (a) and d θ /d τ = ω we have −γ = −eT (−eQ ) (−r2 ) −r2 sin2 ϕ
k2 GM GM 2 T +Q
r3 = = 2T . = r2 e 2 sin ϕ .
ω2 4π

Therefore, Therefore,

√ T +Q 1 2 T ′ + Q′
L = ln −γ = 2 ln r + + ln sin ϕ . R22 = −e−Q + rQ′ e−Q + − re−Q +
2 sin2 ϕ r 2
b) The formula for Rik involves various first and sec- cos2 ϕ
√ + 2e−Q −
ond partial derivatives of L = ln −γ . The only nonzero sin2 ϕ
derivatives are Q′ − T ′
= 1 − e−Q + re−Q · .
∂L 2 T ′ + Q′ ∂L cos ϕ 2
= + , =
∂ξ 1 r 2 ∂ξ2 sin ϕ For R33 we have
∂ 2L −2 T ′′ + Q′′ ∂ L
2 −1
= + , = . ∂ Γ133 ∂ Γ233 ∂L ∂L
∂ (ξ 1 )2 r2 2 ∂ (ξ 2 )2 sin2 ϕ R33 = + + Γ133 1 + Γ233 2 − Γ3h
p h
Γ p3
∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 2 ∂ξ ∂ξ
We then have
The last term expands as
∂ Γ100 ∂L
R00 = + Γ100 1 − Γ0h
p h
Γ p0 Γ3h
p h
Γ p3 = Γ133 Γ313 + Γ331 Γ133 + Γ233 Γ323 + Γ332 Γ233
∂ξ 1 ∂ξ
= −2e−Q sin2 ϕ − 2 cos2 ϕ .
In the last term, the only nonzero possibilities occur when
p and h equal 0 or 1: Γ0h Γ p0 = Γ001 Γ100 + Γ100Γ010 .
p h
Therefore
′′ ′ ′
′ ′

R00 = eT −Q
T T
+ (T ′ − Q′ ) +
T 2 T +Q
+ R33 = −e−Q sin2 ϕ + rQ′ e−Q sin2 ϕ − cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ
2 2 2 r 2
2 T ′ + Q′ cos ϕ
T′ T′
′′ (T ′ )2 T ′ Q′ T ′
− re −Q
sin 2
ϕ + − sin ϕ cos ϕ ·
−2 · =e T −Q T
+ − + . r 2 sin ϕ
2 2 2 4 4 r + 2e sin ϕ + 2 cos ϕ
−Q 2 2

For R11 we have Q′ − T ′
= sin2 ϕ 1 − e−Q + re−Q · = sin2 ϕ · R22 .
∂ Γ11
1 ∂ L
2 ∂L 2
R11 = − + Γ111 1 − Γ1h Γ p1
p h
∂ξ 1 ∂ (ξ ) 1 2 ∂ξ To see that all the other terms of the Ricci tensor are
The last term expands into four terms in which p = h: zero (recall R ji = Ri j ), we begin with
Γ1h
p h
Γ p1 = Γ010 Γ001 + Γ111Γ111 + Γ212Γ221 + Γ313Γ331 ∂ Γ00α ∂L
R0α = + Γ00α 0 − Γ0h
p h
Γ pα .
∂ξ 0 ∂ξ
(T ′ )2 (Q′ )2 2
= + + 2.
4 4 r All derivatives with respect to ξ 0 are zero. For the last
Thus term we must have (p, h) = (0, 1) or (1, 0). However,
Γ10α = Γ01α = 0, so the last term is zero. Hence R0α = 0.
Q′′ 2 T ′′ + Q′′ Q′ 2 T ′ + Q′ Next we consider R1α , with α = 2, 3. We have
R11 = + 2− + +
2 r 2 2 r 2
(T ′ )2 (Q′ )2 2 ∂ Γ212 ∂ Γ313
= 0, = 0,
−
4
−
4
− 2
r ∂ξ2 ∂ξ3
T ′ Q′ Q′ T ′′ (T ′ )2 so
= + − − . ∂L
4 r 2 4 R1α = Γ21α − Γ1h
p h
Γ pα .
∂ξ2
For R22 we have
The last term collapses to Γ313 Γ33α . When α = 2 we have
∂ Γ122 ∂ 2L ∂L
R22 = − + Γ122 1 − Γ2h
p h
Γ p2 1 cos ϕ 1 cos ϕ
∂ξ1 ∂ (ξ 2 )2 ∂ξ R12 = − = 0.
r sin ϕ r sin ϕ
The last term is
When α = 3, both terms are zero so R13 = 0. The last
Γ2h
p h
Γ p2 = Γ221 Γ122 + Γ122 Γ212 + Γ323 Γ332 component of the Ricci tensor to check is
cos2 ϕ
= −2e−Q + ∂ Γ323 ∂L
sin2 ϕ R23 = + Γ323 3 − Γ2h
p h
Γ p3 = 0.
∂ξ3 ∂ξ

10. The proof of Theorem 8.4 establishes that Q = −T , 12. a) Because the nonzero Christoffel sumbols of the
implying Schwarzschild and weak spherical metrics have the same
R22 = 1 − eT − rT ′ eT . indices, the nonzero terms in their geodesic equations cor-
T respond in the same way. The Christoffel symbols here
The proof also shows that e = 1 + a/r, with a arbitrary.
involve T , Q = −T , eT , and their derivatives. The text
Therefore,
′ a shows that eT = 1 − rM /r; hence
T ′ eT = eT = − 2 ,
r
T′ rM 1 1 1
and so Γ010 = = 2 = − ,
2 2r (1 − rM /r) 2 r − rM r
a a
R22 = 1 − 1 + − r · − 2 = 0. T ′ T −Q T ′ 2T 1 rM r − rM 2
r r Γ00 = e
1
= e =
2 2 2 r(r − rM ) r
11. a) We have r M (r − r M )
= ,
′′ 2r3
T (T )′ 2 TQ ′ ′ T ′ ′ ′
Q T 1 1 1
R00 = γ 00 R00 = e−T · eT −Q + − + Γ111 = =− = − ,
2 4 4 r 2 2 2 r r − rM
′′
T (T ′ )2 T ′ Q′ T ′ rM
= e−Q + − + , Γ122 = −re−Q = −reT = −r 1 − = rM − r,
2 4 4 r r

T ′′ (T ′ )2 T ′ Q′ Q′
Γ133 = Γ122 sin2 ϕ = (rM − r) sin2 ϕ ,
R1 = γ R11 = −e
1 11 −Q
− − + + 1
′′
2 4

4 r Γ212 = , Γ233 = − sin ϕ cos ϕ ,
r
T (T ′ )2 T ′ Q′ Q′
= e−Q + − − , 1 cos ϕ
2 4 4 r Γ313 = , Γ323 = .
′ r sin ϕ
1 Q T ′
R22 = γ 22 R22 = − 2 1 − e−Q + re−Q − First we consider the geodesic equations that involve
r 2 2
t = ξ 0 /c. One of them is the equation for t:
1 e−Q e−Q Q′ T ′
=− 2 + 2 − − d 2t dt dr
r r r 2 2 c2 2 = −2Γ001 · c
−1 −1 d τ d τ dτ
R33 = γ 33 R33 = 2 2 R22 sin2 ϕ = 2 R22 = R22 . 2t

r sin ϕ r d 1 1 1 dt dr
or = − .
dτ 2 c r r − rM d τ d τ
i
We calculate R = Ri in stages. We have
The other is the equation for r:
′ 2 ′ ′ ′ ′
(T ) T Q T Q 2
R00 + R11 = e−Q T ′′ + − + − , d2r dt 2 dr
2 2 r r = −Γ00 c1
− Γ111
′ dτ 2 dτ dτ
2 T Q′ 2 2 2
R22 + R33 = 2R22 = − 2 + e−Q − + 2 , dϕ dθ
r r r r − Γ122 − Γ133
dτ dτ
and then 2 2
2 rM (rM − r) dt 1 1 1 dr
(T ′ )2 ′ Q′ ′ ′ =c + −
2
R = − 2 +e−Q T ′′ + −
T
+
2T
−
2Q 2
+ 2 . 2r 3 dτ 2 r − rM r dτ
r 2 2 r r r 2 2
dϕ dθ
+ (r − rM ) + (r − rM ) sin2 ϕ .
0 1 d τ dτ
b) The vacuum field equations R0 = R/2 and R1 = R/2
imply R00 = R11 . From this we get T ′ /r = −Q′ /r and thus The remaining two equations are
T + Q = k. Arguing as on page 404 of the text, we can 2
rescale t to conclude that k = 0 and Q = −T . Substituting d2ϕ 2 dr d ϕ dθ
= − + sin ϕ cos ϕ ,
Q = −T into the field equation R2 = R/2 yields2 d τ 2 r d τ d τ dτ
d 2θ 2 dr d θ cos ϕ d ϕ d θ
2T ′ =− −2 .
′′
T + (T ) + ′ 2
= 0. dτ 2 r dτ dτ sin ϕ d τ d τ
r
This is essentially the same differential equation that the b) As in Exercise 6, we have d ϕ /d τ = d θ /d τ = 0 and
text obtained and used to deduce that eT = 1 + a/r. d 2 ϕ /d τ 2 = d 2 θ /d τ 2 = 0. The geodesic equation for t is

unchanged; it involves only t and r. The equation for r 14. a) We have

reduces to
rM 2 rM −rM
d 2r
2 2 f ′
(ρ) = 1 + + 2 ρ 1 + ·
=c 2 rM (rM − r) dt
+
1 1
−
1 dr
. 4 ρ 4 ρ 4ρ 2
dτ 2 2r 3 dτ 2 r − rM r dτ
rM rM 2rM
= 1+ 1+ −
It likewise involves only t and r. The equations for ϕ and 4 ρ 4 ρ 4ρ

θ collapse to zero. Thus any solution to the equations for rM rM
t and r, together with ϕ = ϕ and θ = θ define a (radial) = 1+ 1− .
4ρ 4ρ
solution to the four geodesic equations.
Therefore f ′ (ρ ) = 0 if either factor is zero; in particular,
c) As in the solution to Exercise 6 (b), the aim is to show
rM rM
that the function ϕ (τ ) ≡ π /2 can be part of a solution to 1− = 0 when ρ = .
the geodesic equations. The equation for t is unchanged, 4ρ 4
while the equation for r becomes When ρ = rM /4, we have rM /4ρ = 1 and thus
rM
d 2r 2 rM (rM − r) dt 2 1 1 1 dr 2 f (rM /4) = (1 + 1)2 = rM .
= c + − 4
dτ 2 2r3 dτ 2 r − rM r dτ
2
dθ b) In the expression above for f ′ (ρ ), the first factor is
+ (r − rM ) . positive for all ρ > 0 and the second factor is positive if
dτ
rM rM
Because cos ϕ ≡ 0, the equation for ϕ collapses to zero 1− > 0, or ρ > .
4ρ 4
and the equation for θ reduces to
d 2θ 2 dr d θ c) As ρ → ∞, the factor (1 + rM /(4ρ ))2 tends monotoni-
=− . cally to 1, while the factor ρ tends to ∞; hence the product
dτ 2 r dτ dτ
f (ρ ) tends to ∞. Thus f is 1–1 on [rM /4, ∞) and the image
Because the geodesic equations for t, r, and θ are inde- of this set is [r , ∞).
M
pendent of ϕ , any solution t(τ ), r(τ ), θ (τ ) of those three
equations can be combined with ϕ (τ ) ≡ π /2 to define 15. There are two basic results we need for A ≈ 0:
a geodesic. In other words, a geodesic that starts in the 1
= 1 − A + O(A2), (1 + A)2 = 1 + 2A + O(A2).
equatorial plane ϕ = π /2 stays there for all time. 1+A
13. As in the solution to Exercise 7, we look for a so- Thus,
lution to the geodesic equations of the form r(τ ) = r, rM
ϕ (τ ) = π /2. With these assumptions, the equation for t 1−
4ρ rM rM 1
takes the simple form d 2t/d τ 2 = 0, implying dt/d τ = k, rM = 1 − 1 − + O
1+ 4 ρ 4 ρ ρ 2
a constant. The equation for r then takes the form 4ρ
2
d 2r dθ rM 1
2 rM (rM − r) 2 = 1− +O .
0= 2 =c
dτ 3
k + (r − rM )
dτ
, 2ρ ρ2
2r
or Therefore
2  rM 2
dθ rM c2 2 1− 2
= k = ω 2 , a positive constant.  4ρ  rM 1
dτ 2r3  rM  = 1 −
2ρ
+ O
ρ2
1+
As in the solution to Exercise 7, we have d θ /d τ = ω , the 4ρ

period T of the motion is T = 2π k/ω , and = 1−
rM
+O
1
.
2 ρ ρ2
rM c2 T rM c2 2 GM 2
r3 = = T = T . Also,
2 2π 8π 2 4π 2 2
rM 4 rM 1
Thus there are circular orbits in the Schwarzschild metric, 1+ = 1+ +O
and they obey a Kepler’s law. The last equality follow 4ρ 2ρ ρ2

from rM = 2GM/c2 , and puts Kepler’s law in exactly the rM 1
= 1+ +O .
form it has in the weak spherical metric. ρ ρ2

8.4. PERIHELION DRIFT 107
Theorem 8.5 expresses the metric ds2 using the factors 8.4 Perihelion Drift

1 − rM /4ρ 2 rM 4
and 1+ . 1. We know kp × qk is the area of the parallelogram de-
1 + rM /4ρ 4ρ
termined by p and q. If we take the base of the parallel-
Corollary 8.1 then assumes that ρ is large. This makes ogram along the vector p, then the base has length kpk
1/ρ 2 negligible and allows us to replace the two factors and the altitude has length kqk sin θ , where θ is the angle
used in the theorem by from p to q. Therefore

1−
rM
and 1 + ,
rM kp × qk2 = kpk2 kqk2 sin2 θ = kpk2 kqk2 1 − cos2 θ
ρ ρ
= p2 q2 − (p · q)2 .
yielding the statement of the Corollary.
2. a) The description provided in Proposition 8.2 (text
8.3 The Bending of Light page 423) continues to apply here, with just a couple of
modifications. The new curve is the ellipse that is the
reflection across the y-axis of the ellipse with eccentric-
1. We have s = ct(1 + A) where A = O(1/c). Therefore ity |e|, because the two curves have the same semimajor
ct = s/(1 + A) = s(1 + O(A)) = s(1 + O(1/c)) and hence and semiminor axis lengths and they share a focus at the

dt 1 dt 1 1 origin. The center is at the point where x = −ke/(1 − e2);
c = 1+O or = +O 2 . this is negative for the original curve but positive for the
ds c ds c c
new one.
The argument in the text (page 415) then gives
b) When e = ±1, the Cartesian equation becomes
dθ d θ dt dθ 1 1 1 dθ 1
= = +O 2 = +O 2 y2 = k2 ∓ 2kx.
ds dt ds dt c c c dt c

1 ∂γ 1 This is the equation of a parabola whose symmetry axis is
=− +O 2 ; the x-axis. We can rewrite it in the form
c ∂n c
k y2
we have used the fact d θ /dt = −∂ γ /∂ n that was estab- x=± ∓ .
lished on the same page. 2 2k
Because we always assume k > 0, this is a parabola that
2. The conditions z(0) = 0, z′ (0) = 0 in Cartesian coor- opens to the left when e = +1, to the right when e = −1.
dinates become ϕ (0) = π /2, ϕ ′ (0) = 0 in spherical coor- It is a familiar fact that the focus of the parabola x = ay2
dinates. We saw in the solution to Exercise 6 (b), § 8.2 is on the x-axis at x = 1/4a, so the focus of x = ∓y2 /2k is
(Solutions page 103) that a geodesic in the weak spherical at x = ∓k/2. Because our curve is the horizontal translate
metric with these initial conditions had ϕ (t) = π /2, that of x = ∓y2 /2k by ±k/2, the focus of our curve is at the
is z(t) = 0, for all t. origin.
3. The substitution y = X tan u (so that u = ±π /2 when c) Because e2 − 1 > 0, we can rewrite the Cartesian form
y = ±∞) yields of the equation, as given in the proof of Proposition 8.2,
Z ∞ Z π /2 in the form
dy X sec2 u
= du 2
−∞ (X 2 + y2 )3/2 −π /2 X 3 sec3 u 1 ke 1
Z x − − 2 2 y2 = 1.
1 π /2 2 2 2
k /(e − 1)2 2
e −1 k /(e − 1)
= cos u du = .
X2 −π /2 X2 This describes a hyperbola whose center is at the point
The same substitution also yields (ke/(e2 − 1), 0). Its asymptotes satisfy the equation
Z ∞ Z π /2 2
3y2 dy 3X 2 tan2 u · X sec2 u 1 ke 1
= du x − − 2 2 y2 = 0.
−∞ (X + y2 )5/2
2 −π /2 X 5 sec5 u k2 /(e2 − 1)2 e2 − 1 k /(e − 1)
Z π /2 We can rewrite this as the pair of linear equations
1
= 3 sin2 u · cosu du
X2 −π /2 p ke
π /2 y = ± e2 − 1 x − 2 ,
sin3 u 2 e −1
= = . √
X2 −π /2 X2 implying that the asymptotes have slopes ± e2 − 1.

√ p
It is known that the foci of the hyperbola Because b2 − 4ac = 4 − 4(e2 − 1)(−1) = 2e, the
evaluation takes the form
(x − p)2 (y − q)2 p
− =1 1+e
a2 b2 e2 − (w − 1)2 1 w + e2 − 1
+ arcsin
lie at distance aε from the center (p, q), where ε = (1 − e2)w (1 − e2)3/2 ew
p 1−e
1 + b2/a2 is the eccentricity of the hyperbola. In our
The first term is zero at both endpoints. For the second
case, b2 /a2 = e2 − 1, so ε = |e| and aε = k|e|/(e2 − 1).
term, we have
Because the center of our hyperbola is on the x-axis at
ke/(e2 − 1), one focus is at the origin. The original curve w + e2 − 1 1 + e + (e + 1)(e − 1)
=
r = k/(1 + e cos θ ) is the half of the hyperbola that lies ew 1+e e(1 + e)
closer to the origin. 1 + (e − 1)
= = +1,
3. This integral has no obvious antiderivative, though e
Mathematica can supply a value. The following approach and
may be somewhat more transparent: it transforms the in-
tegral into one of the standard forms in a table of integrals w + e2 − 1 1 − e + (e + 1)(e − 1)
=
(Numbers 205 and 203, CRC Tables, 12th edition, 1959). ew 1−e e(1 − e)
First note that the integrand is symmetric about θ = π , 1 − (e + 1)
because = = −1.
e
cos(π − θ ) = cos(π + θ ) = − cos(θ ). Therefore,
1+e
It follows that w + e2 − 1
arcsin = π,
Z 2π Z π ew
dθ dθ 1−e
=2 ,
0 (1 + e cos θ )2 0 (1 + e cos θ )
2 and thus
Z 2π
dθ 2π
so we will work with the integral over the domain [0, π ]. = .
Next we make the transformation v = e cos θ , so that 0 (1 + e cos θ )2 (1 − e2)3/2
dv = −e sin θ d θ , or Because the semimajor axis length is a = J 2 /µ (1 − e2 )
−dv −dv (this a is not related to the a in X, above), we can finally
dθ = =√ . write
e sin θ e2 − v2
Z 2π
Furthermore, because v = e when θ = 0 and v = −e when J3 dθ 2π a3/2 2π 3/2
T= = 1/2 = √ a ,
θ = π , we have µ2 0 (1 + e cos θ )2 µ GM
Z π Z −e which agrees completely with the earlier calculation of the
dθ −dv
= √ period of a circular orbit in the Exercises 7 (c) and 13 in
0 (1 + e cos θ )2 e (1 + v)2 e2 − v2
Z e § 8.2 (Solutions pages 103, 106).
dv
= √ 4. If the eccentricity e equals 0, then
−e (1 + v)2 e2 − v2
J 2 /µ
The further substitution w = 1 + v transforms this into r= = J 2 / µ = constant,
Z 1+e Z 1+e
1 + 0 · cos θ
dw dw
p = √ . so the orbit is a circle. The angular momentum constant
1−e w2 e − 1 + 2w − w2 r2 θ̇ = J then implies
1−e w e − (w − 12)
2 2 2
This is of the form J µ2

Z θ̇ = = .
dx r2 J3
√ , X = a + bx + cx2,
x2 X Thus angular velocity is constant. (Incidentally, this im-
plies that the period of the orbit is
with a = e2 − 1 < 0, b = 2, and c = −1. The table of
integrals evaluates this integral as 2π J 3 2π
T= = 1/2 r3/2 ,
√ µ2 µ
X b bx + 2a
− + arcsin √ . giving Kepler’s third law once again.)
ax 2(−a)3/2 x b2 − 4ac

8.4. PERIHELION DRIFT 109
5. If du/d θ ≡ 0, then u = 1/r is a constant. The orbits 8. a) The eccentricity e of an orbit and the length a of its
are circles. semimajor axis are independent quantities; therefore, per-
ihelion drift as a function of a has the form (text page 430)
6. a) The result follows from the linearity of the differ- 6π GM constant
entiation operator. We have 2π D = 2 = .
c a(1 − e2) a
L(v + w) = (v + w)′′ + (v + w) In Exercise 3, above, we showed T = constant × a3/2 ;
= v′′ + v + w′′ + w = L(v) + L(w). therefore,
2π D constant
= .
Also, T a5/2
b) According to part (a), all orbits with the same fixed
L(av) = (av)′′ + (av) = av′′ + av + a(v′′ + v) = aL(v). eccentricity have a perihelion drift over one earth century,
namely 2π D/T , that depends only on the length a of the
Thus L is linear. Hence, if L(vA ) = A and L(vB ) = B, then semimajor axis:
constant
L(vA + vB) = L(vA ) + L(vB ) = A + B. perihelion drift in one earth century = .
a5/2
Therefore, because semimajor axes of the earth and Mer-
b) The function vA is a constant, namely vA = A. There- cury are related by
fore v′′A = 0 and thus L(vA ) = vA = A. For vB , let k =
3eµ 3 /J 4 ; then aearth ≈ 2.5 × aMercury,
we see that the perihelion drift of the earth over one cen-
v′B = k sin θ + kθ cos θ , v′′B = 2k cos θ − kθ sin θ . tury is
constant 1 constant
Therefore,
5/2
= × = 0.1 × 43′′ = 4.3′′ .
aearth 2.55/2 a5/2
Mercury
L(vB ) = 2k cos θ − kθ sin θ + kθ sin θ = 2k cos θ ,
c) In the constant in the expression for perihelion drift,
as required. For vC = k cos2θ , where k = −e2 µ 3 /2J 4, we eccentricity appears only in the factor 1/(1 − e2). Because
have vC′′ = −4vC , so the earth’s perihelion drift (assuming its orbit had the ec-
centricity of Mercury’s) is only 1/10th of Mercury’s, the
3e2 µ 3 factor 1/(1 − e2 ) must be made 10 times larger. Equiva-
L(vC ) = −4vC + vC = −3vC = cos2θ ,
2J 4 lently, 1 − e2 has to be reduced by the factor 1/10.
For Mercury, 1 − e2 = 0.9577, so the new value should
as required. be 0.09577. Therefore, th earth’s eccentricity would have
to be √
7. a) This question was previously raised in Exercise 6 e = 1 − 0.09577 = 0.95.
(b) of § 8.2 (Solutions page 103). The geodesic equation
Shown below are ellipses with e = 0.2 and 0.95; their
for ϕ (τ ) in the weak spherical metric is
semimajor axis lengths are roughly equal.
2 2 10
ϕ ′′ = − r′ ϕ ′ + sin ϕ cos ϕ θ ′
r
If ϕ (τ ) ≡ π /2, then ϕ ′ = ϕ ′′ = 0 and the second term 5
on the right side of the geodesic equation has the fac-
tor cos π /2 = 0. Thus ϕ (τ ) ≡ π /2 is a solution to the
geodesic equation.
-20 -15 -10 -5 5
b) The solution ϕ (τ ) ≡ π /2 satisfies the initial condi-
tions ϕ (0) = π /2 and ϕ ′ (0) = 0. By the uniqueness of so-
lutions to second order differential equations, ϕ (τ ) ≡ π /2 -5
is the only solution that satisfies these initial conditions.

That is, any solution ϕ (τ ) that satisfies the given initial
conditions must have ϕ (τ ) = π /2 for all τ . -10

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(Solman) Callahan-The Geometry of Spacetime - An Introduction To Special and General Relativity PDF

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The Geometry of Spacetime

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

1 Relativity before Einstein 1

5 Surfaces and Curvature 39

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

Relativity before Einstein

1.1 Spacetime respectively, for v0 = −2, 0, +10. The order is what we

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

4. a) We have 1.3 The Michelson–Morley Experi-

b) Direct calculation gives

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c) By Taylor’s theorem, Each vertical line is mapped to itself by both Fv and Sv .

1. a) Let A = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), B = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), C =

The first component of A × (B × C) is therefore

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

M((k − 1)X + Y j ) → M(X) + (k − 1)M(X) = kM(X). = λ 2 − (λ1 + λ2 )λ + λ1 λ2 ,

and hence that M(−rX) = −M(rX). In particular, if −k λ2 X2 = MX2 = kMX1 = kλ1 X1 = λ1 X2 ,

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

(2, 3) (1, 1) (2, 1)

The basic grid element is stretched by the factor 7 in one

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1. From the definition,

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2. From the definitions we obtain the product Thus

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c) We make use of the equation Bv = Hu , in which

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3/2 The substitutions y = sin s, dy = coss ds, 1 − y2 = cos2 s,

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

b) Set u = arctanhw; then so

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Furthermore, c) Note that Fθt = Fθ and that performing a reflection

= (τ1 τ2 )2 − 2τ1 τ2 ζ1 ζ2 + (ζ1 ζ2 )2 , 7. We compute the product Fα Fβ =

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

13. a) A hyperbolic rotation Hu preserves the lines z = = Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy2

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L(G1 G2 ) = (LG1 LG2 ) = (λ1 G1 λ2 G2 ), 1. a) 1.0

We can now consider once again the circle C of radius r 1

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DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011

Recall that, in a Galilean transformation, all time inter- 7. a) ζ z

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immediate substitution gives The Minkowski norm is

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and thus the 4-speed is 6. a) For X = (t, x, y, z), define

b) In J1,3 , below, the first diagonal entry is dimensionless

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Because 1 = D = ps − qr = ps − sinh2 u, it follows that the curvature vector is

DVI file created at 16:06, 20 January 2011