● Practical Paper 5

Independent, dependent and constant variables.

1) Methods of data collection
2) Methods of analysis which includes equation of line with gradient and y-intercept equation.
3) Additional detail including safety considerations

● Safety precautions linked to falling magnets is to use a sand tray to soften its fall.
● Keep the mass of the magnet constant.
● Relationship is valid if the graph is a straight line and pass through (0,0)
● Method to ensure that tube is vertical, e.g. set square, spirit level
● Repeat diameter measurement in different directions and find the average (micrometre)
● Method to securely fix spring to the bench e.g. tape/G-clamp
● Video (camera) shown level (by eye) with elevated ball and description of playback frame
by frame or slow motion.
● Stand on a bench with clamped rule vertically to measure vertical distance.
● Repeat experiment for each value of R and average T
● Measure frequency using an oscilloscope.
● Plot a graph of y against x where x is the independent variable.
● Mass measured using a balance.
● Repeat measurements of diameter in different directions and average.
● Adjust hall probe until maximum reading obtained.
● Avoid overheating of coil / avoid touching of coil as it may cause burns.
● Adjust/change frequency until maximum amplitude detected.
● Wear ear defenders (to prevent damage to hearing/to avoid loud sounds).
● Method to determine period from oscilloscope, e.g. no. of divisions × time-base
● Perform experiments in a quiet room.

Define Radian: The angle subtended at the centre of the circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of
circle
Define Angular Velocity: Rate of change of angle, swept away by the radius.

ω x T = 2 π , ω = theta / time , Theta = length / radius , v=wr , Φ x m = GPE where Φ= Gravitational

potential, GPE= GMm/r

Explain why vertical mass near the earth surface may be considered constant: Field lines are parallel,
field lines are radial. Height is way less than radius hence vertical mass is constant.

Newton's Law Of Gravitation: Any two point masses attract each other with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation.

Gravitational force of attraction between satellite and planet which provides centripetal force.

Gravitational potential: Work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to the point.

Gravitational field strength: Force per unit mass

Gravitational field : A region of space where a mass experiences a (gravitational) force.

Field of force: A region of space where a particle experiences a force.

A gravitational force acts always towards the centre whereas the electric force can be positive or negative
depending on the charge. Electric field can be attractive or repulsive whereas the gravitational field can
only be attractive.

Explain why gravitational potential in isolated places is negative: Potential at infinity is defined as being
zero. Forces are always attractive.So work done in moving objects from infinity.

Geostationary orbit: An orbit which is above the equator, on which the satellite moves from west to east.
The time period is 24 hours.
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F=QE , E= ΔV/ΔD , Q=CV , W=1/2QV , W=1/2CV^2 , W=Q^2/2C , E= -V/R , τ = RC ,
force = Qq / 4πε0r^2 , Energy = Qq / 4πε0r , E = −grad V , electric field is negative potential gradient

Electric field: A region of space where a charge experiences a force.

Electric field strength: It is the force per unit positive charge.
Coulombʼs Law: Any two point charges attract each other with a force that is proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of their separation
Capacitance: The charge stored per unit potential difference.
Time constant: The time taken for the charge of a capacitor to decrease to 0.37 of its original value.
Electric Potential: Work done moving unit positive charge from infinity to the point in the field.
Functions of capacitors: Storage of charge, blocks direct current, smoothing, time delay.
Potential energy of a body: It is the ability of an object to do work because of the shape/position of the
body.

Rectification: Conversion from ac to dc.

Explain why the capacitor is said to store energy but not charge:
Capacitor has equal magnitudes of (+)ve and (-)ve charge
Total charge on capacitor is zero (so does not store charge)
(+)ve and (-)ve charges to be separated
Work done to achieve this so stores energy

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a = −⍵^2 x , x = x sin(⍵t) , x = x cos(⍵t) , v = v cos(⍵t) , GPE = ½ mω^2 x^2 , v = ω√(a2 – x2)

KE = ½ mω^2 (a^2-x^2), v=wx, Total E= ½mω^2 a^2

Forced frequency: Frequency at which object is made to vibrate.

Natural frequency of vibration: Frequency at which object vibrates when free to do so.
Successful resonance example: Vibration of quartz with accurate timing.
Resonance avoided example: Vibrating metal panels which changes shape of panel.
Oscillations: It is the backward and forward movements between two points.
Free oscillations: No energy lost / Constant amplitude / Constant energy

Simple harmonic motion: Displacement proportional to acceleration at a fixed point in opposite direction to
the displacement where x is the displacement from the equilibrium position.

Resonance: Maximum amplitude of vibration of oscillating body when forced frequency equals natural
frequency.

Damping: Reduction of energy of oscillations due to resistive forces.

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F = BIL sinθ , F = BQv sinθ , E=V(H)/d , F=QE , Φ = BA sinθ , E=QV , E=∆Φ / ∆t , (BQV = QE , V = E/B),
Induced e.m.f = BAN/t

derive V(H) = BI /(ntq)

E=V(H)/d
Bqv=qE
Bvq=qV(H)/d , Bv=V(H)/d , I=navq , v=I/naq , IB/naq=V(H)/d , A=dt (d=diam & t=thick) , IB/ndtq=V(H)/d
Therefore = BI/ntq=V(H)

Φ = BA Where: Φ = magnetic flux (Webers) , B = magnetic flux density (T) , n = number density of
charge carriers, q = charge on each charge carrier

Magnetic flux linkage: NΦ = BAN (Wb)

Why are electrons in the magnetic field in the arc of a circle: Magnetic force is normal to velocity.
Magnitude of magnetic force is constant, magnetic force provides the centripetal force.

Lenz’s law: The direction of induced e.m.f. oppose the change that caused it.

Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction: Induced e.m.f is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linkage.

Magnetic field: A region of space where there is a force experienced by a current carrying conductor.
Magnetic flux: It is the product of magnetic flux density and area where area is perpendicular to the
magnetic field.

Tesla: Long straight current carrying conductor of 1A. It is the unit of magnetic flux density. Newton per
unit ampere. Newton per unit metre. Current is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Magnetic flux density: Newton per unit metre, Newton per unit ampere, current is perpendicular to
magnetic field.

Use Faraday’s Law and energy conservation to explain why the amplitude of the oscillations of the
magnet reduces: Coil cuts the magnetic field inducing e.m.f in coil, which induces current in coil causing
heating. Thermal energy is produced from the energy of oscillations of the magnet.

Similar question: Ring cuts (magnetic) flux and causes induced e.m.f. in ring. (induced) e.m.f. causes
currents (in ring). Current in the ring causes a magnetic field which causes resistive force between the
two magnetic poles.

Use Faraday’s Law and energy conservation: Induced e.m.f. causes current flow in the coil. Current
causes dissipation of energy in the resistance of the coil hence temperature of the coil rises.

Use Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law to explain why the aluminium ring jumps upwards: Change in current
causes change in magnetic field, by Faraday’s law changing flux induces e.m.f. in ring, current in ring
causes field around ring. By Lenz’s law, the field around the ring opposes the field around the coil.

Why is a hall probe made from a thin slice of material: Hall voltage depends on the thickness of the
material. Hall voltage is inversely proportional to the thickness which means less the thickness more the
hall voltage.

Explain why a constant voltage is developed between the faces of the slice: Force on charge carriers is
perpendicular to both magnetic field and current. As charge carriers are deflected to one side, an electric
field is set up. (steady VH when) Electric and magnetic forces on charge carriers are equal (and
opposite).

Explain why, when the Hall probe is rotated about the horizontal axis XY, the Hall voltage varies between
a maximum positive value and a maximum negative value: Hall voltage depends on the angle between
the probe and the magnetic field. Hall voltage max when plane and magnetic-field are normal to each
other.
Hall voltage is zero when the plane and B-field are parallel.

State three different ways in which an e.m.f. may be induced in the coil: Use alternating current, rotate
coil, move coil away/towards the wire.

R.m.s value of an alternating voltage: Constant voltage that produces the same power as the alternating
voltage.

X = In . = Out for magnetic field

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I = I sin(⍵t) , V = V sin(⍵t) , I = I(0) / √ 2 , V = V(0) / √ 2 , τ = RC
I[0] and V[0] means peak voltage/current
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
E = hf , p=E/c (c=speed) , eV = ½ mv^2 , hf = Φ + 1/2mv^2 , Φ = Work function ,

Work energy function: Minimum photon energy required to remove an electron from the surface.
Threshold frequency: It is the lowest frequency of electromagnetic radiation which gives rise to emission
of electrons from the surface.
Photon: Packet of energy of electromagnetic radiation. Energy of photon = Planck constant x frequency
De broglie wavelength: Wavelength associated with a particle that is moving.
Intensity determines the number of electrons and the number of photons arriving per unit time.

Photoelectric effect: Emission of electron when electromagnetic radiation incident (on surface)
Rate of emission of electrons is directly proportional to intensity.
Max K.E of electrons is dependent on frequency.
Max K.E of electrons is independent of intensity.

Explain why this spectrum from cool gas contains a number of dark lines: Electrons interact with photons.
Photon energy causes electrons to move to higher energy levels. Photon energy = difference in energy of
energy levels. When electrons de-excite, photons emitted in all directions (so dark line).

Appearance of visible light emission spectrum: Dark background with coloured lines.
Each coloured line represents one wavelength.

—-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

λ = 0.693/t (½) , x = x0e^–λt , A = -λN , mass=Activity x RFM / decay constant x Avogadro's constant

Decay constant: The probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time.

Radioactive: Nucleus emits electromagnetic radiation, emission/release from unstable nucleus. The
reaction is spontaneous.
Binding energy of a nucleus: Minimum energy required to separate the nucleons in a nucleus to infinity.
Ideal gas: Gas that obeys pV = Constant x T . P is pressure, V is volume and T is thermodynamic
temperature in Kelvin.
Half life: Time taken for the initial activity to reduce by one half.

Background radiation
Random nature of decay
Emission of radioactive daughter products

Why is beta- emitted with a range of energies: Anti-neutrinos are emitted. Energy is shared with another
particle.

Random: Time at which a nucleus will decay cannot be predicted.

Spontaneous: Decay (of a nucleus) not affected by environmental factors.
Nuclear fusion: Combining two smaller nuclei to form a single nucleus.
Nuclear fission: Splitting of a heavy nucleus into two (lighter) nuclei of approximately same mass.
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Acoustic Impedance = Density x Speed of Sound , F = L /(4πd2)

Contrast in an X-ray image: Difference in amount of blackening.

Sharpness: How well the edges of the structures are defined.
Attenuation: Loss of power as the particle passes through a medium.
Specific acoustic impedance: Product of density and speed of ultrasound in the medium.
Tracer: A Substance containing radioactive nuclei introduced into the body absorbed by tissues.
Luminosity of a star: Total power of radiation emitted by the star.
Annihilation: A particle interacting with its antiparticle so that mass is converted into energy.

Explain how ultrasound pulses are used to obtain diagnostic information about internal body structures
in medical diagnosis: Pulses produced by piezo-electric crystal are reflected from boundaries, Time
between transmission and detection (of reflected pulse) gives the depth (of the boundary). Reflected
pulse/wave detected by (ultrasound) transmitter. Reflected waves are processed and displayed. Gel on
skin used to reduce reflection from skin. The intensity of the reflected pulse gives information about the
nature of the boundary.

Principles behind the use of X-rays for imaging internal body structures: X-ray beam directed through
body onto a detector. Tissues of the body absorb beams giving a shadow image of structures.

Production of X-rays: Electrons are accelerated by an applied p.d. Electrons hit the target. X-rays
produced when electrons decelerate.

Explain why a continuous spectrum of energies of X-ray photons are emitted: Electrons
decelerate (on hitting target) so X-ray photons are produced. Range of decelerations. Photon
energy depends on (magnitude of) deceleration.

At certain wavelengths, there are narrow peaks of increased intensity: Electrons de-excites
causing emission of a photon. Discrete energy levels so discrete photon wavelengths.

Explain how the gamma photons are created from positrons: Positrons (emitted) interact with electrons (in
tissue) Positrons are antiparticles of electrons. Mass turns into energy. Annihilation occurs. Mass of
particles converted into gamma photons.

State and explain how, in an X-ray tube, the hardness of the X-ray beam is controlled: Change/increase
tube voltage. Electrons striking anode have changed speed. X-ray have different wavelengths.

Outline briefly the principles of CT scanning: X-ray images taken of one slice. Many images taken from
different angles. Using those images, the computer produces a 2-D image of the slice. This is repeated
for many slices to build a 3-D image of the structure.

Why an aluminium frame be placed while producing an X-ray image: X-ray beams contain many
wavelengths, aluminium filters absorb long wavelength X-ray radiation that would be absorbed by the
body and not contribute to the image.

Difference between X-ray and CT scan: X-ray is a 2-D image regardless of a depth indicated.
CT scan is a 3-D image and can be rotated/ can be viewed from different angles. Built from many images
from different angles. CT scan consists of X-ray images of a slice and there are many slices. X-ray image
is a single exposure hence a lot more exposure with CT scan.
Two factors that affect the sharpness of an X-ray image: Size of X-ray source, pixel size.

Explain the principles behind the generation of ultrasound waves for diagnosis in medicine: Pulses are
produced from piezo-electric crystals. P.d. across the crystal causes it to distort. Applying alternating p.d.
causes vibrations. When applied frequency is the natural frequency, the crystal resonates. The natural
frequency of crystals is in ultrasound range.

How intensity and acoustic impedances are related: Z1 about equal to Z2 results in no reflection ratio is 0. Z1 ≫ Z2
(or Z1 ≪ Z2) results in mostly reflection ratio is 1.

State the name of the particles that are emitted from the body and detected by the detectors during PET
scanning: Gamma photons.

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Wien’s displacement law: Wavelength of maximum intensity is inversely proportional to the
thermodynamic temperature.

State Hubble’s law: Speed is (directly) proportional to distance where speed is speed of recession of
galaxy from observer and distance is distance of galaxy away from observer.

Explain how cosmologists use observations of emission spectra from stars in distant galaxies to
determine that the Universe is expanding: Wavelengths (of spectral lines) are greater (than their known
values). Redshift shows stars (in distant galaxies) moving away from Earth.

Explain how Hubble’s law and the idea of the expanding Universe lead to the Big Bang theory of the
origin of the Universe: Parts of Universe moving away from each other. More distant objects are moving
away faster. Matter must have been close together.

Redshift: Wavelength is greater than the known value. Due to the movement of the star away from the
observer.

Explain how cosmologists are able to determine that light from a distant star has undergone redshift: By
examining the (lines in the) spectrum (of light from the star) and comparing with known spectrum.
—-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

pV = 1/3Nmc^2 , Q = mL , Q=energy , L= Latent fusion, m=mass, ke of gas=1/2m<c2>=3/2kT, <c2>

directly proportional to T , M=Nm , E=VIT , VIT=mL

Internal energy of a system: Sum of potential and kinetic energies molecules in a random motion.
Mole: Amount of substance containing the same number of particles as in 0.012kg of carbon-12.

W=PV
The ‘law of thermodynamics:
ΔU= q +W
ΔU =increase in internal energy (J), q= thermal energy supplied to system (J),
W=work done on the system (J)
The first form is PV = NkT and involves N, the number of atoms or molecules. The second form is PV =
nRT and involves n, the number of moles.

Speed of molecule decreases on impact with moving piston, Mean square speed (directly) proportional to
kinetic energy (of molecules)

Assumptions of ideal gases:

A gas contains large number of particles that collide elastically with one another
Reason- ke cannot be lost, the internal energy of gas is the sum of random distribution of energies of
particles

Forces between particles are negligible

Reason- if particles attracted to each other over long distances , they would clump together in the middle
of container

Volume of particles is negligible compared to volume occupied by gas

Reason- when liquid boils to become gas, particles become much farther apart

The time of collision by a particle with container walls is negligible compared to time between collisions
Reason-molecules can be considered as hard spheres

Internal energy: sum of random distribution of kinetic and potential energies of the atoms or molecules in
a system

Specific heat capacity: Energy required by unit mass per unit change in temperature.

Specific latent heat of fusion: Energy per unit mass required to cause change in state between solid and
liquid per unit temperature.

Specific latent heat: The energy required to cause a change in state of a substance per unit mass without
any change of temperature.

State two other physical properties of materials that can be used to measure temperature:
1) E.m.f of a thermocouple
2) Resistance of metal

Use the first law of thermodynamics to explain why the specific latent heat of vaporisation is greater than
the specific latent heat of fusion for a particular substance: During evaporation the change in separation is
greater from liquid to gas. The change in volume is also greater hence greater increase in internal energy
and more work done.

Change in lambda / lambda = v / c

v = H0 x d
hf = E1 – E2

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More notes on the next page :)

More notes by: Crack_Nitrotrex
Physics Units
1 Circular Motion
2 Gravitational Fields
3 Temperature
4 Ideal Gas
5 Thermodynamics
6 Simple Harmonic Motion
7 Electric Fields
8 Capacitance
9.1 Magnetic Fields
9.2 Electromagnetic Induction
10 Alternating Current (Not completed)
11 Quantum Physics
12 Nuclear Physics
13 Medical Physics (Not completed)
14 Astronomy and Cosmology
 Circular Motion
Definitions
Angular Displacement
Change in angle of a body as it rotates in a circular track

Radians
The angle formed, when the arc length of a sector is equal to the radius of the
sector

Angular Velocity
Rate of change of angular displacement respect to time

Centripetal Acceleration
Acceleration of an object towards the centre of a circular track when in constant
circular motion, where acceleration is perpendicular to Linear Velocity

Centripetal Force
Resultant force on a body towards the centre of a circle to keep an object in
constant circular motion.

Tangential/Linear Velocity
Velocity of an object tangential to its circular motion.

Formulas
Angular Displacement Formula
Θ=s/r

Angular Velocity Formula

ω=∆Θ/∆t =2π/t(Full cycle) =v/r

Centripetal Acceleration Formula

a=ω²r =v²/r =vω
Centripetal Force Formula
F=ω²rm =v²m/r

Variables Used
s=Distance travelled around a circle ( Arc Length), Θ=Angular Displacement, t=Time,
v=Tangential/Linear Velocity, r=Radius of the Circle, ω=Angular Velocity
 Gravitational Fields
Definitions
Gravitational Field
A Region of space around a body in which a point mass experiences a force

Gravitational Field Strength

Force per unit mass acting on a test mass at a given point

Gravitational Potential Energy

Work done in bringing a test mass from infinity to a defined point

Gravitational Potential
Work done per unit Mass in bringing a test mass from infinity to a defined point

Newton's Law of Gravitation (Gravitational Force)

The Force between two point masses is directly proportional to the product of both their
masses and inversely proportional to the Square of their separations from their centres.

Kepler’s Third Law

The square of the Time Period for an object in circular orbit around a point mass, is
directly proportional to the cube of the radius of its orbit.

Geostationary Orbit
An orbit in which the time period is equal to the time period of rotation of the earth/ or
given point mass.

Formulas
Newton's Law of Gravitation (Gravitational Force)
F=(G*m1*m2)/x²

Gravitational Field Strength

g=F/(m2)=G(m1)/x² ( when u substitute newton's law of gravitation)

Gravitational Potential Energy

G.P.E=mgh ( at distances closer to the surface) =-G(m1)(m2)/x

Δ G.P.E. = mΔΦ

Gravitational Potential
Φ =-G(m1)/x

Kepler’s Third Law

T²=(4π²/G(m1))*r³

Variables/Constants Used
F=force, G=Newton’s Gravitational Constant, m1=Mass of Point mass( in orbital questions,
this is the mass being orbited), m2=Mass of second point mass, T= Times Period for 1
Orbit, x=separation from their centres, r= Radius of Orbit, m=mass, g=Gravitational Field
Strength, h=change in height Φ = gravitational potential.

Need to know
How to Draw a Gravitational Field Around a Point Mass
● For Point Mass:Field Lines should look like they originate from the centre, and are
moving towards it ( gravitational fields are always attractive)
● Uniform: Parallel lines that are equi-distant to each other, towards the
ground/mass.

Relate Centripetal Force and Gravitational Force (During Orbit)

To Derive:
Kepler’s Formula (T² α r³)
1. Gravitational Force Gives Necessary Centripetal Force
2. ω²r(m2)=G(m1)(m2)/r²
3. ω²=G(m1)/r³
4. ω=2π/T ∴ω²=4π²/T²
5. 4π²/T²=G(m1)/r³
6. 4π²r³/T²=G(m1)
7. T²=4π²r³/G(m1)

Tangential Velocity In Orbit

1. Gravitational Force Gives Necessary Centripetal Force
2. v²(m2)/r=G(m1)(m2)²
3. v²=G(m1)/r
4. v=sqrt(G(m1)/r)

What Happens to the Change in Gravitational Potential Energy?

it gets converted to other forms like Kinetic energy or heat, if it says no energy is
lost, the relation ∆KE=∆GPE can be used to find Kinetic Energy or Velocity at a
given point after Change in Position.
1. 0.5(m2)v²=G(m1)(m2)/x²,
2. v²=2G(m1)/x²,
3. v=sqrt(2G(m1)/x²)

Gravitational Field Strength against Separation Graph

Around 1 point mass
● g=G(m1)/r²
● gα1/r²
● so it should be a Curve, going downwards (opening up), starting at r=1, with max
gravitational Strength, and should divide by 4 consecutively for each integer
increase of r.
Between 2 point Masses
● it would be a decreasing curve from max at the radius of the first point mass, that
would go through the x axis at 1 point, and emerge on the other axis, this is due to
the Gravitational Field switching directions, it would then decrease till a max field
strength when the point is on the surface of the 2nd point mass.
Why is the sign for GPE negative?
As an object moves away from earth, its gravitational Potential energy increases as
it does work on itself, to move to infinity, at infinity GPE ∝ 1/∞², 1/∞²=0, ∴at
infinity GPE is 0 but a maximum, therefore for any values of x where 0<x<∞, it
should be below 0, that is why the negative sign is vital

Other Commonly Asked Questions/Points to Remember

Compare between Uniform point mass and non-uniform point
mass
Similarities:
● Both are Attractive

● Both are Radial

Differences:
● Not uniform at surface

Why are Fields approximately Uniform at the surface in Point

Masses?
As you get closer to the surface, the field lines tend to be more parallel in nature, as
uniform fields have parallel lines which attribute to its uniform nature, the Point mass
tends to have a more uniform nature of gravitational field.

How are planets considered to be point masses?

Planets are considered to be point mass’s when the distance of separation is much much
larger compared to the radius/length of the sphere.

Why is there a point between two large pointmasses, where

gravitational field strength is zero?
As you get closer to a point mass, its field strength increases, and as you get away it
decreases, at 1 point between two point masses, the field strength acting on an object
from each point mass equalises, but due to the nature of both being opposite in
direction, they cancel each other out.

Describe a Geostationary Orbit.

Equatorial orbit from west to east with a time period that is equal to that of Earth's.
 Temperature
Definitions
Thermal Energy
the energy possessed by an object due to its temperature

Thermal Equilibrium
When objects, in physical contact, with each other no longer exchange thermal energy
due to both reaching the same temperature.

Absolute Zero
The lowest Temperature Possible, where atoms and molecules have zero kinetic and
potential Energy.

Specific Heat Capacity

The amount of thermal energy required to raise a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree
kelvin..

Specific Latent Heat

The Amount of Thermal Energy required to change the state of a unit mass of a
substance at constant temperature.

Formulas
Heat Capacity
°K=°C+273

Heat Capacity
Q=mc∆T

Latent Heat of Fusion

Q=mLf

Latent Heat of Vaporisation

Q=mLv

Variables used
°K=Degree Kelvin, °C=Degree Celsius, Q=Thermal Energy, m=Mass of substance,
c=Specific Heat of a substance, Lf=latent heat of fusion, Lv=Latent Heat of
vaporisation, ∆T= change in temperature.

Need to know
Direction of Thermal Energy Flow
Thermal Energy Always flows from the region with most energy to the region with least
energy, until both Regions are equal in Energy.

Why is Specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation Larger than

Specific Latent Heat of Fusion?
When Substances convert from liquid to gas, the particles are separated to infinity, and
the particles need to do work against the atmosphere, as such, it requires more energy.
 Ideal Gas
Definitions
Avagadros Constant
number of molecules in 1 mole of a substance

Ideal Gas
a gas that follows the relationship PvαT at all thermodynamic
temperatures, pressures and volumes.

Mole
amount of a substance

Formulas
Avogadro's constant
Na=N/n
Boltzmann constant
K=R/Na
Ideal Gas
Pv=nRT
Pv=NKT
Pv=(Nm<C>²)/3
Gas Formulas
P1V1=P2V2 (Temperature is constant)
T1/P1=T2/P2 (Volume is constant)
T1/V1=T1/V2 (Pressure is constant

Need to know
Assumptions of Ideal Gas
● Volume of a gas particle is negligible compared to the total volume
of the whole gas.
● Force between gas particles is negligible, as they are separated by
an infinite distance.
● Gas particles collide elastically with each other.
● Gas Particles are always in motion
● Time of a collision is negligible compared to the time between
collisions
How to Derive Square Speed Equation
https://www.savemyexams.co.uk/a-level/physics/cie/22/revision-notes/15-
ideal-gases/15-2-kinetic-theory/15-2-2-derivation-of-the-kinetic-theory-of-
gases-equation/
(if u ran out of “free revision notes”, just use a new incognito window)
How to Find kinetic Energy
1. Pv=(Nm<C>²)/3 Pv=NKT
2. NKT=(Nm<C>²)/3
3. 3NKT=Nm<c>²
4. 3KT=m<c>²
Ek=(mv²)/2=(m<c>²)/2
5. ∴Ek=(3KT)/2
 Thermodynamics
Definitions
Internal Energy
The sum of the random distribution of potential and kinetic energies of its molecule

First law of Thermodynamics/Conservation of energy

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but only altered from 1 form to
another.

Formulas
First Law of Thermodynamics
∆u=q+w

Work done by a gas

w=p∆v

Variables used
∆u is internal energy, q is thermal energy added into the system, w is the work
being done on the gas, p is pressure and ∆v is Change in Volume

Need to know
Ways in which internal energy can be
● Determined
○ Temperature of the substance
○ the motion of the molecules
○ State of Matter
● Changed
○ Increased by adding heat and doing work on it
○ Decreased by losing heat to the surroundings

Relation of Internal Energy and Temperature in gases

Internal energy comprises potential energy and kinetic energy but in ideal gases,
potential energy is zero but a maximum due to gas molecules being separated by an
infinite distance, so majority/all the kinetic energy is the internal energy.Temperature is
the average kinetic energy of a substance, as such when temperature increases the
particles gain more kinetic energy, so internal energy is directly proportional to
temperature.

Work done in Constant Pressure and Volumes

When pressure is constant, and volume changes, there is a magnitude of work done
by/on the gas but there is no work done when pressure increases while volume is
constant
 Simple Harmonic Motion

Definitions
Simple Harmonic Motion
In Periodic Motion, if the acceleration is directly proportional to its displacement but in
the opposite direction it is in Simple Harmonic Motion

Oscillation
The back and forth motion of an object on either side of any equilibrium Position.

Amplitude
The maximum displacement of an oscillator from its equilibrium position

Displacement
The distance of an oscillator from its equilibrium Position

Time period
The time taken for 1 oscillation in seconds

Hooke's Law
Force is directly proportional to its extension in the same direction

Spring Constant
Force Per Unit Extension, Measure of the stiffness of a spring. Springs with large spring
constants have high stiffness

Restoring Force
A force that acts to bring back the object to equilibrium

Phase Difference
tells us how much behind or ahead a wave is relative to another wave

Path Difference
The difference in distance travelled by two waves from their sources to the point where
they meet.

Elastic Potential Energy

the energy stored in a spring when stretched due to the work done in stretching it

Free Oscillations
An Oscillation where periodic Forces are not applied, therefore undergoing Damping if
resistive forces are present

Forced Oscillations
An Oscillation where periodic forces are applied to sustain the oscillation

Damping
When the total energy and amplitude of the oscillations decreases while having constant
frequency and time period due to resistive forces acting on the oscillator
Natural Frequency
The Frequency of an oscillation in free Oscillations

Driving Frequency
The frequency of forced oscillations

Resonance
When the driving frequency of an oscillation is equal to the natural frequency of an
oscillation, the resulting amplitude and total energy of the oscillations increases
significantly.

Formulas
Hooke’s Law
F=Kx

Acceleration in simple Harmonic Motion

a=-ω²x

Acceleration (Mass spring system)

a=(-kx)/m

Acceleration (Simple Pendulum)

a=(-gx)/l

Max Velocity ( Mass Spring System)

Vmax=√(k/m)*X0

Need To Know
Acceleration Derivation
● Spring Mass System
○ restoring force is upwards for a spring stretched down but opposite to
its displacement ∴ F=-kx
○ using newton's 2nd law, F=ma
○ ma=-kx
○ a=-kx/m
● Pendulum System
○ Angular Displacement is Θ=s/r, in this case it's Θ=x/l
○ at low values of Θ ( between 0-20°), Sin(Θ)=Θ, ∴sin(Θ)=x/l
○ Restoring Force=-mgsin(Θ)
○ F=-mgx/l
○ F=ma ( Newton’s Second Law)
○ ma=-mgx/l
○ a=-gx/l
Energy of An Oscillator
● Simple pendulum
○ At Equilibrium At Rest
■ Has Gravitational Potential Energy Only but a minimum ( so we count
it as base energy (0))
○ At Amplitude points
■ Has Gravitational Potential Energy Only But a Maximum as work is
done on the system to move it to the amplitude point
○ At Points Between Equilibrium and Amplitude
■ Has gravitational Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy, Where sum of
Energies is Equal to the energies at Amplitude Points
○ At Equilibrium After Quarter Oscillation
■ Max Kinetic energy as all the lost GPE is converted to Kinetic Energy
● Mass Spring System
○ At Equilibrium At Rest
■ Has 0 Energy ( G.P.E and Internal Energy can be ignored)
○ At Amplitude points
■ Has Maximum Elastic Potential Energy
○ At Points Between Equilibrium and Amplitude
■ Has Elastic Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy, with sum adding up
to Maximum Elastic Potential Energy
○ At Equilibrium After Quarter Oscillation
■ Has Maximum Kinetic Energy as all the lost EPE is converted to
Kinetic Energy

Graphical Representation
● Displacement
○ similar to a Cosine Graph
● Velocity
○ Similar to a Negative Sine Graph
● Acceleration
○ Similar to a Negative Cosine Graph
● Kinetic Energy
○ Graphs with max at Quarter and 3 quarter mark with zeros at start, mid and
End.
● GPE/EPE
○ Graph with max at start and mid and End with zeros at quarter and 3
quarter marks of time period.

Derivation of Max Velocity

● at Equilibrium Kinetic Energy is Max, Kinetic energy is directly proportional to
Velocity, so velocity is max at equilibrium.
● ∴E.Kmax=E.P.Emax
● E.P.Emax=0.5kX0²
 ● E.Kmax=0.5mVmax²
● 0.5mVmax²=0.5kX0²
● Vmax²=kX0²/m
● Vmax=√(k/m)*X0
● ω=√(k/m)
● Vmax=ω*X0

Derivation of Velocity at a Point Between

● Total Energy=KE+EPE
● Total Energy=KEmax
● KEmax=KE+EPE
● 0.5mVmax²=0.5mv²+0.5kx²/m
● v²=Vmax²-(kx²/m)
● v²=(ωx0)²- (kx²/m)
● v²=ω²x0²-ω²x²
● v²=ω²(x0²-x²)
● v=±ω√(x0²-x²)

Resonance Graph with

damping
when the driving frequency= the
natural frequency of the oscillator, it
undergoes resonance, where the
amplitude and energy increases
significantly. the peak decreases as
damping increases.

Damping Types:
● Light Damping
○ a type of damping in which the energy and
displacement is lost gradually with every oscillation
● Heavy Damping
○ a type of damping where the energy and
displacement is lost gradually but with no
oscillation
● Critical damping
○ a type of damping where the
energy and displacement is lost
in the shortest time possible.
 Electric Fields
Definitions
Electric Field
Electric field is a region of space where a positive test charge experiences a force due to
the presence of an electric field

Electric Field Strength

Force per unit positive charge acting on a Stationary Charge

Electric Potential Energy

Work Done in bringing a positive test charge from infinity to a defined point

Electric Potential
Work Done per unit charge in bringing a positive test charge from infinity to a defined
point.

Coulomb's Law (ElectroStatic Force)

Electrostatic Force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of
both their charges, but inverse to the square of their separation .

Formulas
Coulomb’s Law ( ElectroStatic Force)
F=(q1)(q2)/4π(ε0)x²

Electric Field Strength

Around a Point Charge:E=F/(q2)=(q1)/4π(ε0)x²
in a Uniform Field:E=-V/d

Electric Potential
Around a Point Charge:V=(q1)/4π(ε0)x
in a Uniform Field:V=-E*d

Electric Potential Energy

Around a Point Charge:V=(q1)(q2)/4π(ε0)x
in a Uniform Field:E=V*q=E*d*(q2)

Variables/Constants Used
E=Electric Field Strength, (q1)=Point Charge 1, (q2)=Point Charge 2, F=Force, d=distance, (ε-
0)=Permittivity of Free Space, x= Separation of charged from Surface

Need to Know
Field Lines:
Direction of Field Lines
● Always Away From Positive Charge and Toward
Negative Charge
Field Lines in a Uniform Field
● Equidistant to each other, Parallel, and in a
direction away from Positive Plate and Towards Negative Plate.
Field Lines Around a Point Charge
 ● Radial Around a Point Charge, Moving away if its Positive Charge and Moving
towards if negative Charge. The Radial Lines Should look like they originate from
the Centre of the Charge.
Field Lines Around 2 point Charges
● Two Like Positive Charges
○ All Lines Should have an arrow showing Field is Away from
the charges, empty space in between the Charges, with
bent deviated Lines around this space, with no
intersection lines.
● Two like Negative Charges
○ All Lines should have an arrow showing the field is toward
the charges, empty space in between the charges, with
bent deviated lines around this space, with no intersecting
lines.v
● Unlike Charges
○ Field Lines move away from Positive Charge, and towards
Negative Charge, lines moving from the middle of both
charges, should be closer but parallel together in the middle
of the charges, with distance increasing as you move from
the middle.

Field Strength Against distance Graph:

Around a Point Charge
● The Field Strength Decreases by 1/4th for Every integer increase of
separation
2 Positive Charges fig(ii)
● Field Strength would decrease from max from the surface of the
sphere till a point where it is 0, then decrease more as it gets closer
to the other charge. In the end, the Electric field strength would be
negative as the field changes direction.
2 Negative Charges fig(iv)
● The Field Strength would increase till a point where it is 0, then
increase as it closer to the other charge. In the end, the electric field
strength would be positive as the field would change direction.
Unlike Charges
● Field Strength would never change direction so in both cases, + to -
or - to +, it would be on the same quadrant. if + to - it would be in the
1st quadrant fig(i), if - to + it would be in the 4th quadrant fig(iii)

Other Common Asked Questions/Points to Remember

Why is Electric Potential constant inside a Charged Sphere?
 Capacitance
Definitions
Capacitance
Charge Per Unit Potential Difference where charge is built on 1 plate, and potential
difference across both plates.

Time Constant
The time taken for the no. of Charge to decrease to 37% of its initial Charge

Formulas
Capacitance
C=Q/V

Charge
Q=CV

Voltage
V=Q/C

Energy Stored in Capacitor

E=QV/2=CV²/2=Q²/2C

Energy Supplied to capacitor

E=QV=CV²=Q²/C

Total Capacitance in Parallel

CTotal=C1+C2+...

Total Capacitance in Series

Ctotal=1/(1/C1+1/C2+…)

Discharge of a Capacitor
X = Xo*e^(–t/RC)

Time Constant
t=RC

Variables Used
C=Capacitance, Q=Charge, V=Potential Difference, E=Energy, t=time, e=exponential
constant, R=Resistance.
Need to Know
Graphs
During Charging

● Current
○ When the Capacitor is charging, the build of charge creates an electric field
that repels new charges, causing the rate of charge added into the plate to
decrease. so it would be a decreasing Curve, but with decreasing
magnitude .
● Charge
○ When the Capacitor is charging, due to the repulsive effect induced by
charges already on the plate, the rate of charge entering decreases. so the
graph would be a curve with an increasing curve, but with decreasing
magnitude of Gradient.
● Potential Difference
○ When the Capacitor is charging,. as Q=CV, QαV so Potential Difference
graph would be an increasing curve, but with decreasing magnitude of
Gradient ( same as charge).

During Discharge

● Current
○ At the start of the discharging process, current is max as charge Leaving
the capacitor is high, due to the huge repulsive effect from built up Charge,
and current decreases with decreasing gradient as charge loss decreases
as time, which decreases the repulsive effect. so a Decreasing curve is
made
● Charge
○ At the start of the discharging process, Charge is max as charge is built on
the plate, Charge decreases as time goes, with a max gradient at the start,
due to the repulsive effect. but gradient decreases
● Potential Difference
○ Q=CV, QαV so potential difference would be a decreasing curve, but with
decreasing magnitude of Gradient ( would be same as charge)

Energy Stored

When you draw a Graph of V against Q, the Gradient is 1/capacitance, the Energy stored
can be found by finding the area under the graph, the graph should be a line passing
through the origin and increasing linear graph.

Charge Discharge Graph Time Constant Graph

Similar to a Radioactive Decay Graph, at t=time constant, the charge in the should be 0.37

Dielectric Insulator
?_?

Magnetic Fields
Definitions
Magnetic Field
A Region of Space where FerroMagnetic and Magnetic Materials Experience a Force
Created by moving Charge Particles, Current Carrying Conductors, or Permanent
magnets

Magnetic Flux Density

Force Acting Per Unit Length Per Unit Current that is Experienced by a Current Carrying
Conductor Placed in a Magnetic field at 90 degree Angles

Tesla
Uniform Max Flux Density when a Current Carrying Conductor Of 1 meter at 90 degree
angles in a magnetic Field Experiences a Force of 1 Newton while Carrying a Current of 1
Ampere

Hall Voltage
potential difference measures across a current carrying Plate due to the build of up
charges on one side of the plate

Formulas
Force on a straight conductor
F=BILsin(Θ)

Force on a moving charge

F=BqvSin(Θ)

Hall voltage Formula

V=BI/(ntq)

Need to Know
Direction of Magnetic Field
Magnetic Fields are always from North Pole to south pole

MaxWell’s Right Hand Rule

For a Current Carrying Conductor, the Magnetic Field created can be found using
MaxWells Right Hand Rule, where the thumb shows direction of Current, and The Other
Fingers show direction of field.

Current Carrying Conductor in a magnetic field (Motor Effect)

A Current Carrying Conductor would create its own magnetic field, when placed in
another Magnetic Field, the interaction between both magnetic Fields would create a
force, this is known as the motor effect

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Used to find the Force Experienced at a point by a charge, or a current carrying
conductor due to it being in a Magnetic Field at 90 Degree angles. The Index would be the
direction of the magnetic Field, the Middle finger would be the direction of current and
the thumb would be the direction of Force experienced.

Current Balance Experiment

A Current is connected to a circuit, is kept in the field
of a U shaped Magnetic Field, that is set on a Weight
Balance so inturn a current Balance Experiment is set
up like this:(picture on the right)

How to find Magnetic Flux Density

When current flows through the wire, it
experiences a force, using fleming's left hand rule,
we can see the force is downwards, due to this
force an equal force in the opposite direction is
applied on the magnet(Newton’s Third Law), which
is upwards, this causes the Balance to have a
change in value, the force can be calculated using this difference of new and old
value (F=∆m*a). if we draw a graph of Force against change in Current, F=(BL)*I,
BL=g, B=g/L.

Direction of Force of a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field

When we use Fleming's left hand rule, we can find the direction of the force, where the
motion of the charge is taken into account instead of current.

Motion of a Charge Particle Moving in a uniform magnetic Field,

Perpendicular to the direction of Motion
The charged Particle would move in a Circular Motion, as the magnetic field would
provide the necessary Centripetal Force for it as its perpendicular to the motion of the
particle.

Magnetic Field and Electric Field as a Velocity Selector

When an electric field is added in such a way that the force exhibited by the electric field
is opposite to the magnetic force on the charge, a velocity
selector can be set up when both forces are equalised.

Field Lines in Long Straight Wire

Circular Magnetic field, which u can obtain the direction of Magnetic field Lines, using
Maxwell's right hand thumb rule.

Field Lines in a Long Solenoid

Magnetic Field Lines would be uniform inside the
solenoid and circular outside, with the Lines
towards the exit of the current (North Pole of the
Solenoid).

FIeld Lines in a Helmholtz Coils

Similar to the field lines in a solenoid
What does adding a Ferrous Core to a solenoid do?
it concentrates the fields together as such the strength of the magnetic field increases.

Force Between current Carrying Conductors

if the direction of current is in the same direction in both wires, the forces are towards
each other, if not,they are in opposite directions.

How to derive Hall Voltage?

when the hall probe works on the principle of a electric field being built up
due to electrons gathering on one side of the plate as such we can use the
equation E=Vh/d, and F=qe to form the equation F=(qVh)/d which can be
equated to F=Bqv
Bqv=qVh/d
Vh=Bvd
we use the equation
I=Anvq
rearrange and
substitute in the
equation to replace v
Vh=(BId)/(Anq)
A=d*t
Vh=(BId)/(dtnq)
Vh=(BI)/(tnq)
 ElectroMagnetic Induction
Definitions
ElectroMagnetic Induction
the process in which e.m.f is induced in a closed circuit due to change in magnetic flux

Magnetic Flux
it is the product of magnetic flux density and the cross sectional area perpendicular to
the direction of magnetic flux density

Magnetic Flux Linkage

Product of magnetic flux and no.of turns in a coil

Faraday’s Law
the amount of emf induced into a coil is directionally proportional to the rate of change
of Magnetic flux linkage

Lenz’s Law
the direction of emf induced into a coil, is in such a way that it opposes the change that
caused it

Formulas
Magnetic Flux
Φ=BA

Magnetic Flux Linkage

magnetic flux linkage=BAN

Faraday’s Law
E.M.F=-N∆Φ/∆t

Need to Know
 Alternating Current
Definitions
Peak Current
Max Current in an Alternating Current

Peak Voltage
MaxVoltage in an Alternating Current

Period
Time taken for one complete cycle of an Alternating Current

Frequency
Amount of Cycles of Alternating current per unit time

Rectification
The process of converting Alternating current to Direct current.

Smoothing
the process of smoothing rectified waves to have a stable constant direct current

Root mean Square Value

it is the value of direct current which would give rise to the same heating effect in an
resistor in alternative current

Formulas
Representing Sinusoidal A.C
x=x0sin(ωt)

Mean Power

Root Mean Square

Need to Know
 Quantum Physics
Definitions
Photons
discrete packets of energy in Electromagnetic Radiation

PhotoElectric Effect
Phenomenon where electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal, after the
absorption of electromagnetic energy

Threshold Frequency
The Minimum Frequency of electromagnetic energy required for a metal to emit a
photoelectron from its surface

Threshold Wavelength
The Maximum Wavelength of electromagnetic energy required for a metal to emit a
photoelectron from its surface

Work Function
The minimum Energy to release a photoelectron from the surface of a metal

Intensity
it is the measure of the no. of incident photons on a metal

PhotoElectric Current
Photoelectric current is the measure of photoelectrons emitted per second from the
surface of a metal.

Electron Diffraction
bending of electron particles around atomic structures such as a Graphite slit, to
produce a diffraction pattern on a screen

DeBroglie’s Wavelength
The Wavelength Associated with a moving particle

Excitation
Absorption of energy in electrons allows it to move from 1 energy state to a higher energy
state

Formulas
Photon Energy
E=hf

Photon Momentum
p=e/c=hc/λc p=h/λ

eV to J
1ev=1.6*(10^-19)J

PhotoElectric Equation
E= Φ+ 0.5mv²max

De broglie’s Equation
λ=(h/p)=(h/mv)

Discrete Energy Change

hf=(E1)-(E2)
(hc)/(λ)=(E1)-(E2)
λ=(hc)/(E1)-(E2)
Need to know
What does the photoelectric Effect show?
It provides evidence that light can be quantised/ in discrete packets, as an
electron absorbs light in a 1:1 ratio, this means that frequency above the
threshold frequency will emit electrons.
PhotoElectric Graph Representation
1. E= Φ+ 0.5mv²max, E.Kmax=0.5mv²max
and E=hf
2. hf=Φ+ E.Kmax
3. Rearrange the equation to make
y=mx+c
4. E.Kmax=hf-Φ
5. Draw graph of Max Kinetic energy
against frequency
the gradient would be planck's constant, the Y intercept
would be a work function, and it should be below the x axis.

Intensity and Photoelectric Current

Intensity is directly proportional to photoelectric current as
intensity increases the no. of photons incident on the metal by
which it increases the no. of photoelectrons emitted.

Electron K.E against Intensity

The Kinetic Energy of the Emitted Electron is not influenced
by Intensity, as electrons take in photons in a 1:1 ratio, so even
if the amount of photons absorbed per second is high, the
electrons absorb the same photon energy, which means that
the kinetic energy is constant and not effected. this can also
be shown by the Equation E.Kmax=hf-Φ

Electron Diffraction Experiment

When a Beam of Electrons are accelerated through a thin film of Graphite, the electrons
diffract and produce a circular pattern on a fluorescent screen
Observations:
● AS Voltage increases, the diameters of the rings decrease

Atomic Energy Levels

Specific Energies that electrons in an atom can have
● Ground State
 ○ it is the lowest energy level that electrons occupy in ground atoms
● Excited State
○ Any Energy Level above its ground state that an electron occupies, is said
to be an electron in its excited state.
● Ionised State
○ the state that an electron becomes when it gains enough energy to leave
the atom

LINE SPECTRUM NEXT PAGE

Line Spectrums
Lines Spectrums are used to find patterns for each element, used to compare the
patterns of unknown patterns to find the Elemental composition of unknown objects or
materials.
● Emission Spectra
○ When an electron moves from a higher energy
level to a lower energy level, it results in the
emission of a photon, each transition corresponds
to a different wavelength and to a line in a
spectrum of series lines against a black
background
● Absorption Spectra
○ When an electron moves from a lower energy level
to a higher energy level, it results in the absorption
of a photon, each transition corresponds to a
different wavelength and to an empty dark line in a
continuous spectrum.
 Nuclear Physics
Definitions
Binding Energy
The amount of energy needed to break apart a nucleus into separate nucleons to infinity.

Mass defect
The difference in mass of a nucleon and the mass of its protons and neutrons when
separated to infinity.

B.E Per Nucleon

The average energy needed to remove a nucleon

Nuclear Fusion
When two light nuclei with lower Binding Energy Per Nucleon combine to form 1 larger
heavy nuclei with higher Binding energy Per Nucleon

Nuclear Fission
When a heavy nuclei breaks down to two lighter nuclei with similar mass, due to the
bombardment of a Particle.

Radioactive Decay
the disintegration of an unstable energy rich nuclei to form a more stable nuclei, by the
emission of Alpha, Beta or Gamma Particles.

Decay Constant
The Probability that a nucleus will decay per unit time

Activity
No. of Decays per unit time

Half Life
The amount of time taken for a mass of a nuclear sample to decay to half of its original
mass.

Formulas
Atomic Notation
A
X
Z

Mass Defect
∆m=(Z*mp+(A-Z)*mn)-matom

Binding Energy
E = (Δm)c²

Binding Energy Per Nucleon

Eb per Nucleon=Eb/A
Activity
A=-(∆N/∆T)=λN

Radioactive Decay Equation

N=N0e^(–λt)
A=A0e^(–λt)

Half life
T½ =0.693/λ

Need to Know
Why is there a Mass Defect?
When a nucleus is formed, it requires energy known as binding energy, this additional
energy is obtained by converting some of its mass to energy.

B.E per Nucleon Graph Against Nucleon Number

Binding energy per Nucleon graph is drawn like this:

Significance of a B.E/nucleon Graph

Peaks at nucleon no. 56±4 as they are the most stable
below 56, most tend to undergo Nuclear Fusion, and above most tend to undergo
Nuclear Fission.

Difference between fission and radioactive decay

Radioactive decay is natural, while Nuclear fission requires Bombardment of a particle to
start. Radioactive decay gives products that are similar to the original Nuclei, while
Nuclear fission splits the nuclei to give products with the same mass.

Characteristics of a Radioactive Decay

● Random
○ Radioactivity can not be predicted as they decay at different times
independent of each other.
● Spontaneous
○ Radioactivity cannot be affected by external environmental conditions as
the nucleus isn't affected by such conditions

Why is the count Rate from a Geiger Meter not Equal to

Activity(A)?
Some Radiations do not reach the counter of geiger meter due to
● Some get absorbed by the surrounding materials between the counter and the
radioactive materials like air or any shielding.
● Radiations travel in all directions, so some might not go close to the counter,
leading to a defective rate.
● Background Radiation is present in the count rate.
● Daughter Nuclei might be Radioactive

Why are there spikes in the count rate graph of a Nuclear

Sample?
Probability of decay is same for all nuclei independent of each other so any nucleus can
decay or not decay whenever they want

Why is there a negative sign on the Activity Equation?

Activity decreases as time goes on, as activity is directly proportional to the amount of
nucleons remaining in the original sample, so it is negative

Radioactive Decay Graph ( A/t or N/t)

Radioactive decay graph is shown by the equations
N = N0e^(–λt)
A = A0e^(–λt)
When we draw the graphs of both of these, it is a negative decay graph.

Calculating Decay
Constant
1. N=N0*e^(-λt)
2. at t=t½
3. ½N0=N0*e^(-λt½)
4. ln(½)=ln(e)*-λt½
5. 0.693=λt½
6. λ=0.693/t½
Medical Physics
 Astronomy and Cosmology
Definitions
Luminosity
Total Power Radiated by a star

Radiant Flux Intensity

The observed amount of energy per unit radiated normally through a surface area

Standard Candles
An Astronomical Object which has a known luminosity due to a characteristic quality
possessed by the class of the object.

Cepheid Variables
A Star in which the Radius and Temperature Changes Periodically which hence changes
the luminosity periodically.

Surface Temperature
Temperature at the surface of an Astronomical Object, most notably stars

Wien's Displacement Law

The Peak Wavelength of a Black Body Radiation Intensity curve is Inversely Proportional
to its Surface Temperature.

Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law
the total energy emitted by a blackbody per unit area per second is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body.

Hubble’s Law
The Drift speed of galaxies away from earth is directly proportional to their distance from
the earth.

RedShift
The apparent shift in Wavelength of spectras when compared to known patterns, towards
the red side of the color spectrum, of distant stars, due to them moving further from us

Formulas
Inverse Square Law of Flux
F=L/4πd²

Wien's Displacement Law

λmaxT=2.9*10^-3

Stefan Boltzmann’s Law

L=4πr²σT^4

Red Shift Formula

∆λ/λ =∆f/f =v/c

Hubble’s Law
V=H0d

Need to Know
What are the Assumptions made for the Inverse Square law of
Flux?
● Power of the star radiates uniformly through space
● No Radiation is absorbed while transmitting

How to Use Standard Candles

Direct Distance measurement can be done if the object is close to earth, but for far
indirect methods are involved.
● Standard Candles are used as the distance can be estimated based on how bright
it appears on earth.
● Standard Candles can be used to measure distances within a certain distance

What's a Black Body?

it is a theoretical object, which
● Absorbs all radiation fallen on it, and good at emitting
● it doesn't reflect or transmit any radiation

Wien’s Law Derivations

Shorter the wavelength ( closer to the blue spectrum), the star tends to be hotter

How to use Stefan Boltzmann’s Law?

We use Wien's Law, Stefan Boltzmann’s law and inverse flux intensity (if luminosity is not
given), we use Wien’s displacement law to find the surface temperature, we find Luminosity
using inverse flux intensity, and then we input it in the formula to find radius of a given
star.

Derivations from Hubble’s Law?

● Further the galaxy is from earth, the faster its recession speed
● The gradient of a graph of recession velocity against distance is hubble’s constant

Emission Spectra
the spectra pattern of an element does not change, so when you observe light from a
distant source, they have the same pattern but has “Red Shifted”, these spectras can be
compared with the spectras of the element with the same pattern, and the speed of
recession can be found using Doppler redshift equations.

Expanding Universe
● Doppler Redshift shots that all galaxies are receding
● The more red shifted a Galaxy is, the Faster the galaxy is moving away

Big Bang Theory

All Parts of the universe are moving away from each other, with more distant objects
moving faster. This shows that in the past all matter must have come from a dense point
in the universe.

Age of the Universe

1. We Relate time with Hubble’s Constant using substitution
 2. V=d/t
3. d/t=H0d
4. t=1/H0
5. We Sub Hubble’s Constant and find age, this is why Hubble's constant is sought
after a lot by astronomers.

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