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PHYSICS 141 Merged
PHYSICS 141 Merged
Field Emission
m The process of emission of free electrons when a strong n3 > n2 > n1
8
electric field (;10 V/m) is applied across the metal Commutator Saturation current
n3 n2 n1
surface is called field emission or cold emission, as in mA
spark plug. V
0 Collector plate potential
–V03 –V02 –V01
Photoelectric Emission Retarding potential
m The process of emission of electrons when light of
i
m The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons varies
suitable frequency is incident on metal surface is called 1. Effect of Intensity: The number of linearly with the frequency of incident radiation, but is
as photoelectric emission photoelectrons emitted per second independent of intensity.
m Emitted electrons are called photoelectrons or photoelectirc current is directly m For a frequency less than threshold ( n < n 0 ) no
m Number of photoelectrons emitted depends on the proportional to the intensity of photoelectric emission is possible even if intensity is
intensity of incident light radiation. Intensity of light large.
2. Effect of potential on m Threshold frequency (n0): The minimum frequency of
Secondary Emission
photoelectric current: incident radiation required to emit electrons called
m The process of emission of free electrons when highly
(i) For a given frequency of incident radiation, stopping threshold frequency. It is different for different metals.
energetic electron beam is incident on a metal surface is
potential is independent of intensity. m Work function (f0): The minimum energy of incident
called secondary emission.
(ii) Maximum kinetic energy radiation required to emit electrons from metal called
m The emitted electron is called secondary electrons.
work function
Kmax = eV0 f0 = hn0
2 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT Stopping potential: –9
Photocurrent
m
m Emission starts in a time of the order of 10 s or less.
m The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was The minimum negative
discovered in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz potential given to plate I3 > I2 > I1
I3
m Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the for which the photo I2
phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail during current becomes I1 Stopping
1886-1902. potential
zero is called the Metal A
m Certain metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium etc (V0)
cut-off or Stopping potential Metal B
responded only to ultraviolet light to cause electron n > n0
emission. However, some alkali metals such as Lithium, stopping
–V0 0 n > n 0¢
Sodium, Potassium, Caesium and rubidium were potential. n0 n 0¢
Retarding potential Collector plate
sensitive to visible light. potential Frequency of incident radiation (n)
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134 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter NCERT Maps
4 EINSTEIN'S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION: 6 WAVE NATURE OF MATTER 7 DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT
ENERGY QUANTUM OF RADIATION de-Broglie proposed that the wavelength l associated with a m The experimental set up used by Davisson and Germer is
In 1905 Albert Einstein proposed that radiation energy is built particle of momentum P is as shown in figure to verify wave nature of electrons
up of discrete units-the so called quanta of energy radiation. h h h m The experiment was performed by varying the voltage
Later it was called photon. Each photon has energy (hn). When l= = = from 44 V to 68 V. It was noticed that strong peak
P mv 2Km
energy of photon striking at surface is greater than work appeared in intensity (I) of scattered electron for voltage
m If a charged particle having charge q accelerate from rest
function (f0), electron is emitted 54 V at scattering angle 50°
through a potential V.
Maximum kinetic energy of electrons
h
l= H.T.
Kmax = eV0 = hn – f0 h = Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10–34 Js 2mqV
æhö f 1.227
V0 = ç ÷ n – 0 (i) For electron, l = nm .
èeø e V
æhö 0.0286 A Nickel
This is equation of straight line with slope ç ÷ (ii) For proton, l = nm . F Electron Beam
èeø V Target
q
æhö 0.0101 Electron
m ç ÷ is independent of nature of material (iii) For a-particle, l = nm.
èeø V L.T. gun
m All photons of frequency (n), have the same energy (hn), Diffracted
m According to Heisenberg, it is not possible to measure Vacuum
electron
h Movable Chamber
momentum, P = æç ö÷ both the position and momentum of a particle at the same collector beam
èlø
m Photons are electrically neutral time exactly. To galvanometer
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12
Atoms Chapter
1 ATOMIC MODELS 2 IMPACT PARAMETER 3 DIFFERENT QUANTITIES FOR
It is perpendicular distance of initial velocity vector of the a particle HYDROGEN LIKE ELEMENTS
Thomson's Model Rutherford Model Bohr's Model from the centre of nucleus. l Radius of the nth orbit:
æqö
Thomson's Model Ze2 cot ç ÷
Atom is a spherical cloud of positive charge with electrons embedded è2ø æ e h2 ö n 2 n2
b= rn = ç 0 2 ÷ = 0.529 Å
into it, like seeds in watermelon. 4pe0E ç pme ÷ Z Z
è ø
Electron orbit
a-Particle Scattering Experiment and Rutherford nuclear model of atom
e 2 n2
Thin gold m radius (r) = Þ rn µ
Z
foil thickness
–7 4pe0 mv 2
Lead bricks 2.1 × 10 m
e2 l Speed of electron in nth orbit:
Small angle m Kinetic energy (K) =
Beam of scattering of some 8pe0 r
a-particles a-particles e2 Z C Z
e2 vn = =
Source of q m Potential energy (U) = - 2he0 n 137 n
4 pe 0 r
a-particles
e2 Þ vn µ
Z
214 ZnS screen m Total energy (E) = K + U = - n
83 Bi 8pe0 r
Large angle Bohr's Model
scattering of some l Energy of electron in nth orbit
Backward scattering a-particles Detector
Bohr combined classical and quantum concepts and gave the
of a very small (Microscope) theory in terms of three postulates. æ me 4 ö Z 2 Z2
fraction (1 in 8000 or so) E n = - ç 2 2 ÷ 2 J = (2.18 ´ 10 - 18 ) 2 J
1. An electron can revolve in certain stable orbits without ç 8e h ÷ n n
è 0 ø
Conclusions emission of radiant energy.
1. Only about 0.14% of incident a-particle scatter by more than 1° 2. Electron can revolve only in those orbits in which angular 13.6Z 2
2. About 1 in 8000 deflect by more than 90° or En = - eV
æ h ö n2
–15 –14 momentum is integral multiple of ç ÷
3. Size of nucleus to be about 10 m to 10 m è 2p ø Z2
nh Þ En µ
4. For large impact parameter the a-particle goes nearly undeviated. L = mv n rn = , n = 1, 2, 3, ... n2
2p
5. In case of head on collision, the impact parameter is minimum and
3. When an electron makes a transition from one of the specified l Time period of revolution of electron in
a-particle rebound back (q @ p) non radiatory orbit to another lower energy orbit then radiate nth orbit.
Rutherford's Model energy equal to the difference of energy equal to final and
initial state. æ 4e h 3 ö n 3
According to Rutherford most of the mass of atom and all its positive T =ç 04 ÷ 2
–14 m Bohr's model is applicable for hydrogen and hydrogen like ç me ÷ Z
charge are concentrated in a tiny space of the order of 10 m, called è ø
elements.
nucleus and electrons revolve around it. Centripetal force is obtained Limitations of Bohr's Model n3
from electrostatic attraction between electron and nucleus. = (1.51´ 10-16 s)
m Bohr's model is applicable for single electron atom/ions. Z2
Draw backs m Bohr's model correctly predict the frequencies of the light
(i) Stability of atom n3
emitted by hydrogenic (hydrogen like) atoms but unable to Þ Tµ
(ii) Line spectrum of atoms explain the relative intensities of light Z2
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NCERT Maps Atoms 139
n=7
3. Paschen series
n=6
1 é 1 1 ù n=5 Pfund series
= R ê 2 - 2 ú , n = 4, 5, 6 ... ¥
l ë3 n û
n=4 Bracket E4 = –0.85 eV
series Nucleus
lies in near infra red region
n=3 Paschen E3 = –1.51 eV r
series
4. Bracket series
Balmer E2 = –3.4 eV
n=2
1 é 1 1ù
= R ê 2 - 2 ú , n = 5, 6, 7 ... ¥
l ë4 n û
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13
Nuclei Chapter
1 ATOMIC MASSES AND COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS 7 LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 6 NUCLEAR FORCE
m Before discovery of neutron, nucleus was assumed to be dN m Inside the nucleus, a large attractive force is required to bind
made up of protons and electrons but later this was ruled out m Rate of disintegration, = -lN the nucleons against repulsion. The force is called nuclear
–lt dt
using argument of quantum theory. m N = N0e force.
m It is strongest attractive force. FP -P = Fn -n = FP -n
Half life : Tln2 0.6931
2 DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON m
1/2 == m It is charge independent force i.e.
l l
m In 1932 James Chadwick observed emission of neutral m It is short range force.
m l = Decay constant.
radiation, when beryllium nuclei was bombarded with a- m It has property of saturation.
particle on the basis of energy and momentum conservation. m Mean life,t = 1 = 1.44T1/2 m For a distance (r < 0.8 fm) it is repulsive force.
Chadwick concluded that it was a new type of neutral particle l
called neutron. a-Decay : During a-decay, atomic number decreases
9
B e + 24 H e ® 162 C + 10 n by two and mass number by four. 8 NUCLEAR FISSION
4
m All nuclides with same atomic number but having different m It is nuclei of helium m When a slow moving neutron strikes a heavy nucleus, which
A A -4 4
mass are called isotopes. Z X ® Z - 2 Y + 2He + Q breaks into two intermediate mass nuclear fragments. This is
2
m All nuclides with same mass number are called isobars. Q = (mx – my – mHe) C called nuclear fission.
1 235 236 144 89 1
m Nuclides with same neutron but different atomic number are m b-Decay : 0 n +92 U ®92 U ®56 Ba +36 Kr + 30 n
called isotones. (i) b– decay: A X ® A Y + e - + n m The energy released (the Q-value) in the fission of single
m A=Z+N Z Z +1 uranium is of the order of 200 MeV.
Rate of production of neutrons
3 SIZE OF NUCLEUS
Q = ém
ë (
Z ) (
XA -m Z +1 )
Y A ù C2
û m Multiplication factor (K) =
Rate of loss of neutrons
+
1/3 (ii) b decay: A X ® A Y + e + + n m Uncontrolled chain reaction is the principle of atom bomb.
m The radius of nucleus with mass number 'A' is R = R0A where, Z Z -1
–15 m Controlled chain reaction is the principle of nuclear reactors.
R0 = 1.2 × 10 m.
17
Q = ém
ë (
Z ) (
XA -m Z -1 )
Y A - 2me ù C 2
û
3
m Density of nucleus is approximately 2.3 × 10 kg/m and is g-Decay : 9 NUCLEAR REACTOR
independent of mass number. m Like an atom, a nucleus also has discrete energy
m U235 or Pu239 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor.
levels, the ground state and excited states. When a
4 MASS ENERGY AND NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY nucleus in an excited state spontaneously decays to m D2O, graphite and beryllium oxide are used as moderator to
m Mass energy : Einstein showed that mass is another form of ground state (or to lower energy state), a photon is slow down the fast neutrons.
energy and one can convert into other form. Einstein gave the emitted. This is called g-decay. m Rate of reaction is controlled by control rods made of
2
famous mass energy equivalence relation E = mC . m The difference in nuclear energy levels is of the order of cadmium or boron
2
m 1u = 931.5 MeV/C MeV. m Air, ice cold water, molten sodium or CO2 are used as coolant.
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