Disease and immunity
Learning Outcomes
12.1 Disease
1 Describe a pathogen as a disease-causing organism
2 Describe a transmissible disease as a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one
host to another
3 Understand that a pathogen may be transmitted:
(a) through direct contact, including through blood or other body fluids
(b) indirectly, including from contaminated surfaces or food, from animals, or from the air
4 Describe the human body’s barriers to the entry of pathogens, limited to: skin, hairs in the
nose, mucus, stomach acid
5 Understand the role of the mosquito as a vector of disease
6 Describe the malarial pathogen as an example of a parasite and explain how it is transmitted
7 Describe the control of the mosquito that transmits malaria with reference to its life cycle
8 Explain that human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a viral pathogen
9 Describe how HIV is transmitted
10 Understand that HIV infection may lead to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)
11 Describe the methods by which HIV may be controlled
12 Describe cholera as a disease caused by a bacterium, which is transmitted in contaminated
water
13 Explain the importance of a clean water supply, hygienic food preparation, good personal
hygiene, waste disposal and sewage treatment in controlling the spread of cholera (details of
the stages of sewage treatment are not required)
14 Explain that the cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes secretion of chloride ions
into the small intestine, causing osmotic movement of water into the gut, resulting in
diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of ions from the blood
15 Describe the effects of excessive consumption of alcohol: reduced self-control, depressant,
effect on reaction times, damage to liver and social implications
16 Describe the effects of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components (nicotine, tar and
carbon monoxide): strong association with bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer, heart disease,
and the association between smoking during pregnancy and reduced birth weight of the baby
● A pathogen is a disease-causing organism
● Pathogens are passed on from one host to another and therefore the diseases they
cause are known as transmissible diseases
● Pathogens can be passed on from host to host in different ways, including:
○ Direct contact – the pathogen is passed directly from one host to another by
transfer of body fluids such as blood or semen (eg HIV, gonorrhoea, hepatitis B & C)
○ Indirect contact – the pathogen leaves the host and is carried in some way to
another uninfected individual.
Defences against Pathogens There are 3 main ways in which the body defends itself
against disease:
1. Mechanical barriers – structures that make it difficult for pathogens to get past
them and into the body
a) Skin – covers almost all parts of your body to prevent infection from pathogens. If
it is cut or grazed, it immediately begins to heal itself, often by forming a scab.
b) Hairs in the nose – these make it difficult for pathogens to get past them further up
the nose so they are not inhaled into the lungs
2. Chemical barriers – substances produced by the body cells that trap / kill
pathogens before they can get further into the body and cause disease
a) Mucus – made in various places in the body, pathogens get trapped in the mucus
and can then be removed from the body (by coughing, blowing the nose, swallowing
etc)
b) Stomach acid – contains hydrochloric acid which is strong enough to kill any
pathogens that have been caught in mucus in the airways and then swallowed or have
been consumed in food or water
3. Cells – different types of white blood cell work to prevent pathogens reaching
areas of the body they can replicate in
a) By phagocytosis – engulfing and digesting pathogenic cells
b) By producing antibodies – which clump pathogenic cells together so they can’t
move as easily (known as agglutination) and releasing chemicals that signal to other
cells that they must be destroyed
Transmission of Malaria
Pathogen: plasmodium(malarial parasite)
Vector: female anopheles mosquito LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM:
1) Human
2) Female anopheles mosquito
Human
When an infected female anopheles mosquito bites a healthy human she will insert
proboscis to suck blood while sucking blood it will inject saliva containing anti-
clotting agent and plasmodium . Through blood stream plasmodium will gain entry
in liver cells and start reproducing asexually. Then it enters in red blood cells and
starts dividing rapidly through asexual reproduction. When the red blood cells get
full of plasmodium it burst open and releasing large number of plasmodium in the
blood stream and this is the time when the symptoms of malaria will appear. Then
these plasmodium will enter in another red blood cell and the cycle continues.
Female Anopheles Mosquito
When an uninfected mosquito bites the malarial patient , the plasmodium gains entry
in mosquito’s stomach and starts reproducing sexually and finally the plasmodium
gets stored in the saliva of the mosquito . If malaria is not treated it may cause death
as due to the deficiency of red blood cells in the body and anemia will occur and
breathlessness and fatigue will also occur . As the blood capillaries will be blocked
so the blood supply would reduce and cause .death or coma .
Symptoms:
 High grade fever followed by chill after every 48-72 hours depending on
the specie of plasmodium.
 Nausea ,vomiting
 Headache
 Transmission of CHOLERA
 Abdominal pain

Transmission of HIV (Aids)  Cholera is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a disease caused by the HIV.
HIV can not live outside the human body. It is an especially fragile virus - much less
tough than the cold virus.
It is transported in body fluids. You can only become infected with HIV
through direct contact of your body fluid with those of someone with the virus.
How HIV affects the immune system :
The HIV virus attacks some types of lymphocyte (white blood cells) in the blood
stream.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies ---> attack the antigens on invading microbes.
Some lymphocytes are stored in lympho nodes ---> protection against future
infection.
HIV prevents this immunity being retained, so the AIDS sufferer has no protection
against diseases such as tuberculosis (TB) and pneumonia.
 The disease is water-borne (the bacterium lives in water) and food-borne
 This means the disease occurs where people do not have access to proper
sanitation (clean water supply) and uncontaminated food
 Cholera can be transmitted when people; bath or wash in contaminated
water, drink contaminated water, or eat food exposed to contaminated water
 Infected people egest large numbers of the bacteria in their faeces. There is
loss of watery faeces known as Diarrhea.
 Diarrhea is treated by oral rehydration therapy ; intake of water containing,
salt / ions, and sugar.
 If these faeces contaminate the water supply, or if infected people handle
food or cooking utensils without washing their hands, then the bacteria
are transmitted to uninfected people.
The effects of cholera bacteria on the gut:

Methods of transmission:  produces a toxin

 bacteria / toxin, attach to the wall of the, small / large, intestine
unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
 correct ref to chloride ions
 drug use involving sharing of needle used by infected person
 secretion / loss, chloride ions, into the, small intestine
 transfusion of infected blood
 causing a water potential gradient / water potential of the intestinal lumen is
 infected mother to fetus
lowered
 feeding a baby with milk from an infected mother
 causing osmotic movement of water into the gut / water flows from, the
 unsterilised surgical instruments cells / blood, into the, lumen / gut ;
 loss of salts from the blood ;
Prevention methods :
 causing, diarrhoea / dehydration
 condom for sexual intercourse
 refuse sexual intercourse Treatment of cholera:
 screen blood (for transfusion)
 use sterilized needles  oral rehydration (therapy / salts / treatment / solution)
 feed baby with bottled powdered milk (if mom has HIV)  in-take of water
 use sterilised surgical instruments.  in-take of sugar and, salt / ions
 taking antibiotics
 DISEASE AND IMMUNITY ( CHOLERA )

(b) Cholera is a transmissible disease. 0610/31 Paper 3 May/June 2019 Write the formula that would be used to calculate the actual length of the bacterium
(not including the flagellum) in Fig. 1.3.
(i) State the type of pathogen that causes cholera.
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(ii) One of the symptoms of cholera is diarrhoea. Describe what is meant by the term [1]
diarrhoea. (ii) The actual length of the bacterium shown in Fig. 1.3 is 0.0026 mm. Convert this
................................................................................................................................... value to micrometres (μm).Space for working.

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(iii) Outline the treatment for diarrhea
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........................................................................................................................................ (d) (i) Describe and explain the effects of cholera bacteria on the gut.
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(c) State two ways in which the body can defend itself against pathogens. ........................................................................................................................................
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(c) Fig. 1.3 is a photomicrograph of Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium that causes (ii) Suggest one treatment for cholera.
cholera. 0610/42 February/March 2018
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  methods of vector control
 how these methods can reduce the spread of malaria.
HIV(AIDS)
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f)Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infects cells of the
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immune system.Describe the effects of HIV on the immune
system. 0610/33 Paper 33 (Extended Theory) ...................................................................................................................................................

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4a. White blood cells form part of the immune system in the human body which
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… protects against infection by pathogens. Outline the possible responses of these white
blood cells to an infection by pathogens.
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MALARIA
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3 The diagram shows a simplified life cycle of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium.
b. Being vaccinated is another way to gain protection against infection
by pathogens. Describe how vaccines protect against infection by
(a) State the vector in the spread of malaria.
pathogens.
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(b) Describe how methods of vector control can reduce the spread of malaria. You ...................................................................................................................................................
should include in your answer:
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