ICT Half A4

Computer
Computer can be defined as, “A computer is a machine that

can take input data, stores
it on temporary or
permanent basis, processes
the input and provide the
output to the user”.
The word “computer”
is derived from the word
“Compute” which means to
solve or calculate. In the
early lineage computers
were developed to perform
complex arithmetic
problems with high speed and accuracy, thus was
considered as a calculating device only. But with the
evolution in technology computer has become some more
than a calculating device. It has become a versatile machine
that can perform various s processes. A more clear and
explained definition of the computer can be as: “A computer
is an electronic device that operates upon the information
or data. A computer can store, process, and retrieve data as
a machine that takes input in the form of data, do
processing on that data, and then gives the results.”
1. What is Data?
Any type of raw information that can be given to a

computer or stored into it is called data .A computer takes
data input in terms of data from the keyboard.
All letters (alphabet), images, recordings, video, audio
, games etc. That can be used on a computer are the
example of data.
Microsoft Computer Institute Kohi Chowk Bara Distt Khyber (Since 2015)
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A. Data is a plural form of the Latin word Datum.
The collection of fact an Figure is called Data OR any thing
in raw form. Data cannot be used for decision making or
action taking. e.g. Name, Address, Number, Phone Number,
Roll No etc. Types
2. What Is Information?
When you work on data, you get some output from
the computer .This output is called information .We can say
that the processed form of data is called information.”
3. Types of Data
1. Alphabetic data type it consist letter from A-Z capital or
from a-z small letter e.g. Ali, Peshawar , Pakistan ,
Khan
2. Numeric data type : it consist of digit from the 0-9 e.g.
123, 567 etc.
3. Alphanumeric: consist alphabetic letter as well as
numeric digit , Street no, A/100 etc.
4. Graphic data: it consist tables, charts , graphic and
statement.
5. Audio data: it consist only sounds . For example radio
news.
6. Video data: it consist photos , images and moving
picture . Such as TV News.
7. Mixed data : It consist more than one type of data .
Such as the combination of audio and video.
4. What is information?
The PROCESS form of data is called information. OR to
organize a data in meaningful form upon which people can
take necessary decision is called information. E.g. 2,1,5,4
when sorted it become 1,2,3,4 which is information.
Information is the meaningful, processed data, which is
relevant and accurate and thereby can be used in decision –
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making .Example are, bills , fee , registration cards or
library cards.
Differentiate between Data and Information
Data Information
Data is set of raw facts.
Information is processed form
of data
Data used as input in Information is output of
the computer computer
Data is not meaningful Information is meaningful
Data is not used Information is very important
indecision making for decision making
Data is use rarely Information is use frequently
Data processing cycle:

Data processing cycle is a collection of steps required to
convert data into information. Different steps processing life
cycle are as bellow.
What is input device?
Input devices are the hardware devices used to supply data
to the computer.
What is processing?
The conversion of data into information by a computer is
called processing?
What are output devices?
Information processed by the system is called output.
Output devices are hardware devices that present output to
user in human readable form.
Storage: in this step the information is given to the user as
output for future use. This step is optional
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Definition of information technology
Information Technology:
The combination (merging) of computer and communication
is called Information Technology. Information Technology is
the technology that uses computing with high speed
communication links to spread information from one place
to another. The interconnection of computer enables people
to send and receive information. The communication links
also are used to interact with different people in the world.
Computer is an important component of information
technology. It makes possible to use information technology
for solving problems. The world has become a global village
due to advancement in information technology. It means
that people living in the world know one another as if they
are living in a village. Information can be transferred from
one place to another place easily and quickly. It manages a
network of computers for creating WEB Pages, producing
videos digitally, selling, buying, and any type of business on
the Internet. For example, telephone and radio equipment
and switches used for voice communication.
A computer and communication system is made up six
elements. I) People 2) Procedure 3) Data/Information 4)
Hardware 5) Software 6) Communication
1- Peoples
It means the users or people who runs and execute the
entire data processing task and computer installations or
the people who works in the data processing environment'.
The personnel include System Analysts Programmers, Data
entry operators, and Data processing officers.
2- Procedure
Procedures are rules, policies, and methods for operating
computers. The operation of a data processing system
requires procedures for use in obtaining and preparing data
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in order to operate the computer and for distributing the
output from the computer. This procedure includes control
steps such a's actions to be taken to show errors in the
data and malfunctioning of the equipment etc.
3- Data
Fact and figure is called data. Data is raw material of IS.
Data can take many forms, including .Text data. Audio
data, video data, voice data graphics and image data.
4- HARDWARE
Physical parts of computer system. For example input
devices, output devices and CPU such as keyboard, Mouse,
motherboard, CD-ROM etc.
5- Software
The Software consists of programs whose purpose is to<
communicate with computer. The Software includes
operating system i.e. MS- DOS. PC-DOS. UNIX. .XENIX,
and Linux etc. General purpose programs i.e. database
packages like FoxPro, Dbase, Java etc.
6- Communication
Data communication is a process of transferring data
electronically from one place to another. Data can be
transferred by using different medium. Data
communication is local if the communicating devices are in
same building. It is considered remote if the devices are at
distances locations.
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Classification of data processing system
manual/conventional data processing.
The Conventional Data Processing/Traditional Data
Processing system is the manual method of transforming
data into information. The human beings themselves collect
data, classify and arrange the data, perform manual
calculation and hence produce the required output result.'
It is very simple and inexpensive: Up to the 20''' century
almost all data processing was done manually. Clerical
persons used-paper, pen, and pencil to maintain records in
offices. Such data processing caused frequently clerical
mistakes and hence due to these miss-recorded
transactions, the Company record was to be
misrepresented. Information was often received too late to
serve the organization purposes.
Electronic data processing (computer based data
processing system)
An Information System that uses Computer and „their
hardware and software is called Electronic data processing,
Computer-Based Data processing or Computer Based
Information System. Electronic Data Processing or
Computer Based Information System uses Computer
hardware, and software, the internet and other
telecommunication system, network, Computer based data
resource management technique and many other
information technologies to transform data resources into
information products for consumers and business
professionals. Electronic computers complete all data
manipulation and file updating electronically rather than
mechanically! This increased data processing productivity
and reduced its cost. The speed, accuracy and reliability of
computers are more than Traditional data processing.
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Data processing system:-
The system that process data and produce information is
called Data processing system or Information processing
system.
Model of data processing system

There are mainly two of data processing systems which are
discuss in previous topics.
Advantages of electronic data processing
Electronic data processing reshaping the basics of
business. Now a day customer service, operation, products
and marketing strategic and distribution dependent on
electronic data processing. Electronic data processing
system perform three important roles in any type of
organization.
1. Support of business operations.
2. Support of managerial decision making
3. Support of strategic competitive advantage.
In today business and every field of life electronic data
processing is important component. Through electronic
data processing it is possible to become a global enterprise.
Electronic data processing is used to restructure work by
transforming business process. Electronic data processing
is used to simplified complex process. Receiving, recording,
processing and retrieval of record in second. It is Possible to
access the desired record in second . Electronic data
processing permits the organization to create, develop, and
maintain database. Using electronic data processing to
send, receive email and faxes. Access to internet and
remote computer is possible through, it. EDP process
thousand of transaction in second and the processing
speed is very high. Electronic data processing process the
transaction with high accuracy.
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History of computer
The Abacus
The abacus is the earliest calculator. It uses beads that are
moved across wires or strings to add and subtract number.
Using the age old denary number system , i-e 0-9 it has
helped to achieve in calculations.
Napier’s bones
In 1617, John Napier invented a system called Napier‟s
bones It consisted of a set of rods with number written on
them. It could be used to multiply and divide number.
The Pascaline
In 1642, Blaise Pascal developed the first mechanical
calculator called Pascaline. Instead of beads , it was
operated by wheels and could add and subtract number.
The Leibniz Calculator
Gottfried Leibniz invented the Leibniz calculator in 1694. It
used wheels to add and subtract. but it could also multiply
and divide numbers . This was the awaited breakthrough, a
step ahead of addition and subtraction towards advanced
calculations
Vacuum Tubes
A vacuum tubes consists of a glass bulb and wire . The wire
carries data in the form of electronic signal Initially
discovered by Thomas Edison , the vacuum tube formed the
building block for the entire electronic industry.
Vacuum tubes were later used as electron valves in the
20th century to build the first electronic computers.
Charles Babbage
Charles Babbage is called the father of the modern Digital
computer. In the nineteenth century , he designed two
machine called difference engine and analytical engine.
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Difference engine
in 1812 an English mathematician from Cambridge
University. The real beginnings of computers was laid by an
English Professor of Mathematics Charles Babbage.
Proposed a machine to perform differential equations, called
a Difference Engine.
After working on the difference Engine for
10 years, Babbage was suddenly inspired
to begin work on the first general –
purpose computer which he called the
Analytical Engine.
Herman Hollerith
In 1988 Herman Hollerith developed a
tabulating machine. He used punch cards to give
instructions to it and store data. The tabulating machine
was used to sort and count census data. This introduced
the concept of storage device into the evolution of computer.
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Characteristics of a Computer:
Speed:
A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in a
few seconds the amount of work that a human can do in
year. In its early history lineage the computers were really
slow but with the advancements in the technology today a
computer can perform more than a million calculations in a
second.
Accuracy:
Human beings become tired with the passage of time
performing similar or different tasks that affect the degree
of accuracy very much. But a computer performs each and
every task with the same accuracy. Accuracy means to
provide result without any error. Computer can process
large amount of data and generate accurate result.
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Errors may occur in computer due to input data
provided by the human beings or hardware failure only.
Diligence:
Human beings get bored from working on the same
thing for a long time. But the case is not same with
computers; a computer is free from tiredness and lack of
concentration therefore a computer can work continuously
for days, weeks, and years.
Versatility
Earlier computer were considered as calculating
devices but this definition cannot explain features of a
today‟s computers. Today a computer has become a
versatile machine that can perform a large number of
different operations, e.g. A computer is can be used to
design templates, geometrical designs, printing maps, and
making phone calls etc.
Cost reduction
We can perform a difficult task in less time and less cost.
For example we have hire many people to handle an office.
The same work can be performed by a single person.
Memorization:
A human brain is an intelligent organ it memorizes
the important information and deletes the unimportant one
but with the passage of time its memorizing power becomes
weaker and we starts to forget things. A computer can store
data according to its storage capacity but can recall even
after several years any amount of information without a
slight difference in it.
Communication
Most computers today have the capability of
communicating with other computer. We can connect two
or more computer by communication device such as
modem, NIC card.
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No feelings:
Unlike humans, computers lack any type of
emotions. They have no feelings and that‟s the reason once
they are purchased they server for the rest of life as an
obedient servant that don‟t ask for salary, holidays or go on
strikes.
Artificial Intelligence:
Humans take their decision by using their brains
and that‟s what makes them dynamic and superior. A
computer has no intelligence of its own but scientists are
working on a theory called Artificial Intelligence to make
computer an intelligent machine. Expert Systems, Voice
Recognition, and Artificial Neural Networks are main
advancements of this field.
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Discuss types of computer.
There are three type of Computer
a) Analog Computers,
b) Digital Computers.
c)Hybrid Computers,
a) Analog Computers:-
Analog computers process information which is of a
continuous nature and which is not discrete or separate.
An analog computer calculator by measuring the
continuous change in some physical quantity. Analog data
include temperature, pressure, flow rate, voltage and depth.
Theses quantities are continuous. They have an infinite
variety of values
b)Digital Computers:
Digital computers represent data as number or separate
units. Counting on your fingers is the simplest form of
digital computer. Each finger represents one unit of item
being counted. Adding machine and pocket calculators are
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common example of device constructed n the principal of
the digital computer.
Analog computer are those which measure , and digital are
those which count Analog computers are fast but not so
accurate, Analog computer can be used control processes
(Such as chemical process whereas digital computer are
used in scientific calculation, commercial or, Business data
processing , and Educational filed besides many other
areas.
c) Hybrid Computer:-
In addition to the above two types , these are others which
are called Hybrid Computer. A hybrid computer is a
combination of digital and analog computers. I-e it
combines the best features of the both analog and digital
computers. They have the speed of analog and the accuracy
of digital computers. These are used mainly in specialized
application where are both kinds of information needed to
be form measurement is converted into digits and
processed by computer. Hybrid computers, for example are
used to control national and flight radar system.
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Explain classification of computer
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Super computer
Super Computers: - Super Computers are also called
"Number Crunchers‖ because, they are specialized
Computers for dealing with numbers, i.e. they are capable
of performing over 10 Mega flops (i.e. millions floating point
operations per second). These Computers are very much
expansive. Two families of commercially available Super
Computers are the GRAY-I and Cyber205 built by 111iac-
iv. These are specially used in Atomic reactor, defense
system of NASA. (USA)
Super computer is mostly used for weather
prediction, weapon design, preparing model of chemical and
biological system, and studying the neural network of
brain. These are specially used in Atomic reactor.
Super computer is also used in business and industries
field.
 Fastest and expensive
 Used by application for
molecular chemistry. Nuclear
research. Weather report and
advanced physics.
 Consists of several computers
that work in parallel as single
system.
Advantage
 Speed
Disadvantage
 Generate a large amount of heat during operation.
Mainframe Computers:
Are less powerful than super computers but are capable of
great processing speed. Multi-tasking capability and high
data storage. They are used by most banks to process
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information of depositors and millions of daily bank
transactions.
Insurance companies use them for their policy holders
database. These computers have specialized wiring system
and usually occupies a big room with temperature control.
Advantages:
 Support many users and instruction
 Large memory
Disadvantage
 Huge Size
 Expensive
Mini Computers:
Minicomputer is smaller and cheaper than mainframe
computer. They have less
Processing power. Microcomputer can process large amount
of data and are used by
Medium or large- sized businesses , colleges , bank and
libraries. Fewer people can work on
a minicomputer. Nowadays, minicomputers have been
replaced with microcomputer with
Equivalent processing capacities.
Micro Computers: These are also called Personal
Computers (PC). These are the most popular digital
Computers used in all fields of life. These are small in
memory and have less processing capability. These are also
called Chip Computers, because its entire circuitry is
fabricated on a single chip, the microcomputer of today is
equivalent to the main frame.
They are used by small businesses, school, and in home,
They are used by single users and are called desktop
computer or personal computer (PC)
Microcomputer comes in different shape and sizes
Digital computer that works on a microprocessor
Used in home and office.
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Performs tasks such as word processing. Desktop
publishing desktop publishing and accounting.
Advantages
 Small size
 Low cost
 Portability
Disadvantages
 Low processing speed.
The Laptop computer Laptop
computers are also called notebook
computers. They consist of keyboard ,
monitor , processor , and storage
devices built into a single case. They are lighter and can be
powered by a battery . They are portable but more
expensive than desktop computer.
Smartphone and tablet computer
Tablet computers , smart phones , and related mobile
devices can now run a variety of software applications
,These applications are used for instant communication ,
networking and many other utilities. Smart phones and
tablet computer are based on a touch screen interface along
with gesture control
General Purpose Computer General Purpose computers
are versatile and used in many areas such as Business,
Manufacturing , Military , Education , Science etc. We can
use General- purpose computers for business application
as well as for scientific purpose and for processing complex
mathematical and engineering formulas. General – purpose
computers can store large amounts of data and that is why
most business today prefer General-purpose Computers.
Special Purpose Computer:
Special – Purpose computers support highly specialized
data processing activity. They are designed to handle
specific problems and are used in industry to perform
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singular jobs such as elevator dispatching airline
reservation and stock reports. Special-purpose computers
are more efficient because they are designed to do a single
class of jobs. When a General-purpose computer is used to
do the same job, a part of its capabilities goes unused.
Generation of computers
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The first generation of computer 1942-1955
The computer of first generation used vacuum tubes. A
vacuum tube consists of a glass bulb and wire. The wire
carries electronic in the form of signals. ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical integrator and computer) was a first -generation
compute. It constrained nearly 19,000 vacuum tubes and
weight about 27 tones . First generation computer were
very large , made many mistakes , produced a lot heat, and
were difficult to move from one place to another.
Advantage •
Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic
digital computers. •
These computer could calculate data in millisecond.
Disadvantage
These were very large. •
Consumed a large amount of energy.
Very slow
Expensive.
Use machine language only
Heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.
The second generation of computers 1956-1964
Second – generation computer
used transistor. A transistor. A
transistor can carry much more
electric current than a vacuum
tube. These computer were
faster and smaller .They were
also cheaper, more reliable
And produced less heat.
Advantages
Smaller in size as compared to first generation computers.
Less energy used
Produce less heat
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Less costly.
Speed of these Computers was high. Use of assembly
language instead of machine language
3. Third Generation(l 964-1975)

The Computers of this generation were based on integrated
circuits (ICs) technology (transistor replace by ICs). In early
1960 the electronic technology of solid-state was
introduced. The development of integrated circuits (ICs) is
called solid-state technology or Small Scale Integration
(SSI). The integrated circuits (ICs) are the collection of many
electronic devices like transistors on a single chip of silicon.
This technology enabled the computers to enter into
electronic revolution. IBM-360 etc.
Advantages
Smaller in size as compared to previous generation.
Less energy used.
Produce less heat .
More good speed, calculate data in Nano seconds.
Less expensive.
Could be use high level language
Disadvantage
Air condition was required .
High technology required for the manufacture of IC Chips
The fourth generation of computer 1975
Fourth generation computer are based on microprocessors.
A microprocessors consists of a small
silicon chip on which thousands of
circuits are placed or printed. The
computer used today are based on
microprocessors. They are smaller,
portable and produce less heat.
The microprocessor revolution
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electronic gadgetry , and smart devices are use micro-
controllers and are more called dedicated computer.
Advantage
Very small in size.
Less power consumption.
Less heat generated.
Best speed.
General purpose.
Commercial production
Disadvantage
High advance technology required for manufacturing
microprocessor
Fifth Generation(AI)(1980-1990)
The rapid progress in computer technology is still
continued and active research is going on in different fields
of computer technology but there is no well-defined
categorization after fourth generation. The reason may be
that now the developments are taking place in a variety of
fields of computer hardware and software as compared to
the previous developments, which mostly took place in the
fields of electronics. Hence the Computers of this
generation were based on the principles of AI and also in
this generation, Software development, was give more
importance than Hardware, as a result of which Artificial
Intelligence was introduced, e.g. Robotics, Computer Vision
etc.
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Generation Period Major technology
First 1942 - Vacuum tubes

Generation 1955
Second 1956 – Transistors

Generation 1964
Third 1965 – Integrated

Generation 1975
Fourth 1975 – Microprocessors

Generation present
Fifth The Artificial Intelligence

Generation Future
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 Basic components of computer system unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Functional unit
There are three basic Functional Unit/elements of a
computer.
1 Input Unit 2-Processing Unit (CPU) 3-Output Unit
1- Input Unit
Input unit are the external hardware components that
are used to enter or accept data and instruction into
computer memory for processing. Example include
keyboard, mouse , track ball joy stick Touch screen
Light pen, Scanner.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
It is the main hardware of every computer system, It
consist of two parts i.e the Control Unit (CU) and
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The CU is responsible for
controlling the overall activities of the computer system
while the ALU performs two types of operations addition,
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subtraction multiplication, division etc. and logical
operations such as comparison like greater than ,
smaller than , equal to etc.
1.Control Unit (CU)

Control unit manages the functions performed by different
parts of the computer. It coordinates and controls the
overall computer system. Just like the brain control the
human body. It executes the program instructions, Controls
and directs the data to the output devices.
The CU contains the necessary logic to interpret instruction
and to generate the signals necessary for the execution of
instructions.
CU is responsible for directing the flow of instruction and
data within the CPU. It direct the operation of the other
units by providing timing and control signals.
ii) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
Arithmetic Logic unit is the Main processing unit CPU. It is
performs arithmetic and logic operation on data. Arithmetic
means addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
logical operation is the comparison between two data items.
ALU processes the data and then gives back the results.
The results of an operation are stored in
registers.(Temporary storage locations). Now a days CPU
have more then one ALUs than can do calculation
simultaneously in order to improve the efficiency of
computer system.
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Storage devices
The device in which we store the data and information is
called storage devices.
There are two types of storage devices
a) Main/Primary Storage Devices
b) Secondary Storage devices
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Main or Primary Memory or Internal Memory'
It is stand for Random access memory . A better name
might be read/write memory whose information can either
be read form or write to the RAM. This is the memory whose
information can be erased or changed,
RAM is temporary memory. Anything stored in RAM is lost
when computer is switched off or if a power failure occurs.
RAM is sometimes referred to as a
volatile memory because stored data
disappears whenever the computer is
switched off.
-Random Access Memory (RAM)
 RAM stores information
temporarily. Information in RAM can be accessed very
quickly. It can be added change, or deleted any number
of times. RAM is volatile As soon as power to the system
is lost, information in RAM is - If
you were writing a story on a computer, it would hold
your words in its RAM until you were ready to print out
your story. It is important to save your work from time
to time.
 Example: - If you were writing a story on a computer, it
would hold your words in its RAM until you were ready
to print out your story. It is important to save your work
from time to time.
ROM:-
ROM is non volatile memory, I,e the information stored
in it, is not lost even if the power supply goes off. It is
used for the permanent storage of information. It is also
processes random access property. Information cannot
be writers. Into a ROM by the users/programmers. In
other words the contents of ROMs are decided by the
manufactures.
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Output unit
Data processed by the system is called output. Output
devices are hardware devices that present output to user in
human readable form.
An output device can be used to store display or print

information (e.g monitor, printer, floppy Disks harddisketc.
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Q) Define input Devices and Discuss different input
devices.
Input devices
Input devices are the external hardware components that
are used to enter or accept data and instruction into
computer memory for processing. Examples include
; Keyboard, mouse, Track ball . Joy stick, Touch screen ,
Light Pen, Screen,
Keyboard:
lt is a very common input device that helps in
keying-in the required information into the Computer.
Keyboard can be used effectively to communicate with the
Computers but it is very slow input device. The keyboard is
just like a typical typewriter in shape but enhanced than
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that. It consists of normal Alphabetic, numeric, functions,
and other special characters or control keys, which are not
available in a typewrite
 Function Keys: There are 12 function keys (i.e. F1 to

F12) across the top line which are used for different
purposes in different software because they can be
programmed. These keys are also known as
Programmable Keys.
 Special-Purpose Keys: Keys like Ctrl (Control), Alt
(Alternate), Del (Delete), Ins (Insert), Home, End, PgUp
(Page Up), PgDn (Page Down) are regarded as special-
purpose keys, such as Home, End, PgUp, and PgDn are
used for cursor movement, Alt and Ctrl keys are used in
combinations with other keys to issue various
commands.
 Cursor Keys: The four keys having labels as arrows
in Up, Down, Left, and Right directions used for cursor
movement are known as cursor keys.
 Typewriter Keys: The keys that represent English

alphabets, digits, and several symbols are known as
typewriter keys because they are arranged in order of a
typewriter. This area is also known as Typing Pad.
Numeric Keys:
Group of keys on right side of keyboard representing only
digits and some mathematical operational symbols are
regarded as numeric keys and as group this area is called
Numeric Pad.
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Mouse
It is a pointing device used to
insert instructions into the computers.
It is a hand held device that controls
the pointer on the screen. It has two
buttons and one scrolling wheel. With
the help of mouse you can draw images select option and
move text and image
The Touch Pad
A touch pad is a small , flat surface
with buttons around the edge. Moving
a stylus or a finger across the pad
moves the cursor . The buttons work like mouse buttons .
Touch pads are mostly used in laptops
Construction and Working:
Touch sensitive screens
Touch screen is a video display screen that receives input
from the touch of finger. The screen is covered with a
plastic layer. There are invisible beam of infrared light
behind the screen. The user enters data by touching icons
or menus on the screen. Most touch screen computer use
sensor to detect touch of a finger.
The trackball
Track ball is a pointing input device. This is like a upside-
down mouse where the users roll the wheel in the direction
they want the pointer to go. They are often used with video
games and information kiosks. A trick ball is an alternative
to a mouse. It work in the same way as mouse except that
the ball is on top. This is moved by fingers or thumb and
the pointer moves accordingly on screen. Tracker balls are
used mainly when there is not enough space for a muse as
in portable computers or laptops.
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Pen-based computing (light pen)
The pen-based devices use photoelectric circuitry to enter
data into the computer through a video screen. A user can
write on the video display, the light-sensitive pen sends
information to the computer when user touches the pen on
certain areas of a specially designed screen. Light pen is
usually used by engineer, graphic designer, and illustrator.
Graphics Tablets
A graphic tablet is a board covered by a touch sensitive
device . A stylus is a pointer while a puck is a mouse – like
device. The stylus and puck are used to draw directly on
the tablet.
Scanner:
Scanner is an input device used to insert a picture into the
computer. This is a peripheral device that converts a
printed image into digital information.
The following are some common types of scanner.
Handheld scanners.
There are two forms of handled scanner.
Document scanner:
3ED Scanner:
The document scanner are dragged across the surface of
the image to be scanned and required a steady hand.
The 3D scanners are used for producing three-dimensional
models objects and are expensive then document scanners.
These scanners are used in industrial design, digital design
manufacturing and medical application.
Flat-bed scanner.
A flatbed scanner has a glass pane, under which there is a
bright light which illuminates the pane, and a moving
27
optical array in CCD( changed Couple Display) scanning.
Images to be scanned are placed face down on the glass.
The sensor array and light source move across the pane
reading the entire area. An image is therefore visible to the
detector only because of the light it reflects.
Optical scanner:
Optical scanner uses optical light to read text or
illustrations printed on a paper and translate the
information by digitalizing in image, dividing it into grid of
boxes . The resulting matrix of bits, called a bit map, can
then be stored in file displayed on a screen and
manipulated by programs.
The Barcode Reader

A barcode is a series of black and
white lines of varying (different)
thicknesses. It enables a central
computer to identify an item with the
help of barcode number. The product
name description, and latest price are
stored on the computer. The barcode reader identifies the
product , its country of origin and its manufactureٍ
Quick Response (QR) Code Reader
A quick response (QR) code is a special type of
barcode that can store more information than ordinary
barcode. Instead of a series of vertical lines the QR code
consists of black dots placed within a square box. The QR
code can be read by any Smartphone that has the QR code
application installed
The finger print Reader

A finger print reader is used to identify people. A
computer stores the fingerprint to several people. When a
28
person places a finger on the reader the reader fingerprint
scanned and sent to the computer. The computer check if
the fingerprint matches any one of those stored on the
computer
The magnetic Ink character Recognition (MICR) scanner
MICR is used to read special character printed at the
bottom of cheques. These characters are printed in special
magnetized ink. The MICR reads a large number of cheques
quickly. Another important advantage of using magnetic ink
is that it is not easily spoiled. Hence the chances of data
becoming corrupted are very remote.
Video cameras
A digital camera captures still images. Images are recorded
on a disk or in the memory of the camera. Pictures taken
can be viewed Immediately. They can be uploaded and
saved on a computer.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device used to inputting the voice
signal into the computer. Microphones are commonly used
for live chat. Microphone are also used to record voice into
the computer.
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
MIDI helps connect electronic musical instruments
to a computer. Music played is input directly to a computer
and stored digitally. Keyboard and guitar is common MIDI
instrument.
Voice Recognition and response
Voice recognition device is used to directly convert spoken
data into electronic form into a computer system. Voice
recognition and voice response is the easiest method for
data entry and conversational. The Microphone is attached
to the computer with help of sound card. The capability of
29
computer to distinguish spoken words is called voice
recognition or speech recognition. The voice input is faster
way of entering data. Many words processing application
provide the facility of voice input. The user speak in
microphone and the application software writers the spoken
words as a text. Speech microprocessor can be found in
toys, calculators, appliances, automobile, and a variety of
other consumer, commercial and industrial products.
Q) Define output Devices and Discuss different input

devices.
Out put
Data processed by the system is called output.
Output devices are hardware devices that present output to
user in human readable form.
Monitors The monitor is the most common and the most

important output device. It is also called a visual display
unit. The output viewed on a monitor is called soft copy .
There are two basic types of monitors. CRT Monitors and
LCD monitors.
Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) Monitors:
CRT monitors are similar to the standard television sets
because they contain Cathode Ray tube. The Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing an electrons which
falls repeatedly on the phosphors coated screen and it
glows for fractions of a second. In color CRT monitors there
are three electron guns while the phosphors atoms are in
three different color i.e RED, Green, Blue (RGB). Other
colors are produced by the combinations of these three
colors.
30
LCD Monitors.
The LCD monitor LCD stand for liquid crystal display. LCD
monitors are more advanced , smaller , and thinner than
CRT monitors. They provide a flat image and do not flicker .
They are used in laptops and in desktop computer . They
advantage of using LCD with laptops is that they consume
less energy and can work on batteries.
Printers
Printer are output devices which are
used to produce output on physical
media such as paper. The output
produced by printer is called Hardcopy
output. Printer are divided into the
following two categories.
Impact printer :
In impact printer creates an image by pressing an inked
ribbon against paper, using small hammers to strike the
ribbon. Each hammer is embossed with shape of an
alphanumeric character: that shape is transferred through
the inked ribbon onto the paper, resulting in a printed
character, common types of impact printers are Dot Matrix
printer, Drum printer and chain printer.
Dot-matrix printer
Dot Matrix printer produces printed images when tin) pins
on a print head strikes an inked ribbon.
When the ribbon presses against the
paper, it creates dots that form
characters and graphics. The dot matrix
printer head contain nine U> 24 pins.
This number of pins depends on the
manufacture and printer model. A higher number of pins
31
print more dots that produce higher quality. Cheaper dot
matrix printer uses 100 to 150 DPI. Their speed is from 200
to 300 characters per minute. The expensive printer use
300 DPI and a speed of 3000 to 1000 character per minute.
Daisy-wheel printers
Daisy wheel is similar to type writer. They produce rather
excellent letter-quality printout as compared the dot matrix
printer. They work just like the typewriter and use a
hammer and a wheel to print something on paper. But they
are very much noisy and hence are not so popular. Printers
other than Impact are called Non-Impact Printers.
Drum Printer:
In these printers a fixed font character set is engraved onto
a number of print wheels. The Wheels, joined to form a
large drum, spin at high speed. As the desired character
for each column for each column passes the print position,
a hammer strike the paper from the rear, which presses the
paper against the ribbon the drum, causing desired
character to be printed on the continuous paper. A full set
of hammers delivers(600 lines-per minute of output. And a
half set of hammer delivers (600 LPM).
Chain printers
A chain printer uses a printing mechanism that a printing
typefaces linked together in a chain. The chain spins
horizontally around a set of hammers aligned with each
position. When the required character is in front of the
selected print position hits the paper into the ribbon
against the character in the chain.
This printer is not commonly found around microcomputer
because it is a very expensive, high speed machine designed
originally mainframes and minicomputers.
32
Non impact printer
Non Impact printers print characters, and graphic o the
paper with lase or sprayed ink or with heat and pressure
without striking the paper. These printers are faster, not
noisy and have high quality of print but costly as compared
to impact printers. Laser-Jet or inkjet and laser printers are
common type of non-impact printers.
Laser printers
Laser printers Image transferred to paper with a laser
beam.
Faster and more expensive than dot-matrix
High-resolution output
Expensive to buy
Quite expensive to run.
Toner is filled with special ink which, just sprinkle ink
onto the paper and thus prints the character. They are very
fast and use multiple fonts for text and graphics. Besides
„them now- there are color printers available in dot matrix
as well as Laser printers and all others as well,
Ink-jet
Dots of ink are sprayed onto the paper to form the image.
Reasonably high quality
Available in color
Speed measured in pages per minute
Expensive to run
Plotters
Used by graphic designers map
Image transferred to paper with ink pens
Very high resolution
Excellent for scientific and engineering applications
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Speaker
Speakers are also output devices that provide output in the
form of sounds .They enable the user to listen to music,
speech or any other sounds.

Projector: Screen image projector is an output device used
to project information from a computer on a large screen.
Additionally a full-fledged multimedia presentation with
audio, video , image and animation can be prepared and
made by using this facility. Like monitor screen image
projectors provider a temporary soft copy output.
Fax machine
A fax machine sends and receives messages over
telephone lines. It uses regular telephone lines to sends
copies of documents which may include drawing as well as
text.
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Storage devices
The device in which we store the data and information is
called storage devices.
There are two types of storage devices
a) Main/Primary Storage Devices
b) Secondary Storage devices
Main or Primary Memory or Internal Memory'
The Main memory (Primary Memory) of CPU is the place
where the computer program and data are stored during
processing. This storage unit is often called either main
storage or internal storage or primary storage. There is
usually two types primary storage.
1:-Random Access Memory (RAM)
 RAM stores information temporarily. Information in
RAM can be accessed very quickly. It
can be added change, or deleted any
number of times. RAM is volatile As
soon as power to the system is lost,
Example: - If you were writing a story

on a computer, it would hold your words in its RAM
until you were ready to print out your story. It is
important to save your work from time to time.
 Example: - If you were writing a story on a computer, it
would hold your words in its RAM until you were ready
to print out your story. It is important to save your work
from time to time.
i) ROM:-
ROM is non volatile memory, I,e the information stored
in it, is not lost even if the power supply goes off. It is
used for the permanent storage of information. It is also
processes random access property. Information cannot
be writers. Into a ROM by the users/programmers. In
35
other words the contents of ROMs are decided by the
manufactures.
 Secondary memory
Secondary memory is also called auxiliary memory or
mass storage or Back up storage. It is also called removable
storage because it can be removed from one computer and
attached to any other computer. Hard drive, floppy disks,
tapes, and . Secondary memory devices have their own
important features that are unmatched by primary memory.
The important feature of secondary memory is that it is non
_volatile. This means that remain stored with or without
electrical power being supplied to the devices.
Sami conductor storage devices

 Secondary memory
Secondary memory is also called auxiliary memory or
mass storage or Back up storage. It is also called removable
storage because it can be removed from one computer and
attached to any other computer. Hard drive, floppy disks,
tapes, and . Secondary memory devices have their own
important features that are unmatched by primary memory.
The important feature of secondary memory is that it is non
_volatile. This means that remain stored with or without
electrical power being supplied to the devices.
Data Storage:
Information is recorded on the tracks of a disk
surface in the form of invisible tiny magnetized spots. The
presence of a magnetized spot represents a 1 bit and its
absence represents a 0 bit. The retrieval of data from the
disk is known as reading and storage of data on disk is
called writing to the disk. The data storage is on permanent
basis therefore reading can be performed several times
without any destruction to the saved data but in case of
36
writing mode the previous written data at that location is
overwritten.
Magnetic Disk
The magnetic Disk is made up of one or more rotating
platters, on which data is stored magnetically. It is made up
of plastic, coated on both sides with a special magnetic
object that is iron oxide. There are two main types of
magnetic Disks, i.e. Floppy Disk and Hard Disk
Hard disk:
History:
In 1954 IBM invented the first hard disk with a
storage capacity of 5MB only. Later in 1979 Seagate
Technology introduced the first hard disk for personal
computers with a storage capacity of 40MB.
Construction:
Hard disks are rigid platters
that are composed of a substrate and
a magnetic medium. The substrate is
the non-magnetic base of the platter
that is coated both sides by a
magnetic medium. The substrate is mostly made of
aluminum alloy or mixture of glass and ceramic whereas
the magnetic medium is mostly magnetic oxide or thin-film
metal. Typically two or more platters are stacked on top of
each other with a common spindle that turns the whole
assembly at several thousand revolutions per minute, i.e.
up to 7200rpm. Magnetic read/write heads are placed
within gaps between the platters that is just 0.07mm or
less above the platters. There is a read/write head for each
side of platter, mounted on arms that can move them
towards the central spindle or towards the edge. The
read/write heads are always placed at a specific area on the
platter known as Landing Zone (LZ) that contains no data
stored at that place. Head Crash is the phenomenon used
37
when read/write head touches the platter‟s surface except
LZ, this causes loss of data and physical destruction to
platter known as Bad Sectors.
Before using a hard disk it is formatted in low-level
mode. This creates tracks and sectors on the hard disk.
Tracks are the circles created around the spindle on either
side of the platter. Then overlapped tracks are grouped into
cylinders that are further sub-divided into sectors of 512B,
1KB, 2KB, or 4KB according to file-system used. A sector is
the smallest unit of storage on a hard disk. Hard disks can
be divided into partitions also. A partition is a logically
separated section of a disk set a side.
Floppy Disk:
A floppy disk is also called simply a floppy diskette,
diskette, or disk. It is called floppy because its material is
flexible. It is disc shaped flexible material (i.e. Mylar) coated
with iron oxide for data storage. IBM first developed it in
1970 in 8-inch diameter size. Later on in 1981 IBM
introduced 51/4-inch diskettes. But today‟s standard is
provided by the Apple Macintosh in 1984, i.e. 31/2-inch
diskettes. The disk is always enclosed in a protective jacket,
either paper or plastic lined with a soft material specially
treated to reduce friction and static charge
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a flexible plastic tape, coated on one side

with magnetic iron oxide material. It is used when large
amount of data are to be processed sequentially. An
advantage of magnetic tape is that it is very cheap and
economical storage medium hut very slow in processing.
Magnetic Drum It is a rotate able cylinder whose surface is
coated with a magnetically sensitive iron oxide compound.
The surface is divided into a number of tracks, each track
38
having one or more fixed reading and recording heads.
Magnetic Drums are commonly used when very fast access
and transfer speeds are required. They have one
disadvantage that is they cannot be removed from a unit.
5. SMART CARD
Smart card is similar to credit card or ATM card. It
store data on a thin microprocessor that is embedded in the
card. The card is inserted into specialized card reader to
read and update its contents.
FLASH MEMORY
Now a day the latest and modern storage device is Flash
memory or USB is used as a secondary storage device. It is
semiconductor memory. It is same like RAM, ROM in
circuitry. It is used as a secondary storage for moving data.
__________________________________________________________
Optical Technology
Optical technology involves the use of laser beams.

Following are some kind of the optical disks.
· CD-ROM (Compact Disk, Read Only Memory)

· CR-R (Compact Disk Recordable)
· WORM (Write Once, Read Many)
· Erasable optical discs
· CR-RW (Compact Disk-Rewritable)
· DVD (Digital Video Disk)
I) CD-ROM (Compact Disk, Read Only Memory)

The most popular and least
expensive type of the optical disc is
CD-ROM. As the name indicates,
these disks come pre-processed
and cannot be altered. CDs can
store up
39
To 650MB of data. The storage density of CD-ROM is
enormous but cost is very low.
II) CD-R (Compact Disk-Recordable)

CD-R can read CD-ROM discs and also write to
special CD-R discs. CD-R is a write once technology. An
advantage CD-R discs is that they are not expensive.
III) WORM (Write Once, Read Many)

WORM storage had emerged in late 1980‟s and was
popular with large institutions for the achieving of high
volume, sensitive data. When data is written to a WORM
drive, physical marks are made on the media surface by a
low-powered laser and since these marks are permanent,
they can not be erased.
Iv) Erasable optical disks
Erasable Optical drives are an alternate to large hard
disks. They store about 30% more data than a standard
hard disk pack and 14, 00 to 28, 00 times as much as
diskettes. In contrast to CD-Rom and WORM disks,
erasable disks can be changed and erased.
V) CD-RW (Compact Disk Rewritable)

It is the recordable CR-Rom format that provide full
read, write capabilities. It can store approximately 650 MB
data & can also be used as standard CD-Rom reader.
VI) DVD (Digital Video Disk)

The newest optical disk format DVD capable of
storing more then 17GB and transferring data at a higher
speed 12MB. Digital Video Disks are designed to work with
a Video Player and TV. For computer, a different format
used called DVD-ROM. DVD-ROMs are designed to work
with a special drive (DVD-ROM drive) and a computer.
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SOFTWARE:
The programs or instructions stored in a system
either temporarily or permanently are called software. There
are two main categories of software, i.e. System Software
and Application Software.
Software that are used to operate hardware of a system are

known as system software. Different type of system
software includes loading programs, operating systems,
device drivers, programming tools, compilers, assemblers,
linkers, and utility software. System Software are further
sub-divided into Operating Systems and Translators.
Operating System is system software that manages the
hardware and software resources of a system, e.g. Microsoft
Windows Family, Linux, DOS etc. Translators are special
software utilities are used to convert the source code of a
programming language into machine code, e.g. Assembler,
Interpreter, and Compiler.
There are three types of System Software 1:-System
Management programs 2: System Support program 3:-
System development programs.
a-System Management Programs
It manages the hardware, software, networks and data
resources of a computer system during its operation.
Examples of system management programs are operating
system, network management program, monitor
performance program, database management program.
b-System Support Program:
Program that supports the operations and management of
computer system by providing a variety of support services.
For example system utilities and security monitors
program.
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c-System Development Program:
Program that helps users in developing programs and
procedures and prepare users programs for computer
processing. For example language translator, programming
editor, debuggers, code generator and CASE tools.
Translators
Translators are special system software that comes as a
utility with each programming language for the purpose to
convert the program code into machine code that computer
can understand. There are three types of translators used
by various languages, i.e. Assembler, Compiler, and
Interpreter. Following is a brief discussion about these
translators.
Assembler:
Assemblers were only used with assembly languages and
are not used by any of presently used languages. The
translator program that translates an assembly code into
the computer‟s machine code is called assembler. An
assembler converts the whole source code at once in to
machine code. The system programmers write it with great
care because it performs two tasks, i.e. first it perform
conversion of assembly code to machine code and secondly
it stores the converted code into the primary memory for
execution. When we write a program in assembly language
it is called assembly code that is not understandable by the
computer but after the conversion by the assembler it is
called object program that can be run by the computer.
____________________________________
Compiler:
Compilers are highly popular in use with high-level
languages. A compiler is a translator that converts the
whole code at once. Compiler first check the whole program
42
for errors, if found gives a complete listing of them.
Remember a compiler can only indicate syntax errors but
not the logical errors or sequential errors. In case of bug
free source code the whole code is transformed into
machine code (i.e. object code) and stores it another file
called as object program. A linker is also used with the
languages that use compilers because the object code
provided by the compiler cannot be run by the computer
until some modification is done in that. A linker is another
software utility that copies additional code into the object
code to make it executable by the processor (i.e. executable
code) and saves it into another file called as executable
program. The advantage in use of compiler is that it
decreases the debugging time along with translation time.
The drawback they deal with is that the error messages
generated are mostly unreliable because of long listing.
____________________________________
INTERPRETER:
An interpreter is another popular type of translator used

with high-level languages. The property that make it
different from compiler is that it takes only one statement
from the source code, translates it and executes it
immediately and this process continues till the code ends in
case of bug free source code. If an error is encountered the
interpreter stop the execution at once and indicate the
error. This provide the programmer with original location
and right error that make it easy to debug but on the other
hand this increase the software development time because
each time the program translation and execution starts
from the very first line. Also program execution is slow
because execution is done concurrently with the
translation. Another disadvantage it deals with is that no
object code is generated that can be used in future. The
advantages in use of interpreter are that its error messages
43
are always accurate and programmer knows what each line
is doing.
Language Generations
A programming language consists of a vocabulary (i.e. set of
symbols) and a set of rules (i.e. syntax) that instructs the
computer hardware to perform the specific tasks. Some
programming languages are special-purpose type and some
are general-purpose type. Special-Purpose languages are
used for a specific task whereas General-Purpose languages
can be used for a number of tasks. According to
advancement in the field of programming, lineage of
languages are divided into five generations that are as
under:
First Generation:
In the first generation of languages the only language used
was Machine Language. It is the only programming
language that the computer can understand directly. It is
called as Low-Level language because it directly interacts
with the hardware. It is a language that consists of only 0s
and 1s, thus also known as Binary language. Machine
languages are machine-dependent or hardware-dependent.
Machine language programs have the advantage of very
facts execution speeds and efficient use of primary memory.
Use of machine language is a very tedious, difficult, and
time-consuming method for programming. To use a low-
level language a programmer must have a detailed
knowledge of computer architecture and that‟s the reason
why programmers of this language were few in number.
Second Generation:
After the machine languages comes the era of Assembly
Languages that are also regarded as Low-Level languages.
Assembly languages were developed in 1950s that make the
software development a bit easier because these languages
were using alphabetical abbreviations and symbolic
44
notations to represent a long string of 0s and 1s. Assembly
languages are also machine-dependent. As assembly
languages provide a lot of ease during coding but they can‟t
be directly understand by the hardware. A software called
as translator or more specifically assembler was used to
convert the code of an assembly language into machine
code that computer can understand. The advantages of
programming with assembly languages are that they
produce human understandable code that was easy to
debug and modify whereas their drawbacks were that the
code was not efficient and speedy as compared to machine
code.
Third Generation:
Third generation languages are regarded as High-Level
Languages. The third-generation languages were designed
to be easier for a human to understand, including things
like named variables, abstract data types, and algebraic
expression syntax. They are design to run on a number of
different platforms with few or no changes. Most high-level
languages are considered to be structured type or more
specifically procedure-oriented. Compilers and Interpreters
worked as translators for these languages. The advantages
these languages have are that they provide a lot of ease in
designing a software as they hide the low-level details from
the programmer, also programmer do not need to learn
about computer architecture, debugging becomes more
easier, and most of them were machine-independent. They
contain drawbacks like slow operation and inefficient use of
memory.
Fourth Generation
Fourth generation languages are also known as Very High

Level Languages. They are non-procedural languages, so
named because they allow programmers to specify what the
45
computer has to do without specification of process detail.
This results in decrease in length of code, decrease in skill
level of programmers, increase in speed of software
development, and minimization of bugs in a code. The main
disadvantage these languages have is that some of them
require special hardware configurations.
Fifth Generation:
Natural languages represent the last and advanced era of
computer programming. The text of a natural language
statement very closely resembles human speech. These
languages are also designed to make the computer
“smarter”. These languages are used in the field of expert
systems and artificial intelligence, so that computers can
provide same output still if the input is a bit changed.
 Software
A computer process data according to given instructions.
A Program is a set of instruction that tells the computer
what to do.
Software consists of all the programs that run on a
computer
 What is software
Software is a set of programs, instruction that tells a
computer what to do.
Software is program that allows the hardware to perform a
useful work.
Without software hardware is quite useless.
Software is the communication between user and computer
Software is needed to complete the input, processing
output, and storage and control activity of
information system.
 What is system software?
System software consists of programs that help a
computer perform routine tasks. Such as starting up
, shutting down and creating files.
46
 The operating system (OS )
 OS controls routine tasks perform by the computer.
 OS controls the processor and peripheral devices
work together.
 OS maintains the security of the system.
 OS controls BIOS system of the computer.
 Windows are the example of OS.
 Basic Functions of OS or System Software

 Running Application software or programs
 Sharing of information.
 Multitasking
 Managing files
 Controlling peripheral devices
 Utility Programs
Utility programs enable the computer to perform its
efficiently.
Utility programs are different from application
programs like word processor and spreadsheet
software because they do not allows users to produce
any sort of output.
 The file manager
 A file manger is a utility program that allows users to
interact with the files stored on the computer.
 Users can use the files manages to create , edit ,
access , move delete , or replace files.
 The image viewer
 An image viewer is a utility programs that can store
image. It also has feature such as zooming, Rotation
previews, and slides show thumbnail display full
screen display and so on.

47
 The disk scanner
 A disk scanner is a utility programs that search the
hard disk for unnecessary or damaged files and
suggests what to do about them.
 The virus scanner
A virus is a program that destroys files stored on the
computer. A virus scanner is program that scans the
system for viruses and deletes them before they can
cause any more damage.
 Back-up software
 Some time the entire data stored on the hard disk is
lost. The happens because of disk failure At other
times the user might accidentally delete some
important files. Backup software helps avoid
permanent data loss in such situations. Back up
software makes copies of data so that if the original
files are deleted, the data can be restored from back-
up.
 Application Software
Application software are those software, which are
used for official use or for general purpose. Whit out
system software application cannot be installed.
.
Operating System
Operating System is a type of system software. An operating
system can be defined as, “A system software that can
manage resources (i.e. hardware and software) of a system
and provide an interface through which user can interact
with the resources”. An operating system is usually called
as OS. Most researchers called it as Master Control
Program
48
Types Of Operating Systems:
Depending on its intended use, an OS will support just one
user running one program or thousand of users running
multiple programs. These various capabilities of OS are
described a single user, multi user, multiprocessing, and
multitasking. A single OS may support one or all of these
capabilities.
There are four types of OS:
=> Single User Single Tasking OS =>

Single User Multitasking OS
=> Multi User Single Tasking OS =>
Multi User Multitasking OS
Single User Single Tasking OS:
A Single User Single Tasking OS satisfies the need of a

single user at a time and all the resources are available for
that user at that time. A single user, also called single
tasking OS allows only one user to run one program at a
time. Suppose, for example, you are typing a memorandum
in a word processor and decide to browse the WEB for more
information. If you are working with a single user single
tasking OS then you must have to quit/close word
processor before you can run the WEB browser.
Examples are: DOS and OS.
Single User Multitasking OS:
A Single User Multitasking OS satisfies the need of a single
user at a time and all the resources are available for that
user at that time. A single user multitasking OS allows only
one user to run multiple programs at a time. In fact all the
tasks running on the system are given equal shared time of
CPU through different process management techniques.
49
The switching time is very much high that a user thinks
that all the tasks are running concurrently.
Examples are: Windows NT, Windows 2000 etc.
Multi User Single Tasking OS:
A Multi User Single Tasking OS satisfies the need of more
than one user at a time. A multi user OS enables two or
more users to run a program simultaneously.
Minicomputers, Mainframes, and Super computers allow
hundreds to thousands of users to be connected at the
same time, and thus are multi user operating systems. A
multi user single tasking OS makes a queue of al the tasks
requested by the terminals/users and execute them one by
one. It uses scheduling techniques for such purpose.
Multi User Multitasking OS:

A multi user OS satisfies the need of more than one user at
a time. A multi user OS enables two or more users to run a
program simultaneously. Minicomputers, Mainframes, and
Super computers allow hundreds to thousands of users to
be connected at the same time, and thus are multi user
operating systems. A multi user multitasking OS uses
process management techniques/algorithms such as
multiprocessing, multiprogramming, multithreading, and
real time sharing to execute tasks requested by the
terminals.
Examples are: UNIX, ZENIX, and Linux.
Functions Of Operating System:
The facilities provided by an OS to satisfy the needs of a
computer user is called Functions/Features of an OS. An
operating system has three main functions, i.e. to manage
hardware, to support software, and to establish a user
interface. These main functions are discussed below:
50
Manage Storage Media:
This OS function involves managing the computer‟s
secondary memory; for example, the OS gives each running
program its own portion of the memory, called partition. An
OS keeps track of the files stored on the secondary storage
device, i.e. Hard Disk. It also stores all information about
the file such as, extension of file, time & date of creation,
file‟s block, owner of file etc. An OS specify a File System for
such purpose. An OS can manage different types of file
systems on a single or multi disk set.
Virtual Memory:
The best an OS implement is Virtual Memory, a method of
using the computer‟s hard disk as an extension of Random
Access Memory (RAM). In virtual memory, program
instructions and data are divided into units of fixed size,
called pages. If memory is full, the OS starts storing copies
of pages in a hard disk file, called swap file. When the pages
are needed, they are copied back to memory.
Manage Files:
File management, i.e. the storage of files on various storage
devices and transfer of these files from one storage device to
another. It also allows all files to be easily changed and
modified through the use of text editors or some other file
manipulation. Copying a file, searching a file (by name, date
or size) is control by the OS.
Manage Computer Peripherals:
OS is involved in dealing with all INPUT, OUPUT and
Processing devices. For Example, these devices interrupts,
signals that informs the OS that something has happened
(e.g. the user has pressed a key, the mouse pointer has
moved to a new position, or document has finished
printing). The OS provides interrupt handlers, mini-
51
programs that kick in immediately when an interrupt
occurs. The OS handles all the physical parts of computer
system as well as the security and options that when a user
can use a device and how he‟ll use it or tuning of printers.
Manage Tasks:
An important OS function and the one that most
dramatically affects operating systems overall quality is the
way it manages tasks execution. Single tasking OS can run
only one application program at a time, which user find
inconvenient. Multitasking OS enable a single user to work
with two or more programs at once. The CPU does not
actually run two programs at once; rather, it switches
between them as needed. From the user‟s perspective, one
application (called foreground application) is active; while
another (the background application) is inactive. A clear
measure of the stability of different OS is the technique
used to handle multitasking.
Booting:
The process of loading an OS from a permanent storage into
main memory is called booting. At the time, when the
computer starts or boots OS checks the physical parts of
the computer system that whether they are present or
missing. Besides the hardware checking, OS checks for its
own files as well as application software. For Example, if we
delete a windows files or any .EXE file of any application
software it prepares alert dialog box to inform the user.
User Interface:
From the user‟s perspective, what makes an OS is the
quality of user interface; the part of the OS that interacts
with the user. Sometimes the user interface is called the
shell, suggesting the idea that the user interface (shell)
“surrounds” the OS (the kernel within the shell). The three
types of user interfaces are Command Line Interface (CLI),
52
Menu Driven Interface (MDI), and Graphical User Interface
(GUI).
2-Application Software.
Application software are those software, which are
used for official use or for general purpose. Whit out system
software application cannot be installed.
General Purpose Software
Software that are developed for and used by a large group
of users are called General Purpose Software, e.g. Microsoft
Word, Quick Books etc.
1) Productivity Software:
The proactivity software is a type of application software
that is used to produce documents, presentations,
databases, Charts and graphic.
Some common types of productivity software are:
1. Database software:
2. Multimedia software:
3. Word processors:
4. Spreadsheet software:
5. Presentation software
2) Business software
3) Entertainment software
4) Educational Software
Some common types of Educational software are:
1. Computer Based Training (CBT)
2. Encyclopedia
3. Computer aided Learning (CAL)
53
Special purpose software
Application Software that are developed for order and
used by an individual or organization in order to fulfill their
needs are known as special purpose software.
Example:
Software to process inventory control , software to
maintain Bank Account etc.
Program tools:
Following are the programming tools for the programmer
with the help of Which the programmer can write a perfect
program. These are I - Algorithm 2- Flow Chart
algorithm An algorithm is a finite set of instructions, which
accomplishes a particular task. An algorithm is a finite
step-by-step list of well-defined instructions for solving a
particular problem. ALGORITHM NOTATION The algorithm
is a base of not only effective data structure but it is also
the base of good programming. Therefore, it is necessary'
that each algorithm should be written clearly. A complete
algorithmic notation is given below. 3. Name of algorithm:
Every algorithm is given a-name, written in capital letters.
Introductory Comments. The algorithm name is followed by
a brief description of the tasks the algorithm performs. This
description gives the name and types of variables used in
the algorithm. Steps: The algorithm is made of a sequence
of numbered steps. Each beginning with a phrase enclosed
in square brackets which gives an abbreviated, description
of that step. Following this phrase is an ordered sequence
of statements which describe the actions to be executed, or
tasks to be performed. Comments: An algorithm step .may
terminates with a comment enclosed in round parenthesis,
which is used to help the reader better understand that
step. Comments specify no action and arc enclosed only for
clarity. Example of algorithm: Algorithm C„RADES( V!1,M2,
M3.M4.Average) . This algorithm reads tour marks denoted
54
by Ml. M2, M3, M.4 and compute the average grade, Al!
Variables„ are assumed to be real]
(1) [Input individual marks]
(2) [Compute average grade] .Averages
(Ml-+'M2+M3+M4)/4
(3) [ Output Result ) Write ("Final grade is" , average)
(4) (Finish] ' Exit
Flowcharts
Flowchart is a graphical method for representing any
system procedure that involves flow of data & different
operations performed on data. In simple words, Flowcharts
provide the graphical representation of a program or
system. Flowchart is an ANSI (American National Standards
Institute) standard practiced over 3 decades in order to
model systems for analysis and design considerations.
Advantages:
The following benefits are provided by the flowcharts when
used in software development.
Easily Understandable: With the graphical picture of a
program that displays the flow of data and sequence of
control through the program it is very easy to understand
how the program will execute.
Better Communication: Since a flowchart is pictorial
representation of a program, it is easier for a programmer to
explain the logic of the program to other concern people.
Efficient Analysis: A flowchart can provide the picture of a
full system as well as picture of a specific procedure (i.e. a
program component). This helps in dividing the system
model into small components and analyze them separately
resulting in smart analysis.
Efficient Synthesis: In case of developing a software of
gigantic size, a team of programmers is used in which each
programmer is responsible for developing only a specific
55
component of the software. It is a hard task to design model
of a whole system. In case of flowcharts, many program
flowcharts can be combined together to make a system
flowchart providing model of the system.
Efficient Coding: We know flowcharts make it easy to
understand the logic, sequential steps, and data flow in a
program; this helps a programmer to do efficient coding for
a software/program.
Systematic Debugging: In the development of a software
there is always possibilities of bugs and their removal is
known as debugging. A flowchart helps in the debugging
process because programmer has not to look up the whole
system code instead it concerns the related program
flowchart, find out the bug and change the code according
to it.
Limitations:
Flowcharts provide us a lot of advantages but there are
some limitations where flowcharts cannot be useful.
 Designing flowcharts are very time consuming and
tedious job with proper spacing and symbols, e.g. it is a
quiet difficult to maintain a flowchart of a system
comprising of 5000 instructions.
 Any modification in the code of a program results in the
failure of current flowchart and a new flowchart has to
be designed to represent the modified code resulting in
irritation on programmer side.
 There are no specific rules for creating a flowchart and
determining that how much data will be showed in the
flowchart.
Types of Flowcharts:
There are two types of flowcharts available now days, i.e.
Program Flowchart and System Flowchart.
56
PROGRAM FLOWCHART:
This type of flowchart represents the logic of a
program that how data is being processed & what path does
it takes during processing. A program flowchart describs a
small component of system. Different symbols are used in a
program flowchart to graphically represent the logic of a
program. Some of the symbols are:
Terminal => Used Input/Output =>
to indicate the This symbol is
starting and used to indicate
ending point of a any input or
flowchart. output operation.
Process => This Decision => This

symbol is used to symbol is used to
indicate an indicate a Boolean
internal process expression.
or an arithmetic
instruction.
Off Page
Flow Lines=> Connector => This
Arrows are used symbol is used to
to represent connect parts of a
movement of data flowchart if
or transfer of flowchart is drawn
control. on a number of
pages.
57
SYSTEM FLOWCHART:
This type of flowchart represents the flow of data and
relation between the different components of a full data-
processing system. System flowcharts are also known as
data-flow chart. Mostly a system flowchart is made by the
combination of many program flowcharts. Different symbols
used in a system flowchart are drawn below:
Online Storage =>
Magnetic Tape => This symbol
This symbol represents storage
represents storage or retrieval of data
or retrieval of data from a electronic
from a magnetic media, e.g.
tape.
Magnetic Drum magnetic disk and
CD etc. Process =>
Manual
=> This symbol
This symbol
represents storage represents a
or retrieval of data process done by a
from a device like human being not a
magnetic drum machine or
e.g. rolls of computer.
graphed pages
Documentation =>
used by a drum
plotter. This symbol
Sort => This represent storage
symbol represent of data in hard
the operation of copy form or to
sorting on data. perform
documetation of a
process.
58
Word Processors
A word processor is the software, or program, that
manipulates the text. Word
processing is the activity of
entering, viewing, storing,
retrieving, editing,
rearranging, and printing text
material using a computer
and appropriate software. A
word processor is more
formally known as a
document preparation system. In other words it is a
computer application used for the production (including
composition, editing, formatting, and possibly printing) of
any sort of printable material. A word processing system is
the combination of hardware and software. Word processing
software are used in Businesses, Homes, and Schools etc.
by professionals. Examples of Word Processors are: MS
Word, Word Perfect, and Open Office.org Writer etc.
Features of Word Processors:
Word processors have many features and functions to help
manipulate text; these are categorized into three categories,
i.e.
=> Text Editing Features => Formatting Features
=> Miscellaneous Features
Text Editing Features:
 Insert: Adding a character, phrase, sentence, or a block
of text in a document in the 1beginning, at the end or in
the middle of document is called insertion.
 Deletion: The removal of a character, phrase, sentence,
or a block of text in a document from the beginning, from
the end or within the middle of a document is called
deletion.
59
 Undo: To reverse the action done or reversing the
number of actions done by the user is known as undoing.
 Search: Finding a character or a string of text within a
document is called searching.
 Replace: Changing the searched text with another text is

called replacement.
 Block Edit: Working on a block of text such as moving,
copying, deleting, or altering a string of text, paragraphs,
or pages is known as block editing.
Formatting Features
 Text Size: Using a word processor we can change (i.e.
increase or decrease) size of text to use text as heading,
superscripts, and subscripts etc. Character size is
measured in points.
 Fonts: The style in which characters are displayed and
printed is known as fonts or typeface. A word processor
comes up with a number of fonts.
 Character Enhancements: Special enhancements such as
making text boldface, italics, single underlining, and text
color etc. can be done using a word processor.
 Margin Setting: Setting up the free space at the TOP,
BOTTOM, LEFT and RIGHT side of pages is known as
Margin Setting and almost all word processors provide
this feature.
 Page Breaks: Dividing the text into pages is known as
Page Breaks. Page Breaks also indicate that how much
text a page can contain.
 Header and Footer: Headers and Footers allow a user to
print specific line of text at the top and bottom of a page
respectively without reentering it again and again.
60
Miscellaneous Features
 Spelling and Grammar Checker: Many word processors
provide this utility in order to facilitate user in locating
misspelled words and grammatical mistakes in the
document.
 Thesaurus: This utility suggests synonyms and
antonyms for common words to the user.
 Tables: Many word processors allow the user to insert
tables in the document for entering text in the form of
rows and columns.
Different between manual and electronic word processing.
Manual word processing Electronic word processing
Text once write cannot be Text can be change
change
Text cannot be formatted Text can be formatted
Word wrap function is not Word wrap function is
available available
Text cannot be deleted or Text can be inserted or
inserted deleted
Text cannot be moved from We can move text from one
one location to another location to another
location
Word cannot find or replace Word can be find or replace
a word
Spell check function is not Spell check function is
available available
Text cannot store text We can store text.
61
Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet is a grid of rows and columns with headings

determined by the situation. The compound word "spread-
sheet" came to mean the format used to
present bookkeeping ledgers. A software
package that permits users to quickly
create, manipulates, and analyzes data
organized in columns and rows is called
electronic spreadsheet. Before
spreadsheet software, spreadsheets were
done by hand that was a very time
consuming and tedious job. Examples of spreadsheets are:
MS Excel, Lotus 123, SuperCalc, and OpenOffice.org Calc
etc. On screen, a spreadsheet program has numbered rows
and columns that is called worksheet. The columns are
usually labeled with letters (i.e. A, B, C & so on.). The
intersection of row and a column is called a cell. A cell is a
storage area on a worksheet. When referring to a cell, we
use the letter and the number of intersecting column and
row respectively. This reference is known as cell reference
or cell address. When a cell is active it is marked with a
heavy border drawn around it.
Three types of data can be entered into a worksheet.

Spreadsheet is an intelligent program that can distinguish
between text and numbers. Following is a short look:
Numbers: You can type numbers of any range into a cell.

Numbers are right aligned in a cell. Numbers are regarded
as values in spreadsheets.
Text: Text can be English alphabets, digits, special

symbols, or any combination of them. Text is always left
62
aligned in a cell. The text is mostly regarded as labels in
spreadsheets and is usually used to provide explanatory
note about values entered in a spreadsheet.
Formulas: A formula is a mathematical expression that

does not show up in the worksheet a text instead result of
the formula is displayed in the cell. You can see the formula
inserted into a cell using formula bar. Formulas are used to
combine data from different cells and perform computation
on them.
Q) what is database management package.?
Ans: A set of computer programs that control the creation
maintenance and utilization of the databases of an
organization‖ . The DBMS provides concurrent access to
multiple database users and the DBMS must be able, to
recover and restored a damage database from backup
copies. Database Management software manage and
supports the maintenance and retrieval of data store in
data base e.g. Ms-Access, Dbase, and Oracle allow you to
setup and manage database on your PC, network server, or
the World Wide Web. Databases management packages
perform four tasks. Database development. Define and
organize the content, relationships, and structure of the
data needed to build a database. Database interrogation.
Access the data in database to display information in a
variety of formats. End users can selectively retrieve and
display information and produce forms, reports.
Database maintenance. Add, delete, update, and correct the
data in a database, Application development. Develop
prototypes of data entry screen, Web pages, queries, forms,
reports, and labels for a proposed business application. Or
use a built-in 4GL or application generator to program the
application.
__________________________________________________________
63
Binary Number System
Digital Computer represents all kinds of data and
information in the binary system. Binary Number system
consist of two digits 0 and 1. Its base is 2 . Each digit or bit
binary system can be 0 and 1 . A combination of binary
number may be represent different quantities like 1001.
The positional value of each digit in binary number is twice
the place value or face value of the digit of its right side.
The weight of each position is power of 2.
computer than classified by some number system.
Octal Number System
Octal number system consist of eight digits from 0 to 7. The
base of octal is 8 . Each digit position in this system
represent a power of 8.Any digit in this system is always
less than 8. Octal number system is used as a shorthand
representation of long numbers. The number 6418 is not
valid in this number system as 8 is not a valid digit.
Decimal Number system

in Decimal number system consist of ten digits from 0 to 9.
These digits can be used to represent any numeric value.
The base of Decimal number system is 10. It is the most
widely used number system. The value represented by
individual digit depends on weight and position of the digit.
Hexadecimal Number System
The Hexadecimal number system consist of 16 digits from 0
to 9 and A to F. The alphabets A to F represent decimal
number from 10 to 15. The base of this number system is
16.Each digit position in hexadecimal system represent a
power of 16.
64
CONVERSION:
Conversion is the process of converting
one number system to another for some purpose
Type of conversion:
1) Decimal to Binary
2) Binary to Decimal
3) Decimal to octal
4) Octal to Decimal
5) Decimal to Hexadecimal
6) Hexadecimal to Decimal
7) Binary to Octal
8) Octal to Binary
9) Binary to Hexadecimal
10) Hexadecimal to Binary
11) Octal to Hexadecimal
12) Hexadecimal to Octal
65
Decimal to Binary:-
To convert decimal numbers into
binary divide the decimal value on the Base of binary (2)
Example:1
(60)10 = (?)
Hints:-
*When a number is not
265
232-1 exactly divided by 2 then
216-0 resale one and divide the
28-0 number put on at last.
24-0 *When a number divide
22-0 completely put 0 at last as(16
1-0
-0)
1000001
Ans: (65)10=(1000001)2 *Pick the number from
horizontal last row up to
vertical height
Example 1:-
(100)10=(?)2
2 100
2 50-0
2 25-0
2 12-1
2 6-0
2 3-1
2 3-1
1-1
1100100 Ans: (100)10=(1100100)2
66
Binary to Decimal:
To convert binary to
decimal multiply each binary number by its base and
add them continuously and take power 0 increasing
from last on”2”
Example:(2)
(1000001)2=(?)10
1*26+ 0*25 + 0*24 + 0*23+ 0*22 + 0*21 +1*20
1*64+0+0+0+0+0+0+1*1 =64+1=65
Ans:( 1000001)2=(65)10
Decimal to Octal:-
For this conversion divide the decimal
number by the base of octal (8)
Example:3 (97)10=(?)8
8 97
8 12-1
1-4 141 Ans: (97)10=(141)8
Multiplying the octal
number with 8 and add
them and take power a
increasing from last.
Example:
(141|)8=(?)10
1*82+4*81+1*80
1*64+32+1 = 64+32+1=97
Ans: (141)8= (97) 10
67
Decimal to Hexadecimal:
Example(5)
(130)10=(?)16
16 130
8-2
82
Ans:(130)10=(82)16
Hexadecimal to decimal:-
Example(6)
(82)16=(?)10
8*161+2*160
128+2 =130 Ans:=(82)16=(130)10
Binary to Octal:-
The previse two methods of
conversion is only applicable incase of decimal
number but there is no explanation of decimal here
we will use another method for these type of
conversion know as binary code
For Octal
Table method:-
To draw the binary –octal
Table following rules to followed.
Draw this series of number
First
00
01
10
11
Determine whether this
Complete the required octal number or
Maybe decimal.
68
If not write it once more until completion
00___0
01___1
10___2
11___3
00___4
01___5
10___6
11___7
Look the code for zero and 4 is same in order to diff them
put 0 with first four and 1 with last four.
000 0
001 1
010 2
Hints:-
011 3
Pick combination of 3 from
100 4 right to left side.
If the last combination does
101 5
not exist of 3 numbers write
110 6 0 from serf look the
matching code.
111 7
That is the required binary octal table

Example(7)
(110 111 011)2=(?)8
110 111 011
6 7 3
Ans:(110111011)2=(673)8
69
Octal to Binary:- Binary Hexadecimal
Use the same table binary- octal 0000 0
Example(8) 0001 1
(673)8=(?)2 0010 2
6 7 3 0011 3
110 111 000
0100 4
Ans:- (673)8=(110111011)2
0101 5
0110 6
Binary to Hexadecimal:-
0111 7
1000 8
Method:-
Repeat the table of binary 1001 9
-Octal once. 1010 10 (A)
Put 0 with first 8 and 1 with 1011 B
Last 8 numbers.
1100 C
Example(9)
( 11101 1111)2=(?)16 1101 D
0001 1101 1111 1110 E
1 D F
1111 F
Ans:-
(11101111111)2=(1 D F)16
Hints:-
Pick four combination of
number
70
Hexadecimal to Decimal:-
Example(10)
(1DF)16=(?)2
Ans:-
(1DF)16=(000101111111)2
Octal to Hexadecimal:-
First convert octal to binary then to hexadecimal .or
First convert octal to decimal then to hexadecimal
Example(11|):-
(713)8=(?)16
7 1 3
111 001 011
(713)8=(11001011)2=(?)16
0001 1001 1011
1 9 B
Ans:- (713)8=(19B)16
Hexadecimal to Octal:-
Example(12):-
(19B)16=(?)8
1 9 B
0001 1001 1011
(19B)16=(000110011011)2=(?)8
000 110 011 011
0 7 1 3
Ans:- (19B)16=(713)8
71
Computer Codes
We communicate by using symbols of our natural language
such as alphabets, digits, and special symbols but
computers can only understand machine language that
consists of 0s and 1s only. So we can say that computers
deal with data converted into the binary form that can be
processed magnetically or electronically. A scheme of
encoding data using a series of binary digits is called a
binary code. Several coding schemes for the computer have
been adopted that rely on binary representation. Some of
them are as follows:
BCD Code:
BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal. It is one of the
earliest codes developed for computers. A nibble is required
to represent BCD codes. BCD can only represent digits
only. It is based on idea of converting each digit of decimal
number into its binary equivalent.
For Example: ( 49 )10 = 0100 1001 because 4 =
0100 and 9 = 1001
Decimal BCD Decimal BCD

Digits Equivalent Digit Equivalent
0 0000 5 0101
1 0001 6 0110
2 0010 7 0111
3 0011 8 1000
4 0100 9 1001
When 4 bits are used then 16 combinations are possible

but the remaining combinations, i.e. 1010, 1011, 1100,
1101, 1110, 1111 are not used. In order to represent
English alphabets computer designers develop a 6-bit BCD
72
code in which zones are provided by the additional two bits.
BCD code is represented by octal numbers because 6-bits
can easily be divided into two groups of 3-bits.
Character BCD Equivalent Character BCD Equivalent
Zone Digit Zone Digit
A 11 0001 S 01 0001
B 11 0010 T 01 0010
C 11 0011 U 01 0011
D 11 0100 V 01 0100
E 11 0101 W 01 0101
F 11 0110 X 01 0110
G 11 0111 Y 01 0111
H 11 1000 Z 01 1000
I 11 1001 1 00 0001
J 10 0001 2 00 0010
K 10 0010 3 00 0011
L 10 0011 4 00 0100
M 10 0100 5 00 0101
N 10 0101 6 00 0110
O 10 0110 7 00 0111
P 10 0111 8 00 1000
Q 10 1000 9 00 1001
R 10 1001 0 00 1010
____________________________________
EBCDIC:
EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal

Interchange Code. The major problem with BCD code was
that it can only digest 64 characters which is not sufficient
because on a keyboard we just have more than 100
characters therefore a newer version of BCD code was
developed known as EBCDIC. It is an 8-bit code that can
represent 256 characters. In this code first 4 bits represent
73
zone. To make this code efficient it is divided into two
groups of 4 bits and that is why internally EBCDIC is
represented by hexadecimal notation.
Character BCD Equivalent Character BCD Equivalent
Zone Digit Zone Digit
A 1100 0001 S 1110 0001
B 1100 0010 T 1110 0010
C 1100 0011 U 1110 0011
D 1100 0100 V 1110 0100
E 1100 0101 W 1110 0101
F 1100 0110 X 1110 0110
G 1100 0111 Y 1110 0111
H 1100 1000 Z 1110 1000
I 1100 1001 1 1111 0001
J 1101 0001 2 1111 0010
K 1101 0010 3 1111 0011
L 1101 0011 4 1111 0100
M 1101 0100 5 1111 0101
N 1101 0101 6 1111 0110
O 1101 0110 7 1111 0111
P 1101 0111 8 1111 1000
Q 1101 1000 9 1111 1001
R 1101 1001 0 1111 1010
____________________________________
For example the internal representation of A will be
hexadecimal C1 because:
 Combining zone and digit values we get
11000001.
 Now dividing the string into two groups we get
1100 & 0001.
 We know that 1100=12=C and 0001 = 1.
 So together they form C1 of hexadecimal system.
74
For example the internal representation of A will be Octal
61 because:
 Combining zone and digit values we get 110001.
 Now dividing the string into two groups we get 111 &
001.
 We know that in octal number system 110 = 6 and 001
= 1.
 So together they form Octal 61.
ASCII:
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. This code is very popular and is used in
almost all microcomputers for internal representation of the
data. ASCII is of two types, i.e. ASCII-7 and ASCII-8. ASCII-
8 is an extended version of ASCII-7. ASCII-7 and ASCII-8
are 7-bit and 8-bit codes respectively. ASCII-7 uses first 3
bits for zone indication and remaining 4 bits for character
whereas ASCII-8 uses first 4 bits for zone indication and
remaining four for character. ASCII-7 can accommodate
128 characters whereas ASCII-8 represents 256 characters.
UNICODE:
Although ASCII and EBCDIC contain some foreign language
symbols but both fell short when it comes to accommodate
symbols of languages used in the world. Unicode solves this
problem by providing a 16-bit code that can represent
65536 characters. Apple and Xerox created it in 1980s.
Another great advantage of using Unicode is that it is a
platform-independent code. It is because Unicode assign a
unique number to each character.
 There are many advantages of working on
computer.
75
 Computer help us complete our work without
mistakes or errors.
 The computer is a great source of entertainment .
 Computer work speedier than human beings. You
can easily do a week‟s work in a day.
 Almost all the institutes, banks , hospitals , etc.
manage and record their data and documents
through computers.
 You can send and receive data , share information ,
send application , or any message through e-mail.
You can even chat with others as you do on the
phone.
 It is even possible to purchase things from your
home using the internet on computers. This is called
online shopping.
 Computes save the space required to keep the piles
of files and documents.
 It helps you automate various task that you can no
be manually.
 It helps you organize your data and information in a
better way.
 It has much more computing and calculating power
then an ordinary human.
 It may help your work to be lot easier.
 It may be the storage of your important data and
files.
 It may help you solve problems faster than ordinary
human being can do.
 It ahs speed, storage, reliability ,consistency and
communication.
 It helps you to find useful information using the
internet.
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Disadvantages of using computer
Computer has many disadvantages too. Teenagers spend
more time on computer than on their study. Instead of
playing physical games, they want to play computer games.
It has made them lazy. Computer is also the source of many
health hazards, like weakening of eye sight, headache, etc
 It can potentially destroy your social life and

interactions with humans if you do not maintain the
balance.
 It may effect to the destruction of your eye sight due
to radiation.
 It may damage your studies and life.
 It may cause pimples and wrinkles.
 Too much time in front of monitor may adverse effect
your eye sight and can also make you fat.
 The way it distracts and can deviate our though and
activates towards unproductive activities.
 It could cause violation of privacy impact on labor
force health risks, impact on environment distraction
from work, and possible antisocial influences.
1-Positive Impacts.
2-Negative Impacts.
1.Positive Impact:-
Many people enjoy challenging careers in Computers
departments as managers, system designers ,
programmers, and computer operators. But we all benefit in
other -ways from computer usage. We benefit as consumers
of the goods and services provided by computer-using
organizations. And we benefit at home by using personal
computers. for work and for play.
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Employment benefits:-
Each day , computers help millions of people to do their
jobs more efficiently, But employment benefits certainly are
not restricted to managers. Health care researchers and
other scientists now use computers to control research into
complex problem areas that could not otherwise be studied.
Layers use online legal data banks to locate cases in order
to serve clients better. And the job duties of some office and'
factory workers have changed from routine, repetitive
operations to more varied and appealing tasks through
computer usage. For example, office workers who
understand text processing, computing and data
communications usually have vital role and are given
crucial office functions to perform.
Greater efficiency:-
Business have always avoided the wastage of time Therefore
computer is such a machine which has increased their
efficiency and have reduce their time wastage. In minimum
time, we can take a lot of work from it because in business
time is money and money is power.
Higher quality products:-
Computers may also help to improve the quality of
products and services we receive nowadays. For example,
Microcomputers installed in cars now provider more
efficient means of controlling the engine„s fuel mixture,
ignition timing, etc.
Aid to the handicapped:-
Microcomputers can control devices that allow severally
handicapped persons to feed themselves even though they
have no upper limb responses.
Improved Safety:-
Computer usage contributes to personal safety in many
ways. For example. Computer-controlled antilock bricking
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systems in aircraft and cars to help in preventing from
dangerous.
Better information retrieval:-
Most information retrieval tasks obviously do not involve
life-or-death decisions, but quick computer assisted
retrieval saves time of people.
Entertainment and hobby benefits:-
A computer can entertain people with hundreds of
challenging games. And computer users can compose .
paint pictures, store and maintain stamp and coin
collection records, and polish their foreign language skills.
Educational Benefits:-
Programs can be educational as well as entertaining .
Educators agree that the computer can be a powerful
motivating and learning tool. Thousands, of educational
programs are available in such categories as reading
languages, Science, Mathematics, social studies and art
and. music. Personal Finance benefits:- A pc can help a
person in budgeting and balancing his checkbooks, control
his installment purchases, control his home's energy use,
and analyze his investments.
Negative Impact
In spite of the many benefits of computer age , there are
also some potential dangers and problems. Computer usage
sometimes produces displacement and unemployment.
Unemployment refers to the total . number of people, which
are out of work. Displacement occurs when technological
change eliminates jobs. If displacement workers cannot find
similar jobs elsewhere or if they cannot find other work,
then there is indeed an increase in unemployment. Another
problem is preserving the privacy of confidential
information when large data banks are linked by networks,
etc,
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Importance and Applications of Computers
Not two many years ago, the computer was so
inconspicuous that most people were seldom aware of its
existence. We knew that similar Machines guided missiles
and satellites and controlled space flights. We knew they
sent out our bank statements and calculated our payments.
They made our airline reservations, and they saw to it that
our plane did not collide with another. We knew there were
tiny special-purpose computers in our pocket calculators,
and our digital watches. Things are different now. Suddenly
we are all aware of the computer as a force in our lives. We
are in the midst of the computer revolution; we live in the
computer age. The computer is reshaping our world and
will go on reshaping it. The Word computer is not new to
us. Today„s world is world of computers, we can say that
this is IT/computer age because computer are playing a
role of growing importance in our lives less than fifty year
back there was no computer and no body new about it.
Since then, there have rapid change in the .computer
Technology/IT which continuous to progress computer
performs a given complex task in a very short period or
does calculation very quickly and accurately. Computers
are useful to a wide range of pupils because they can serve
many purposes.
Application of computer (USES) Computer in offices.
In many offices computer are used for word processing
instead of using typewriters. The key punch operator type
the letter, report or documents. Once changes are made in
the existing documents, store in the computer instead of
retyping the whole thing again: The printer can immediately
produced as many copies as required.
Computer in the Banks
Banks keep most of the record and data on computer,
bank account are maintained on Computer to avoid
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duplication are any chance of error. The cheque are read by
MICR (Magnetic ink readers a device used to allow the data
on cheque to be read by machine). The number in special
character along the bottom of each cheque or printed in
Magnetic ink so they can read by MIRC. In this way
computer are used the keep track of customer accounts,
deposit, withdrawal, loan, interest.
Computer in the Industries

Computer is used to control manufacturing systems and
continuous running of the machinery. ‗These are also
helpful in monitoring temperature and pressure
measurements in the manufacturing process. In many
industry computers are used in the form of robot.
Computer in Education
Computer is used in schools in many different ways. They
are use to help Montessori children learn different skills
such as to distinguish between shapes, colors etc. college
students can take advantage of making graphs and charts
and do calculations of their mathematical and scientific
assignments.
Computer simulation for training
Computer models can be used to train people such as
pilots. A working model of an airplane cockpit is built, with
a large screen in front of it. On the screen a computer show
picture of the view that a pilots would see from a real
cockpit.
Computer aided Design
Computer is proved to be an assisting machine or designing
tool for engineers, architects and designer to perform their
large, and complex job in a very short period. Example of
such designing project of car making, designing, office
building, and shaping plaza.
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Computer in Health Care
Doctor diagnoses illness by entering patients, symptoms in
computer and prescribe medicines accordingly. The doctor
mistakes the final decision but the computer speedup the
process. It also keeps record of the patients appointment
and bills etc.
Computer and law

In law chambers, computers are used to store a data bank
of all those cases that have been priory solved or decided.
This enables the lawyer to study any case that helps him
deal with his current case. Computer in Police Department
The Police used the computer to help them catch criminals.
Data about criminals and suspects can be stored on
computer. All the information about a crime can be fed into
a computer, which can search through its tore and checks
facts.
Computer in the Home
Now day the computer become a necessity of home like
other electrical appliances. Children play game „on it keeps
track of the stamp collections, draw pictures, play music
view movies and do some sort of reading and writing
according to the needs. Father can write his reports and
make calculation while mother can play nutritional meals,
make budget etc. they can use computer for electronic male
and inter net services.
MISUSES OF COMPUTER
Hacking
Hacking is one of the most important disadvantages of
Internet. The hackers access the data stored on the
computers across the Internet. They can use this data
illegally or even destroy it.
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Immorality
Internet contains a large number of immoral websites.
These websites contains such material that is against the
moral values of our society. These websites are damaging
character of young people.
Security Problems
Internet has created many security problems. Important
data can be hacked on Internet. Hackers also damage
different websites and delete their contents. They also
retrieve critical data of different organizations and
governments.
Viruses: Internet is the most important source of spreading
computer viruses. Peoples spread viruses using Internet
and emails. Many websites also contain different viruses
that are copied to the computers when the users download
date from these websites.
Wastage of Time
Many people use Internet without any positive purpose.
The young people waste their time in chatting. It affects
their performance and makes them inefficient.
Cyber Crime
Internet is a source of many cyber crimes. People use
Internet for negative activities. They hacks the credit card
numbers of the-j people and use them for shopping. Some
use Internet to spread illegal and immoral material. Many
government are introducing laws to stop cyber crimes
Others are The excessive use of computer damage eye
sight. The people uses computer for playing movies. Mostly
the students and teenage uses it for playing different
games.
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Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence is the ability of computers to perform
human-like thinking and reasoning. AI is a field of study
that explores how computers can be used for tasks that
require the human characteristics of Intelligence,
Imagination, and Intuition. AI is a combination of Computer
Science, Physiology, and Philosophy.
The history of AI concept is very old but development in

this concept started with the evolution of electronic
computers in 1941. It was early 1950s when for the first
time link between human intelligence and machines was
observed through principle of feed back theory. AI was
given a boost when in 1956 John McCarthy organized an
international conference “The Dartmouth summer research
project on artificial Intelligence” at Vermont. In 1958 John
McCarthy developed LISP (LISt Processing) still used today
by a huge community of AI developers. In 1963 ARPA
(Advanced Research Projects Agency) of US Department of
Defense funded about 2.2 million in MIT for research work
in the field of Machine-Aided Cognition. During the late
1960s programs like SHRDLU and STUDENT provided the
way to solve complex, logical, algebraic, and geometrical
problems. Expert systems (1970) are also considered as a
major development that can predict the probability of a
solution under set conditions that helped a lot in the field of
stock market, medical, and mining etc. During 1970s
theories proposed by Minsky and David Marr provided the
road to machine vision technology through which machines
can distinguish between certain images. With large
developments in the field of AI there also exist some huge
set backs in the industry of AI, such as when in mid 1980s
AI industry was climbing hill tops of $425 million market it
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also faced big financial losses in late 1980s. The big
disappointment came when a highly financed project of
ARPA called as “smart truck” failed. But the AI industry
recovered when in 1991 the mission DESERT STORM, a
battlefield mission in the desert of Iraq by US Army was
accomplished successfully through AI machines and for the
first time an AI game called chess master beats the world
champion of chess.
There are two different approaches to the concept of AI, i.e.

Bottom-Up and Top-Down. According to Bottom-Up
theorists huge complex neural networks identical to human
brain should be developed such as robots, whereas theorist
of Top-Down believe in the developments of such computer
programs that can behave like a human brain such as
expert systems. A large community of people thinks that AI
only deals with the robot technology but that‟s not so true.
Scientists and researchers have categorized AI into certain
fields:
Expert System: It is a computer program that contains

some of the subject-specific knowledge, and contains the
knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human
experts. Used for facilitation in problem solving and
decision-making.
Robotics: Robotics is the science and technology of robots,

their design, manufacture, and application so that they can
works like intelligent humans.
Neural Networks: It is an artificial neural network that is a
mathematical model or computational model based on
biological neural networks. These models are used in
machines to make them intelligent because neural
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networks can learn through training.
Computer Vision: It is concerned with the theory and

technology for building artificial systems that obtain
information from images in order to make machines see like
humans.
Speech Synthesis: It is the technology, which make

computers able to communicate in the language of the
user. In other words Speech synthesis is the artificial
production of human speech through machines.
Expert Systems
Expert systems are one of the earliest major developments

in the lineage of Artificial Intelligence that form. Expert
systems are also referred as “knowledge-based systems”.
Expert systems are software that are based upon concepts
of Artificial Intelligence and which acts as a consultant, or
an expert, in a specific field or discipline to solve a problem
or help to make a decision. Expert systems act as intelligent
assistants to humans. Expert systems are highly precise
and accurate but still limitations exist because an expert
system cannot entirely replicate a human brain but it can
offer opinions, suggestions, and solutions to a problem. For
Example in fields such as forecasting weather or debugging
software, expert systems are more efficient and accurate
then humans but in fields such as medical computers can
provide beneficial aid to doctors but can‟t replace a doctor.
Expert systems are specialist in only one field or discipline.
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Components of an Expert System:
An expert system basically consists of three main

components, i.e. a Knowledge Base, an Interface Engine,
and a User Interface.
 Knowledge Base: It is a the stored collection of facts,

judgments, perceptions, experiences provided by a
group of experts of a specific field and decision control
structures that relate all the data in a logical manner.
To create a knowledge base, special designers called
knowledge designers spend months working with the
human experts to extract and structure the facts, rules
and knowledge.
 Interface Engine: After the creation of the knowledge

base an interface engine is developed that can process
the knowledge base to produce required results. It
intelligently applies the provided facts and information
to a particular problem in order to make decisions. It
also has the capability of explaining its reasoning and
conclusions to the user. Simply it works as a processor
or middleman.
 User Interface: This is the front end of an expert system.

A user interacts with the expert system through this
interface. User interface perform two tasks, i.e. first it
displays the questions on the screen and then give their
answers (provided by the user) to the interface engine.
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Working Mechanism:
In the first phase users are interviewed in order to gather

the information about the problem. During the interview
user interface is used to display the questions on the screen
and the user respond by keying in answers to important
data through an input device. Then according to provided
information interface engine query the knowledge base in
order to come up with the conclusions that are again
displayed to user through the user interface.
Advantages:
Expert systems provide us with a lot of advantages such as:
 It permits non-experts to perform as experts.
 Saves time in accomplishing tasks.
 They are less costly as compared to consult experts.
 Store the knowledge of experts on permanent basis.
 Expert systems can be consulted any time.
Disadvantages:
Expert systems also have drawbacks but can be neglected

when compared with the advantages provided by it:
 Creation of the knowledge base is a very long, difficult
and tedious job.
 Expert systems are not 100% reliable.
 Many experts do not like to share their expertise.
Voice Synthesis
Speech synthesis is the artificial production of human

speech using computers. A computer system used for this
purpose is called a speech synthesizer, and can be
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implemented in software or hardware. The most common
example of voice synthesis is Text-to-Speech system. The
first computer-based speech synthesis systems were
created in the late 1950s, and the first complete text-to-
speech system was completed in 1968. A text-to-speech
(TTS) system mostly converts normal language text into
speech by concatenating pieces of recorded speech that are
stored in a database. A text-to-speech system is composed
of two parts: a front-end and a back-end. The front-end has
two major tasks. First, it converts raw text containing
symbols like numbers and abbreviations into the equivalent
of written-out words. This process is often called text
normalization, pre-processing, or tokenization. The front
end then divides the text into prosodic units like phrases,
clauses, and sentences etc. and then assigns phonetic
transcriptions to each unit. The process of assigning
phonetic transcriptions to words is called text-to-phoneme
conversion. Phonetic transcriptions and prosody
information together make up the symbolic linguistic
representation that is output by the front-end. The back
then converts the symbolic linguistic representation into
sound.
There are certain challenges that are faced in voice
synthesis systems such as,
 We know that often texts are full of heteronyms,

numbers, and abbreviations that all require expansion
into a phonetic representation. There are many spellings
in English, which are pronounced differently based on
context. For example, "My latest project is to learn how
to better project my voice" contains two pronunciations
of "project".
 Deciding how to converting numbers into words is
another problem because numbers occur in different
contexts; for example "1325" becomes "one thousand
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three hundred twenty-five" in counting but as a part of
an address, "1325" should likely be read as "thirteen
twenty-five", or, when part of a social security number,
as "one three two five".
 Similarly, abbreviations can be ambiguous. For
example, the abbreviation in the address "12 St John
St." St is used for both "Saint" and "Street".
Artificial Neural Networks
It is an artificial neural network that is a mathematical

model or computational model based on biological neural
networks. These models are used in machines to make
them intelligent because neural networks can learn through
training. A neural network consists of an interconnected
group of artificial neurons and processes information using
a connectionist approach to computation. These artificial
neurons are simply called as nodes and more precisely
called as "neurons" or "PEs"
(processing elements) are connected
together to form a complex network,
just like a biological neural network.
Currently, the term Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) tends to refer mostly
to neural network models employed
in statistics, psychology and artificial
intelligence.
Natural Language Processing
The language people use on a daily basis to write and speak
is called a natural language. Natural language processing is
the ability of computer to understand and translate
natural, every day language. Natural languages are
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associated with artificial intelligence because humans can
make the best use of artificial intelligence if they can
communicate with computers in natural language.
Researchers have been trying for more than forty years to
make machines that recognize and process natural
language, but they have had limited success.
A natural language processing program consists of three

main components, i.e. parser, semantic analyzer, and code
generator.
 Parser is a program that figures out how a sentence is
put together with nouns, verbs and other fragments.
 Semantic Analyzer uses a built-in dictionary to interpret
the meaning of words in the sentence. Both parsing and
translation operates in parallel mode.
 The code generator then convert the provided data into
machine code that computer can understand.
Examples of such programs are Human Access Language

(HAL), MS-Office XP etc.
Robotics
In computer science, robotics is a field of engineering that

deals with the design and manufacture of robots. A robot is
an automatic device/machine that performs functions
ordinarily similar to humans. In other words these
machines are a bit intelligent like humans. In the field of
artificial intelligence, there are intelligent and unintelligent
robots.
 Unintelligent robots are manufactured to perform
sophisticated tasks and can‟t perform anything else.
 Intelligent robots are manufactured for general purposes
or they can learn about their surroundings, take
decisions what to do and what to not.
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Robots in Factory: Most robots are used in factories for
tasks like spray-painting and welding etc. There are a wide
variety of sizes and shapes of robots each designed with a
particular use in mind that could be tedious or dangerous
for humans to perform.
Field Robots: There are some dangerous places where

human beings would not want to be there, e.g. inside a
nuclear power plant or near to a suspected bomb etc. These
days field robots are used to go to such dangerous places to
perform those tasks that can be done by humans.
Scientists are working to manufacture robots that can
resemble astronauts so that they can be used to stay in the
space for a long time for repairing faulty satellites.
Personal Robots: Another interesting area is of personal

robots. Existing personal robots exhibit relatively limited
abilities. Well some personal robots can speak, follow
people and avoid obstacles using artificial intelligence
modules like natural language processing, voice synthesis,
and computer vision etc.
Robots can have senses like hearing, speaking, vision and

touch using artificial intelligence. For Example: Natural
Language Processing, Voice Recognition and Voice
Synthesis modules can be used in robots to speak and hear
voice and can distinguish between different objects using
Compute Vision techniques.
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Computer Virus
A computer virus can be defined in many ways, such as:

 A virus is a program that reproduces its own code by
attaching itself to other programs in such a way that the
virus code is executed when the infected program is
executed.
 A virus is potentially destructive software that spreads
from program to program or disk to disk.
 A virus is a program that can damage data or hardware
of a system.
According to the above definitions viruses can be thought of

two types, i.e. one that only creates new copies of them and
produces no such other harm and second that can cause
you some sort of loss like destroying data on disk, inhibit
access to system data, and damaging hardware etc. In mid
of 1980s Amjad Brothers of Pakistan wrote the first virus
program known as Brain providing first push. In just an
over decade, most of us have been familiar with the term
computer virus because this has become a vast field of
computer science.
The difference between a computer virus and other

programs is that they usually self-replicate without the
knowledge of the user. Not only they can replicate some can
produce undesirable results also known as “payloads”. And
if a virus lacks a payload then a user without an anti-virus
installed on the system may not even be aware that a
computer is infected.
There are a number of ways in which a computer can

become infected, such as:
 Using an infected disk on a computer.

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 Copying infected data or installing infected software on a
system.
 Booting a system from an infected diskette.
 Using shareware software.
 Downloading emails containing virus programs as
attachments.
 Installing pirated software like games etc.
Taking a number of precautions can prevent your system

from any viral infection such as:
 Taking backup of important files and data on regular
basis.
 Avoid use of illegal or pirated version of software.
 Try to avoid shareware software unless you are sure
that it is virus free.
 Before executing any software or attachment files
downloaded from the Internet must be scanned using
credible antivirus software.
 Before using any diskettes on your system scan them
with an antivirus scanner.
 Do not boot your system from diskettes.
 Before booting your system take out all diskettes
remained in any drives.
 Installing a security package that restricts use of the
computer to the authorized users only.
 All software should be acquired from reputable dealers.
Classification by Host:
Almost all types of viruses require a host program in
order to survive. The host is usually a file, but may also be
a boot record. A virus can be simultaneously associated
with several types in this category.
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EXE Infectors:
These viruses are of most common type. These
viruses infect executable files by modifying their code. Files
of type Dynamic Link Libraries (.DLL), Screen Savers
(.SCR), and Fonts (.TTF) etc. are subject for potential virus
infection.
COM Infectors:
These file infectors require DOS command files (files
with .COM as extension) as hosts. They are usually small
as a result of the .COM file size limit, i.e. 64KB, but are
more complex relatively to EXE infectors.
Companion Viruses:
A companion virus does not alter data inside files or
disk sectors, but copies itself to new locations instead.
When it finds a clean .COM file, it changes its extension to
.EXE and then copies itself as a new file with the same
name and a .COM extension. Now, every time the program
is requested, DOS runs first the .COM file. After the virus
was executed, its runs the original file which now has the
.EXE extension.
Boot Sector Infectors:

Boot sector viruses modify the contents of the boot
sector, usually replacing the genuine contents with their
own code. The original version of the boot sector is normally
stored in an unused sector somewhere else on the disk, so
that on booting up, the virus code will be executed first and
then the original version of the boot sector is executed.
From then on, the virus generally remains memory-
resident. A boot sector contains specific information
relating to the formatting of the disk, the data stored there
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and a boot program that loads the DOS system files. An
example is Parity Boot virus.
Master Boot Sector Infectors or MBR:

MBR infection is actually an advance version of the
boot sector infection with an exception that it always infects
hard disk Master Boot Record. You get an MBR virus by
leaving an infected diskette in a drive and then restarting
the system. So when Master Boot Program located at MBR
is read and executed, the virus goes into memory and
infects the MBR of your hard drive.
Macro Viruses:
These are the files from the Microsoft Office
applications, e.g. MS Word and MS Excel etc. These
programs have their built-in macro languages. The
associated files are usually thought of only as data files.
But these files can contain programs that are executed
when you load one of these files into the associated
product. Macro viruses are totally different fro all others,
since they are sets of instructions working under an
application. An excellent way to prevent Word macro
viruses is to make NORMAL.DOT file “read-only”. This will
make it impossible to modify Word‟s default template,
which will prevent spread of most macro viruses.
------------------------------------
Classification by Damage:
Viruses can be classified according to damage done
by them to the system either with respect to software or
hardware. Damages can be in the form of data loss,
infection to files, hardware failure, and slowing down of
systems etc.
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Resident Viruses:
Most of today‟s viruses are resident, or TSR
(Terminate-and-Stay-Resident). A resident virus remains
active memory after execution and infects other files and
disks by executing one or more system interrupts.
Overwriting Viruses:
Such viruses are low-tech, they are quickly spotted
and cannot survive. While discussing overwriting viruses we
usually refer to file infectors. Instead of modifying the
destination file, an overwriting virus copies itself onto the
location, completely removing the former. This technique
makes overwriting files highly destructive, since all infected
files, unless backed up, are unrecoverable.
Stealth Viruses:
Stealth viruses hide themselves to prevent detection.
A stealth virus actively hides the changes it has made to the
hard disk so that it appears that it has not infected the
system. This is quite an interesting feature of some resident
viruses. A stealth virus, while resident, employs techniques
that make its detection, by both the user and anti-virus
software more difficult. Mostly it causes a major slowdown
along with technical difficulties in re-infecting the files over
and over, e.g. Stealth Boot Virus.
Encrypted Viruses:
Encrypted viruses encrypt themselves to avoid
detection. These are hard to detect. Encrypted virus‟s code
or compress their program data in order to dodge anti-virus
scanners, e.g. Monkey.B Virus.
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Polymorph Viruses:
Polymorph viruses are viruses that can change each
time they spread from one computer to another. These
types of viruses are harder to detect because most of them
are also encrypted, e.g. Scream Virus.
Miscellaneous Types:
WORM:
A worm is a program that finds its way through
either the computer‟s memory or a disk and alters data that
it accesses. It is different from a virus because it does not
require host software. These are usually seen on networks
and on multi-processing operating systems, where the
worm will create copies of itself, which are also executed.
Trojan Horse:
These are named after the Trojan horse in the legend
of Troy. These viruses comes with a software that seems to
be useful program, e.g. a Trojan horse program could be
advertised as a calculator or puzzle game but may actually
perform some other function when executed such as, while
you play the game the Trojan horse installed with it can
allow a hacker to access your computer. Trojan Horses do
not replicate, and are not considered as viruses on most
occasions.
Logic or Time Bomb:

IT is a program that is activated or triggered after or
during a certain event, e.g. on a specific date like 13th
April. It is just like a real time or remote controlled bomb
that run after a specific of time or in reaction to an event.
The reaction of logic bomb viruses is also unpleasant and
unpredictable.
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Hoax Virus:
A virus hoax is a rumor or warning about a virus
that is spread from system to system, telling them not to
download a program or take other action, or they will get a
virus. But in actual the virus does not exist, it doesn‟t
generally cause any damage aside from wasting people‟s
time. The way to combat virus hoaxes is to respond to
whomever you got the message from, and politely inform
them that the virus warning is a hoax. Then delete the
message. If everyone who received one of these warnings
did this once, the hoaxes will disappear.
DATA COMMUNICATION:
The transmission of data from on location to another

location is called Data Communication. A simple data
communication system links I/O devices at remote location
with one or more control processors, interface elements
such as modem and front-end processors are used to bridge
and control the different data communication
environments. The entire data communications activity is
controlled by program instructions stored in
communication processors and/or central processors. 'Or
communication also called Telecom refers to the electronic
collection and transfer of, information from one location to
another. The data being communicated may consist of
voice, sound, text, video, graphics or all .of them. The
electromagnetic instruments sending the data may be
telegraph, telephone, cable, microwave, radio, or television.
The distance may be as close as the next room or as far
away as the outer edge of the solar system.
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WHAT DATA COMMUNICATION
(TELECOMMUNICATION) IS IMPORTANT?
Telecommunication is important because End users need to
communicate electronically to succeed in today's global
information society. Managers, end users/ and their
organizations need ^ to electronically exchange data and
information with other end users, customers, suppliers,
and other organizations. Only through the use of
telecommunications they can perform their tasks, manage
organizational resources, and compete successfully in
today„s fast- 'changing global economy Thus, many
organizations today could not survive without
interconnected networks of computers to service the
information processing and communications needs of their
end users.
Applications of Telecommunications
Telecommunications networks provide invaluable (very
important) capabilities to an organization and its end users.
For example, some networks enable work groups to
communicate electronically and share hardware, software,
and data resources. Through networks company process
sales transactions immediately from many remote locations,
exchange business, documents electronically with its
customers and suppliers, or remotely s monitor and control
production processes. Telecommunications networks can
also interconnect the computer . systems of a business so
their computing power can be shared by end users
throughout an enterprise. Telecommunication networks
enhance collaboration and communication among
individuals both inside and outside an organization
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Information superhighway
Superhighway is the high-speed, digital networks with fiber
optic and satellite links. In this concept, local, regional,
nationwide, and global networks will be integrated into a
vast "network of networks‖ also called Internet. The
information superhighway system would connect
individuals, households, businesses, government agencies,
libraries, universities, and all Other institutions and would
support interactive voice; data, video, and multimedia
communications.
Why build such a superhighway network?
The information superhighway would create a national
information infrastructure that would dramatically increase
business efficiency and competitiveness by improving
economic communications, collaboration, and information
gathering. For example, the information superhighway
could use electronic mail, video conferencing and electronic
databank services to enable businesses throughout the
country to build products-faster through an electronic
collaboration in the product design process Or the highway
could support an interactive video home shopping and
entertainment system that could revolutionize the retailing,
and entertainment industries. In any event, the information
superhighway promises to have a major impact on
development in telecommunications and on our nation's
economic and social life in years to
come.
Network:
A network is a collection of computer
or nodes that communicate with
each other on a more a shared
network medium. A computer
network is a collection of two or more
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connected to share the resources and data. When these
computers are joined in a network , people can share
different files and deceives such as modems printers etc.
Types of network:
The following are the types of network.
LAN(Local Area Network)
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)
. LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
A LAN is a network that is used for communication among
computers devices in a limited geographic area, like an
office, building and homes.
Local area network allows the sharing of resources such as
files or hardware devices that may be needed by multiple
users.
LAN is a limited in size, typically covers a few hundred
meter and no more than a mile.
LAN has a lower cost as compare to MAN and WAN. A
common example of LAN links a workgroup of task related
computer like engineering workstation or accounting PCs
etc.
Uses and Advantages of LAN.
Information & Resources Sharing- Data and information
can be shared among different users Resources like printer
, scanner , hard disk and software can also be share using
LAN.
Money Saving- using one printer instead of to every pc
and people can save a lot of money by using the same
software over a network instead of purchasing separate
copy of the software for each user.
Internet Access Sharing-LAN allows multiple user to
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share a single internet connection.
Disadvantages.
When many computers are served by one printer long print
problem may develop.
Virus can spread quickly across a network .
If the server fails, all the workstation are affected. Work
stored on shared hard disk drives will not be accessible .
The cost of network device can be expensive.
Metropolitan Area Network:

 MAN:
 In this network different members of different local area
network of same organization are linked with each other
with in a same city for communication.
 It is a combination of different LANs of same organization
with in a same city.
 In this network we connect different networks of same
organization for large distance communication that is after
“600” meters.
It is too much expensive in the cost because we used a lot
of cables, devices as well as
government permission for
cabling and also labor cost.
 Exp.2. M.C.I institute phase-2
network and M.C.I institute
phase-6 network communication
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MAN Characteristics:
 Larger area than a LAN
 Slower than a LAN
 Faster than a WAN
 A bit error rate
Wide Area Network:
 Its stand for “Wide Area Network”.
 The network which is spread over different data
sharing countries, cities as well as worldwide for
data sharing purpose is known as WAN.
 In this network different LAN‟s and MAN‟s of same
organization are connected with each other for
communication and exchange data easily and we
can also connect different networks with each other
in a WAN for data sharing purpose .
 It is physically connected through cables if different
cities are connected with in a same country.
 If we connect different countries for communication
then we use satellite.
 It is expensive in the cost
and difficult to manage so
we need a person to solve
this problem is known as
network administrator.
Exp: - MCB Bank different cities
branches network communication. UN “United Nation”
World Wide communication
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Uses of WAN.
In air ticketing system like PIA, many offices can joined

together using WAN. A persons can register a ticket from
any office in the country.
Examples of WAN.
It was developed at Advanced
Research Projects Agency of U S A
department. It connects more than
50 universities and institution
throughout the USA and Europe.
Advantages of WAN.
 Communication Facility for a big company spanning
over different parts of the country the employee can save
long distance phone calls and it overcomes the time lag
in overseas communication. Computer conferencing is
another use of WAN where users communicate with
each other through their computer system.
 Remote data entry- Remote data entry is possible in
WAN it means sitting at any location you can enter data
update data and query other information of any
computer attached to the WAN but located in other
cities. You can see the data of computer located in
Lahore while sitting in Microsoft computer institute
Bara through WAN.
105
Disadvantages of WAN.
 These are similar to those of LAN,s. Security issues
is more important as hackers can try to break into a
computer system from anywhere in the world.
Internetworks:
A collection or two more networks is called
internetwork or network or network of networks. It
may consist of similar or different types of network.
These networks are connected with one another by
using special devices. Most common devices are
switches, routers, gateways and bridges.
CLIENT/SERVER COMPUTING
Client :
A client is a computer in the network that is connected
with a server to access different resources. The client
computer sends request to the server for resources. The
server computer provides the requested resource to the
client computer. The client computer is less powerful than
server computer.
Sever:
A server is a computer that provides services to the
computers and other devices connected to the network.
Server computer is more powerful than other computers in
the network. Different server are as following.
 Control access to the hardware , software and data.
 Centralized storage for software , data and
information
 Processing data
 Managing network traffic.
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 Network Media.
Media is a way through which information can be send

from source to destination.
In communication , media are the storage and transmission
channel or tools used to store and deliver information or
data.
There are two types of media
1. Wired (Guided)
Wired (guided).
Guided media, which are those that provide a channel from
one device to another, include twisted pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.
Twisted pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductor that accept and transport signals in the form of
electric current .Optical fiber is a glass cable that accept
and transport signals in the form of light.
Twisted pair cable.

 It is the physical layer between sender and receiver.
 It uses copper conductor and data transmission takes place
in the form of electrical signal.
 It use eight copper wires of different colors.
 The basic colors used in twisted pair cable are orange ,
green, blue , and brown.
 Each of the color is then twisted with a white color to make
its pair.
107
 It has four pairs which are twisted to
each other , that is why it is called
twisted pair cable.
 Twisted pair cable exists in two parts
1. Shielded twisted pair cable.

The difference between the UPT and
STP is the that the STP uses
metallic shield wrapped to protect the wire from
interference. Shielded cables can be help to extend the
maximum distance of cables. Data rate of STP is from 16 to
155 Mbps. It costs more UPT.
2. Unshielded twisted pair cable.
UPT is the most commonly used networking wire. It is
inexpensive. Flexible and light thus making it easy to work
with. The quality of UTP may vary from telephone –grade
wire to extremely high – speed cable. The cable has four
pairs of wires insides the jacket. The unshielded twisted
pair provides a bandwidth of 100kbps (Cat 1) to 1000Kbps
(Cat 7). The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair
cabling is an RJ-45 connector.
Categories of twisted pair cable.
Category 1.
 It is called cat 1.
 It is used mostly in telephone
lines.
 It is a low speed cable having
the capacity of coming data
up to 100 kbps.
Category 2.
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 It supports data up to 2 mbps.
 It is used in local area network.
Category 3.
 It has the capacity of data transmission rate up to 10
mbps.
 It is used in local area network (LAN).
Category 4.
 It has the capacity of data transmission rate up to 20
mbps.
 It is also used in local area network.

Category 5.
 It support data up to 100 mbps.
 It is used in local area network.
Category 6.
 It support data up to 200 mbps.
 It is also used local area network.
Category 7.
 It is the latest cable in the market.
 It supports data up to 600 mbps.
Characteristics if twisted pair cable.

109
 Low cast.
 Easy to install.
 High speed capacity .
 Effective to EMI.
 100 meter limit.
Application of twisted pair cable.

 Twisted pair cable is used in telephone lines.
 Twisted pair cable is used in DSL lines to provide
high class rate connection.
 Twisted pair cable is also used in local area network.
 Coaxial Cable Connector.
Coaxial Cable consists of insulated

copper or aluminum wire covered by
insulating material. The insulated
copper wire is covered by copper mesh.
It is widely used for cable television
and local area network.
Characteristics of coaxial cable.
 Low cost.
 Easy to install.
 Up to 10 mbps capacity.
 Medium immunity form EMI.
Advantages
 Sufficient frequency range to support multiple
channel which allows for much greater throughput.
 The extra insulation makes coaxial cable much
better resisting noise than twisted pair cable wiring.
110
These can transmit data much
faster than twisted pairs.
 Lower error rates. Because the
inner conductor is in a faraday
shield.
Greater spacing between amplifiers
coax‟s cable shielding reduces noise
and crosstalk.
Disadvantages.
coaxial cable are that single cable failure can take down an
entire network.
It is expansive than twisted pair cable.
The thicker the cable the more difficult to work with.
Fiber Optic Cable.

A fiber optic cable consists of hundreds of thousands
of thin strands of glass that transmit pulsting beams of
light instead of electricity. It is thinner than a human hair.
Data transfer rate of fiber optic is very fast. There is no
chance of data loss. Light pulse is not affected by random
electromagnetic interface in the environment. The have
much error rates than normal telephone twisted pair cable.
Advantages:
Greatly increase bandwidth and capacity.
Lower signal attenuation (loss)
Immune to noise ( electromagnetic interface and radio
frequency interface)
Less restrictive in harsh economy.
Disadvantage:
 Fiber optic component expensive.
111
 Fiber optic transmitter and revivers are still relatively
expensive compared to electrical interface.
Wireless (Un-Guided media).
Un-Guided media also
called media transports
signal without using any
physical conductor
between the two device
communicating. Signal
are normally broadcast
through the air and thus
are available to anyone
who has the device
capable or receiving them.
Types of Unguided Media.

There are three types of wireless media.
1.Radio Waves
2.Micro Waves
3.Infrared Waves
Radio waves.
Radio wave distributes radio signals through the air over
longs such as between cities, regions , and countries and
short distances such as within an office or home. Radio
waves are normally multi-directional. When an antenna
transmits radio waves, they are propagated in a directions.
The multi-directional characteristics of radio wave make
them useful for multicasting, in which there is one sender
but many receivers . It has frequency between 10 KHz .
Microwaves.
112
 The electromagnetic waves having the frequency
range from 1 GHz to 300 GHz is called microwaves.
 Micro waves are used for long range of data
transmission.
 Application of microwaves are mobile , smart phones
, satellite communication and microwaves oven.
Infrared waves.
Infrared is a short distance wireless transmission medium t
that sends signals using infrared light waves. Infrared
frequencies are just below visible light. These high
frequencies allow high speed data transmission. This
technology is similar to the use of remote control for a Tv.
Infrared transmission can be affected by objects obstructing
sender or receiver. Infrared used in devices such as the
mouse , wireless keyboard and printer etc.
Network Topologies:
 Topologies means arrangement. We can arrange
computes in different ways in a network. These
different arrangement are called network topologies.
 The physical layout of a network is called topology of
a network.
 The physical structure of a network which can
explain the method or communication on the bases
of data sharing as well as resource sharing is
Network Topologies refers to the physical layout and
connectivity of computer in a network. Network
113
topologies are categorized into the following four
basic types.
Topology of a network:-
1) Bus topology.
2) Ring topology.
3) Mesh topology.
4) Star topology.
1) Bus topology:-
 The topology in which all the computer of a network
are connected with
each in bus form is
known as bus topology.
 In this topology we have
a server computer or
peer compute in a front
like a drive which can manage whole network and all
other computers are connected with it through
straight cable by using “T Connectors”.
 In this network mostly we used coaxial cable for data
transmission across the network.
 In this we used broad casting technique, which mean
transfer a data across the network but accessible on
that computer whose address is matched.
Advantages:-
 It is easy to installed.
 It is easy to extend numbers of computer in a
network.
114
 It is un expensive in the cost.
 It can support small network which can support 25-
30 computer.
Dis-Advantages:-
 It doesn‟t provide data security.
 It has slow traffic rate if number of users are
increased.
 Single break point in case of cable failure.
 If one computer is failed then whole network
communication is effected.
Star Topology :
In a star topology each computer is connected
to a hub or a server by a separate cable.
 If one computer or a cable breaks down, the other
computers can still work normally.
 If two computers want to share data the sender
computer sends data to the hub/switch and
hub/switch send it to the receiving computer.
 The hub, switch, or router manages and controls all
functions of the network.
Advantages:
 Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the
network
 Easy to install and configure.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or
removing.
 Easy to detect fault and to remove parts.
115
 Failure of one node or link doesn‟t affect the rest of
network.
Disadvantage
 Requires more cable than a Bus topology.
 If the hub ,switch, or concentrator fails, nodes
attached become disable.
 More expensive than liner bus topologies because of
the cost of the hubs
Ring Topology:-
 The topology in which all the computer of a network
are connected with each
other in ring form or circle
form is known as ring
topology.
 The topology in which last
computer of a network is
connected with first computer
of a network is known as ring
topology.
 In this topology mostly we used coaxial cable for data
transmission and also uses “T connectors” for
connecting computers with each other.
 It can support large number of users as compare to
Bus topology. In this data move in one direction for
transmission that is forward direction or backward
direction.
 This topology works on token pass technology, while
token pass is software through which users can send
data from computer to another.
116
ADVANTAGES:-
 It is easy to installed and configure.
 It is less expensive in the cost.
 It can support 25-45 computers in a network
Dis-Advantages:-
 It has no data security.
 Single break point in case of cable failure.
 If one computer is fail then whole network
communication is affected.
 If number of users or increased in a network then
data processing speed gets low.
3) Mesh topology:-
The topology which all the computer of the network
are connected with each
other in mesh form or a
net form as known as
mesh topology.
Basically in this topology
we can use mesh of
cables for connecting
different computers in a network that‟s why we call it
mesh topology.
Due to mesh concept every computer have a direct
link with another computer so it has a specific path
117
for data transmission which can provide data
security.
Hybrid Topologies:
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or
more topologies in such a way that the resulting
network does not exhibit one of the standard
topologies.
E.g:- Bus , star, ring etc.
A hybrid topologies is always produced when two examples
two different basic network topologies are connected. Two
common examples for Hybrid network are star ring network
and star bus network.
Network Devices / Communication Devices

The hardware used to transmit data, instructions and
information between a sending and receiving device is
called communication device. A communication device at
sending at receiving end receives data from communication
channel. Sometimes, communication device may also
convert the data from digital to analog and analog to digital
signals.
What is modem?
Modem
Modem stands for modulator/Demodulator. It is a
commonly used communication device. Modem sends and
receives data from one computer to another on the internet
through telephone lines. The sending and receiving
computers both must have modems.
The following are types of modems.
 External modem
 Internal Modem
118
 Wireless Modem
 Cable Modem
 Satellite Modem
Define Modulations. Why is it necessary?

 The process of converting digital signal into
analog is called modulations. Computer store data
into digital form. Since a modem transmits data
using a telephone line, so it is converted form digital
to analog.
Define demodulation. Why it is necessary?

The process of converting analog signal into digital signal is
called demodulation. The incoming analog data is converted
back into digital format to be used by the computer.
Node
A node is any devices connected to a computer network. A
node can be a computer or some others device, such as a
printer. Every node has a unique network addresses,
sometimes called a data link control (DLC) address or media
access control ( MAC ) address.
What is hub?
A hub also called concentrator or multistaion access unit
(MAU) it provides a central point for cable in a network.
Hubs also transmit signals and have multiple ports to
which device are connected.
Hub is a physical layer device. It connect the
computers to a network. It broadcasts all messages. The
computers that are not the recipient of the intended
119
recipient computer takes the message. The computers that
are not the recipients of the message ignore the message. A
hub can handle only one way information traffic at a time.
What is network switch?

Network switch is more intelligent device than hub. The
switch improves the efficiency of the data transfer in the
network. It receives a message form any device connected to
it and then transits the message only that device for which
the message was meant, It can also handle multiple
communication channels at the same time.
The switch operates at layer 2 of the OSI model. It uses
MAC address for making MAC address information like
bridge. The switch monitors data traffic on its ports and
collects MAC address information like bridge to built a table
of MAC address for the devices connected to the ports. The
Switch has multiple poets similar to the hub and can switch
in a data connection form any port to any other port similar
to the bridge. This is why the switch is sometime called
multiport bridge. The Switch minimizes traffic congestion
and isolates data traffic in the LAN.
What is Router?
Router connect multiples networks using similar or different
protocols. It manages the best
route between two
communication networks.
Routers are used when several
networks are connected together.
The router is a layer 3 device in
OSI model. It means that it uses
the network address to make
routing decision to forward data packets.
120
What is network bridge.
A network bridge can be used in computer networks to
interconnect two LANs and to separate
network segments. The bridge is a
layer 2 device in the OSI model it
uses MAC address information for
making decisions to forwards the data
that needs to be sent across the bridge
to the adjacent network segment.
This make it possible to segment the
network data traffic.
.
What is Repeater?
A repeater is a physical layer device used to
interconnect the media segments of an extended
network. Repeater receives signals from one network
segment and amplifies, retime and retransmit those
signals to another network segment. These actions
prevents signal from dropping which is occurred by
long cable length and large numbers of connected
devices.
What is Gateway
Gateway is device that connect two or more network with
different types of protocols. It is intelligent device. It can
convert data according to the protocol. A gateway can be
used to connect a personal computer to mainframe
computer network
121
Table of content
Computer ……………………………………………………………..…1
is Data ? 1
What Is Information ?.............................................................................. 2
Types of ………………………………………………………………... 2
Differentiate between Data and Information ………………………..…..3
Data processing cycle………………………………………………..... ..3
What Definition of information technology …………………………….4

Electronic data processing (computer based data processing system)..... 6
Advantages of electronic data processing …………………………….....7
History of computer…………………………………………………..… 8
Difference Engine……………………………………………………..... 9
Analytical Engine……………………………………………………..…9
Characteristics of a Computer………………………………………...... 9
Discuss types of computer……………………………………………...11
Explain classification of computer …………………………………….13
Generation of computers………………………………………………..17
Basic components of computer system unit………………………… ...21
Main or Primary Memory or Internal Memory……………………… ..23
Q) Define input Devices and Discuss different input devices. ………..24
Q) Define output Devices and Discuss different input devices………. 30
Random Access Memory (RAM) …………………………………… 35
ROM………………………………………………………………….. 35
Secondary memory…………………………………………………… 36
Sami conductor storage devices ……………………………………….36
Data Storage…………………………………………………………… 36
Hard disk………………………………………………………………. 37
Floppy Disk…………………………………………………………….38
Magnetic Tape………………………………………………………….38
Magnetic Drum…………………………………………………………38
SMART CARD………………………………………………………...39
Optical Technology…………………………………………………….39
SOFTWARE…………………………………………………………... 41
Operating System………………………………………………………48
Application Software…………………………………………………..53
Flowcharts ……………………………………………………………..55
1
Types of Flowcharts…………………………………………...……… 57
SYSTEM FLOWCHART……………………………………………... 58
Word Processors………………………………………………………..59
Different between manual and electronic word processing…………….61
Spreadsheets……………………………………………………………62
what is database management package.? ……………………………...63
Number System………………………………………………………...64
CONVERSION…………………………………………………………64
Computer Codes………………………………………………………..72
EBCDIC………………………………………………………………...73
ASCII…………………………………………………………………...75
UNICODE……………………………………………………………...75
There are many advantages of working on computer…………………..76
Disadvantages of using computer……………………………………... 77
Positive Impacts. And-Negative Impacts………………………………78
Artificial Intelligence …………………………………………………..83

Expert Systems ………………………………………………………...86
Voice Synthesis ………………………………………………………..88
Artificial Neural Networks……………………………………………..89
Natural Language Processing ………………………………………….90
Robotics ………………………………………………………………..91
Computer Virus ………………………………………………………..92
DATA COMMUNICATION…………………………………………..99
WHAT DATA COMMUNICATION (TELECOMMUNICATION) IS
IMPORTANT? ………………………………………………………...99
Applications of Telecommunications…………………………………100
Information superhighway ……………………………………………100
Why build such a superhighway network?........................................... 100
Applications of Telecommunications ………………………………...101
Information superhighway ……………………………………………101
Why build such a superhighway network?........................................... 101
CLIENT/SERVER COMPUTING……………………………………105
Client …………………………………………………………………105
Sever:………………………………………………………………….105
. Wired (Guided)………………………………………………………106
2
Wired (guided)………………………………………………………...106
Twisted pair cable……………………………………………………..106
Unshielded twisted pair cable…………………………………………107
Shielded twisted pair cable……………………………………………107
Application of twisted pair cable. ……………………………………109
Fiber Optic Cable ……………………………………………………..110
Wireless (Un-Guided media) …………………………………………111
Types of Unguided Media…………………………………………….111
Radio waves …………………………………………………………..111
Network Topologies:………………………………………………….113
Network Devices / Communication Devices …………………………117
3
All rights reserved. No part of this publication will be
reproduced. Stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the Editor & author.
4
Production of this book Information commutation
Technology (ICT) was impossible without Muhammad
Imran, Abdullah, all of whom have worked relentlessly. I am
exceedingly grateful to them for their sincere help and
support that made it possible to accomplish the laborious
task of preparing the manuscript of this very book.
I am also indebted to my teacher for helping me in
preparing some of the programming construction.
I am also thankful from the core of my indebted to
my elder brother. Who at every moment encouraged me to
write this book. In addition would thank my family
members who assisted me substantially,
Finally I also wish to express my heart –felt gratitude to
Muhammad Rizwan and Muhammad Tariq for the
assistance provided by them in composing this book and
without his efforts every page of this book would be less to
offer.
Wajid ur Rehman
5
PREFACE
Computer is general purpose electronic device to help in
data storage, processing and communication of information
technology. Modern computers can process information not
only in text. But also in Graphic, audio or video form.
Today, they have found their way into application areas
that were not feasible twenty year ago. Revolutionary
changes have occurred in the field of information
technology during this period.
I hope book will not only benefit the student but also
teachers and all other users in a better way for learning
about computers and others fields of information
technology.
6
Author: Wajid Ur Rehman M.Sc (Computer science )
CT IT (GHS Sur Kamar Jamrud )
Editor: Ibrar Hussain M.Sc (Computer Science)

Lecturer (GDC Kohi Sher Haider Bara)
Editor: Muhammad Ilyas M.Phil (Computer Science)

SS IT (GDC Kohi Sher Haider Bara)
Proof Reader: Dr. Wajid Khan Ph.D (Computer Science)

SST IT (GHSS Speen Dhand Bara )
Proof Reader: Dr. Riaz Afridi Ph.D (Computer Science )

Associate Professor (GDC Kohi Sher Haider Bara)
7
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of the following
reviewers whose valuable suggestions helped in shaping the form
and content of this text.
Ibrar Hussain M.Sc Computer Science ( Lecture Government
Degree Collage Kohi Sher Haider Bara)
Dr. Wajid Khan Ph.D Computer Science SST IT ( GHSS Speen
Dhand Bara )
Muhammad Ilyas M.Phil Computer Science SS IT (Lecturer in
Government Degree Collage Kohi Sher Haider Bara)
Dr. Riaz Afridi Ph.D Computer Science (Associate Professor in
Government Degree Collage Kohi Sher Haider Bara)
Muhammad Imran M.Sc Computer Science (CO 1122 Batagram)
Musafar Shah M.Phil Computer Science (SST IT GHS Jan khan
Kali Bara)
Shah Jahan M.Sc Computer Science (Managing Director of
Corvit System Bara)
Fazal Rabi BS Computer Science (Director of Afridi stenography
& Computer institute Bara) (Steno typist Federal Government)
Dawood Mir M.Sc Computer Science ( Director of Mir Computer
Academy Bara.
Ali Akbar M.Sc Computer Science (Lecturer in GHSS Paindi Lalma
Mallagori Khyber)
Muhammad Zahoor Ullah BS Computer Science (CO in Leady
Reading Hospital Peshawar)
Rashid Khan M.Sc Computer Science (Director Bloom star
computer Bar Qambar Bara)
Nisar Ahmad M.sc Computer Science (Managing Director of
Farabi computer Institute Qambar Branch)
Shahkir Ullah BS Computer Science (Senior Computer Teacher
in FCPS Fort Salop Bara)
I am grateful to all for their valuable prefatory remarks they
expressed about this book.
Author (Wajid ur Rehman)
8
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Board of Technical
Education ,
Plot-22 Sector B-1 , Phase-V Hayatabad ,
Peshawar
SCHEME OF STUDIES & EVALUATION PLAN FOR ONE
YEAR DIPLOMA IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
COURSE ( 2011 )
PART-I
Sr. Subject Theory Practical Theory Practical Total

No Hours Hours Marks Marks Marks
1. Information & 40 40 100 50 150
Communication
Technology ( ICT
)
2. Office Automation, 40 80 50 100 150

(/World / Excel
Power Point )
3. Computer 60 40 50 100 150

Network
4. Operating System 40 80 50 100 150
5. Computer 40 40 50 50 100
Programs C/C + +
Total 120 280 300 400 700
9
PART-II
S Subject Theory Practical Theory Practical Total

No Hours Hours Marks Marks
1 Introduction 80 40 100 50 150
to Data base
2 MS Access 40 80 50 100 150
3 E- Commerce 80 80 100 50 150

& Web
Technology.
4 Graphic 40 80 100 50 150

Design
5 Project . - 100 100
Total 240 280 350 350 700
10
Part-1/ First Semester
Diploma in information Technology
Information & Communication Technology (ICT)
(PAPER- 1)
Total Th Hrs 40
Total Pr Hrs 40
Total Th Mks 100
Total Pr. Mks 50
OBJECTIVES.
This course provides an overview of computing and computer

science, including such topics as the history of computers,
computer application, and basic understanding of various hardware
components. Hands-on experience in installation and configuration
is included. Students learn how software interacts with and
controls the computer’s hardware elements. Analytical logic and
troubleshooting skills are emphasized. Basic networking concepts
are introduced.
Course Contents.
1. Introduction to information technology
(Information Technology, Data types of data, information, History
of computing
Introduction to computer hardware and trouble shooting concepts
2. Introduction to computer
Hardware
Introduction to the personal Computer, safe Lab procedures
and Tool Use, Computer Assemble Step-by-Step, Basics of
preventive Maintenance and Troubleshooting. Fundamental
Operating System, Fundamental Laptops and portable Devices,
Fundamental printers and Scanners.
11
Storage Devices
Main / primary memory (RAM, ROM)
Secondary / Auxiliary Storage Devices
(Hard Disk, CD-ROM, Magnetic tape, Magnetic drum), USB
Introduction of Microprocessor, Basic Architecture of
microprocessor, and Introduction of different technologies of
microprocessors
3. Software design and algorithm:
Software, System Software, Application Software, Flow
Charts, concepts of programming languages & their types,
compiler, Interpreter, Assemble
4. Productive Enhancement Software Packages
Introduction of Word Processors, Spread Sheets, Database
Introduction of Number System and their inter conversion
Impact of computers and internet on society (uses and misuses)
Computer Codes
(BCD, EBCDIC, ASCII, and Unicode)
CAD/CAM
Speculation on future computers and their uses, Al Neural
network, Expert System, virus, Antivirus.
5. Fundamental Networks
Networks and its types, networks media, Topologies,
network Devices
Books:
1. DIT BOOK MCI Series by Wajid ur Rehman
2. Introduction to computer By Peter Norton,
3. Introduction to computer By John R,Roos, Glencoe.
4. DIT-1 by Mohammad Khalid.
5. Introduction to I.T by Imran Syed.
12
13

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Computer

Computer can be defined as, “A computer is a machine that

Any type of raw information that can be given to a

Data processing cycle:

Model of data processing system

3. Third Generation(l 964-1975)

First 1942 - Vacuum tubes

Second 1956 – Transistors

Third 1965 – Integrated

Fourth 1975 – Microprocessors

Fifth The Artificial Intelligence

1.Control Unit (CU)

An output device can be used to store display or print

 Function Keys: There are 12 function keys (i.e. F1 to

 Typewriter Keys: The keys that represent English

The Barcode Reader

The finger print Reader

Q) Define output Devices and Discuss different input

Monitors The monitor is the most common and the most

speech or any other sounds.

Example: - If you were writing a story

Sami conductor storage devices

Magnetic tape is a flexible plastic tape, coated on one side

Optical technology involves the use of laser beams.

· CD-ROM (Compact Disk, Read Only Memory)

I) CD-ROM (Compact Disk, Read Only Memory)

II) CD-R (Compact Disk-Recordable)

III) WORM (Write Once, Read Many)

V) CD-RW (Compact Disk Rewritable)

VI) DVD (Digital Video Disk)

Software that are used to operate hardware of a system are

An interpreter is another popular type of translator used

Fourth generation languages are also known as Very High

 Basic Functions of OS or System Software

=> Single User Single Tasking OS =>

Single User Single Tasking OS:

A Single User Single Tasking OS satisfies the need of a

Multi User Multitasking OS:

Process => This Decision => This

 Replace: Changing the searched text with another text is

A spreadsheet is a grid of rows and columns with headings

Three types of data can be entered into a worksheet.

Numbers: You can type numbers of any range into a cell.

Text: Text can be English alphabets, digits, special

Formulas: A formula is a mathematical expression that

Decimal Number system

That is the required binary octal table

000 110 011 011

Decimal BCD Decimal BCD

When 4 bits are used then 16 combinations are possible

EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal

 It can potentially destroy your social life and

Computer in the Industries

Computer and law

The history of AI concept is very old but development in

There are two different approaches to the concept of AI, i.e.

Expert System: It is a computer program that contains

Robotics: Robotics is the science and technology of robots,

Computer Vision: It is concerned with the theory and

Speech Synthesis: It is the technology, which make

Expert systems are one of the earliest major developments

An expert system basically consists of three main