CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

CHAPETR IX
SAFETY AND HEALTH PROVISIONS IN
CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

9.1 Introduction

Construction industry which is concerned with building infrastructure is one of the big
industries that mobilize large capital and employs diverse personnel. Yet it is considered by
many as one of the most dangerous activities. The International Labor Organization (ILO)
estimates at least 60,000 fatal accidents a year on construction sites around the world that is one
in six of all fatal work-related accidents. The global trade union federation puts the figure much
higher at 108,000 with construction responsible for 30% of all work related accidents. Many
more workers suffer from work related injuries and from occupational diseases rising from
exposure to dangerous substances such as dust, chemicals, asbestos and etc. While securing a
job in construction offers a potential route out of poverty for many of the world’s poorest,
subsequent inability to work due to injury or ill-health can drive them and their families back
into destitution.

Considering the fact that construction industry is dangerous work, many countries have given
due attention to the health and safety of workers and established legal and technical mechanisms
to have a good health and safety practices. Most countries have established a national
occupational safety and health organization that work toward making occupational areas safe
and healthy for workers in line with the several guidelines in the areas of Occupational Safety
and Health (OSH) by the International Labor Organization (ILO). In this context the term safety
generally applies to the protection from risk of injury and from avoidable accidents whereas the
term health refers to the well-being from the immediate and long-term effects of exposure to
unhealthy working condition. Disease and injury do not go with the job nor can poverty justify
disregard for workers’ safety and health (ILO-OSH, 2001).

To make sure that people are safe and healthy and to save the economic losses associated, it is
very critical that everybody understands what it really means to be unhealthy and unsafe, what
the causes of accidents are, and the different mechanisms that can help to insure the safety and

128
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

health of workers and everybody around. In the subsequent chapters these and other issues have
been discussed in detail.

9.2 Overview of Health and Safety in Construction

9.2.1 Accidents and illness in construction and its consequences
Generally the health and safety issue in construction is related to accidents and/or illness related
to construction work. Accident effects could range from minor disabling or lost time injuries to
fatal injuries. Similarly illnesses are of various degrees which are either caused or aggravated by
the construction process. The effect of accidents and illnesses related to construction could be
summarized as follows.
Personally

Worries for the family

Sometimes-
Permanent
Always: Pain and
damage of the
working handicap
body

Death Always: loss of

In worst case salary and cost for
medical treatment

For the company and society

Reduction of
public health and Disturbances of
public wealth the construction
process

Loss of working
Sometimes time
damage of goods

Colleagues are in Sorrow

129
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

9.2.2 Accident frequency and Severity

Accident frequency and severity rates are the two essential standards required for reviewing
accident statistics. These rates show on average:
 How often disabling injuries occur in any particular industry; the accident frequency
rate;
 The seriousness of the time loss involved; the accident severity rate.
The frequency rate gives an indication of how many disabling injuries occur in relation to
number of hours worked. Whereas accident rate indicates the seriousness of the disabling injury
and the amount of time that is lost by a worker in relation to number of hours worked.

The disparity in occupational accident rates between different regions in the world is
remarkable. Both the fatality rates and the accident rates in Other Asia and Islands (21.5 and 16
434 per 100 000 workers respectively) and Sub-Saharan Africa (21and 16 012 per 100 000
workers respectively), which consist mainly of developing countries, are much higher than that
of Established Market Economies (4.2and 3 240 per 100 000 workers), which consists of
developed countries. There is an approximate comparison between accident rates and level of
development (GDP per capita).

9.2.3 Economics of Construction Health and Safety

The Cost of Accidents (CoA) can be categorized as being either direct or indirect, which
collectively constitute the total CoA. The financial measure can readily be related to all
stakeholders as it can be expressed as a percentage of organization business volume or value of
construction completed nationally. However, the minority of contractors in fact calculate the
direct and indirect CoA. Direct costs tend to be those associated with the treatment of the injury
and any unique compensation offered to workers as a consequence of being injured and are
covered by workmen's compensation insurance premiums. Indirect costs, which are borne by
contractors, include reduced productivity for both the returned worker(s) and the crew or
workforce; clean-up costs; replacement costs; stand-by costs; cost of overtime; administrative
costs; replacement worker orientation; costs resulting from delays; supervision costs; costs
related to rescheduling; transportation, and wages paid while the injured is idle. The breakdown
of direct and indirect costs could be grouped as given below:

130
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

Direct costs include wages and medical expenses

Indirect Costs include pain and suffering, incident investigations, production loss and process
delays, overtime, consumables, legal fees, funeral and compensation due to fatalities.

The CoA, and the contribution of the direct and indirect costs, varies significantly in the
literature, but recent research conducted in the United Kingdom (UK) by the Health & Safety
Executive (HSE) determined indirect costs to be 11 times the direct costs. Research conducted
in South Africa determined the indirect costs to be 14.2 times the direct costs.

Research conducted in the USA indicates the total CoA constitutes 6.5% of the value of
completed construction or in the order of $50 billion annually, and UK approximately 8.5% of
tender price. Research in South Africa estimated the total CoA to be around 5% of the value of
completed construction. Notwithstanding the uncertainty in quantifying the CoA, it must be
recognized that ultimately it is .the clients that incur the CoA as the CoA is included in
contractors' cost structures. In addition to the CoA, there is also a cost of implementing H&S
systems within a company. It is internationally confirmed that the total CoA exceeds the cost of
H&S.

There is a business case worth understanding. The fact that the total CoA exceeds the cost of
H&S is in essence a profit Centre. Studies in the United States have shown that every dollar
spent on a good safety program can result in four to eight dollar reduction in losses from
accidents. Furthermore, the business case for H&S is enhanced by the fact that H&S is the
catalyst for enhanced performance relative to cost, the environment, productivity, quality, and
schedule.

9.2.4 Causes of Accidents and illnesses

Health and safety problems related to construction are associated to one or any of the following
among others.

1. Unsafe work places

Generally All appropriate precautions should be taken to ensure that all workplaces are safe and
without risk of injury to the safety and health of workers; and to protect persons present at or in

131
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

the vicinity of a construction site from all risks which may arise from such site. In addition all
openings and other areas likely to pose danger to workers should be clearly indicated. However
various accidents and health problems are observed due to unsafe work places as discussed
below.
Inadequate and unsafe Means of access
Inadequate and unsafe means of access to and from all workplaces exposes workers to danger.
That is when there is no enough access, no periodic supervision and maintenance of accesses, or
when accesses are not appropriately labeled or indicated workers become prone to accidents.
Inappropriate House keeping
Although it is necessary that suitable housekeeping program that includes the proper storage of
materials and equipment; the removal of scrap, waste and debris at appropriate intervals should
be established and continuously implemented on each construction site, many sites fail to do
this and this becomes a cause for accidents to occur and for people to get sick because of the
bad working environment.
Unauthorized entry
People are exposed to danger when they enter a site without the company or authorization of a
competent person and provision of appropriate protective equipment. This is common in
construction sites that are located in built-up areas and alongside vehicular and pedestrian traffic
routes that are not fenced to prevent the entry of unauthorized persons or when visitors are
allowed to access sites without taking enough precaution.
Outbreak of Fire
When employers fail to take all appropriate measures to avoid the risk of fire; to control quickly
and efficiently any outbreak of fire; and to bring about a quick and safe evacuation of persons,
fire becomes the cause of severe damage to properties and risks the life of workmen. Fire
outbreaks are usually caused due to improper handling of flammable liquids, solids and gases.
Insufficient Lighting
Where natural lighting is not adequate to ensure safe working conditions, people are exposed to
accidents if there is no provision of adequate and suitable lighting, including portable lighting
where appropriate, provided at every workplace and any other place on the construction site
where a worker may have to pass.

132
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

2. Scaffoldings
It is clear that scaffoldings are main components in the construction process of civil structures.
However if they are not properly done they can fail and cause injury and death of persons. The
failure of scaffoldings is usually attributed to the following items:
Poor quality of materials
This refers to the poor quality of scaffolding making materials like wood or steel members and
connecting components. For example when timber used in the construction of scaffolds is not
straight-grained, sound, and free from large knots, dry rot, worm holes and other defects likely
to affect its strength, the structure is likely to fail upon use. On the other hand, steel tubes when
they are not free from cracks, splits and excessive corrosion and are not straight to the eye can
easily fail. Couplers and fittings which are not of good standard and quality are also other points
of failure.
Poor Design
Scaffolds are supposed to be designed to sustain maximum load by using an appropriate safety
factor. The design of scaffolds should give due consideration to the type of material to be used,
sufficiency of bracings, quality and number of connections, whether the scaffolding has firm
footing and the total stability of the frame etc. It should also take into account the sufficiency of
the working platform and enough guard rails should be given to protect persons from falling.
However failing to do all this could cost human life and inflict property damage.
Poor inspection and maintenance
It is very important that inspection and maintenance of scaffolds is undertaken before the
scaffolds are being taken into use; at periodic intervals or after any alteration, interruption in
use, exposure to weather or seismic conditions or any other occurrence likely to have affected
their strength or stability. Inspection by the competent person should more particularly ascertain
that the scaffold is of suitable type and adequate for the job; materials used in its construction
are sound and of sufficient strength; it is of sound construction and stable; and that the required
safeguards are in position. Scaffoldings with poor inspection record could fail unnoticed and
inflict heavy damage.
Effect of lifting appliances on scaffolds

The effect of lifting appliances could be sever unless scaffolds are carefully inspected by a
competent person to determine the additional strengthening and other safety measures.

133
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

Miss use of scaffolds

If all scaffolds are not used appropriately and only for the purpose for which they are designed
or erected or if they are subjected to a sudden shock due to transfer of heavy loads, they are very
likely to collapse and damage properties and kill or injure a person. More over the safety of
workers could be threatened if they use external scaffoldings in bad weather conditions.

3. Lifting appliances and gear

Hoists, tower cranes, lifting ropes etc are used as lifting appliances in the construction industry.
A failure of such machines can be the cause of severe damage unless Employers have a well-
planned safety program to ensure that all the lifting appliances and lifting gear are selected,
installed, examined, tested, maintained, operated and dismantled with a view to preventing the
occurrence of any accident in accordance with the requirements laid down in the national laws,
regulations and standards.

4. Transport, earth-moving and materials-handling equipment

Under this category are included power shovels and excavators, bulldozers, scrapers, mobile
asphalt layers and finishers, pavers, road rollers etc. These are a very important component of
the construction industry; however, they can be a death threat
 When they are operated by workers who have not received appropriate training in
accordance with national laws and regulations.
 When the machines are poorly inspected and maintained.
 When they are operated in an environment which is not suitable for these machines. These
may include unsafe and not suitable access ways, disorganized and uncontrolled traffic
within the construction work place, unstable slope and edges etc.
 When there is lack of signals to indicate danger areas
 When they are allowed to pass over a bridge or any structure they are not supposed to etc

5. Plant, machinery, equipment and hand tools

These include hand tools, electric tools, woodwork machines, concrete work equipments,
conveyors, crusher plants, power generators etc. in order to avoid any accident these all should

134
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

regularly be inspected and maintained, should be operated by skilled persons only, should only
be used for the purpose they are intended to only etc. as otherwise they can cause accidents.

6. Working at heights including roof works

When people work at heights, they may fall and lose their lives or become disabled. This
happens mainly when the working area is not guarded using guard-rails or other means or when
people working at high elevations are not psychologically and physiologically fit or when they
do not have knowledge and experience to do such work.

7. Excavations and earthworks

Dangers or accidents associated with excavation and earth works include
 Dislodgement of earth, rock or other material over workers where there is no suitable
shoring or bracing to protect them.
 Fall of persons, materials or objects or the inrush of water into the excavation, shaft,
earthworks, underground works or tunnel
 Lack of adequate ventilation at every workplace and occurrence of fumes, gases, vapors,
dust or other impurities at a level dangerous or injurious to health as specified by national
laws or regulations;
 Lack of emergency exit to reach safety in the event of fire, or an inrush of water or material;
 Insufficient investigation to locate underground dangers such as the circulation of fluids or
the presence of pockets of gas.
 Lack of periodic inspection of underground works before any work is commenced.
 Improper planning for the method of excavation and the type of support work required.
 Failure to check by a competent person that the excavation will not have effect excavation
on adjoining buildings, structures or roadways and on public utilities such as underground
sewers, gas pipes, water pipes and electrical conductors that may cause danger during work.
 Danger from land to be excavated which is contaminated by harmful chemicals or gases, or
by any hazardous waste material such as asbestos.

135
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

8. Failure of Cofferdams and caissons, and work in compressed air

People working with cofferdam and caisson could be put in danger when:
 The construction is not good, and suitable and sound material of adequate strength is not
used;
 There is no provision of adequate means for workers to reach safety in the event of an inrush
of water or material;
 There is no provision of safe means of access to every place where workers are employed.

Working in compressed air is one of the main causes of illness that could even cause death of
workmen unless it is carried out only in accordance with measures prescribed by national laws
or regulations in relation to the maximum pressure that a person is allowed to work in, the age
and medical fitness of workmen among others.

9. Form works
Accidents in relation to formworks are associated with either the work man ship or the quality
of the material used. That is in order to have safe use of formwork:
 The erection or dismantling of formwork, false work and shoring should be carried out by
trained workers only under the supervision of a competent person.
 Formwork, false work and shoring should be so designed, constructed and maintained that it
will safely support all loads that may be imposed on it.

10. Work over water

Working over water usually becomes the source of accidents when appropriate measures are not
taken to prevent workers from falling, to rescue workers in danger of drowning, and to transport
workers safely and sufficiently.

11. Demolition
Demolition of any building or structure could present danger to workers or to the public unless
appropriate precautions, methods and procedures are adopted to demolition and to dispose
waste or residues, in accordance with national laws or regulations; demolition also requires
sufficient planning and supervision of a competent person.

136
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

Before any demolition operations begin it is important to look in to the following guidelines:
(a) Structural details and builders' drawings should be obtained wherever possible;
(b) Wherever possible, details of the previous use should be obtained to identify any possible
contamination and hazards from chemicals, flammables, etc.;
(c) An initial survey should be carried out to identify any structural problems and risks
associated with flammable substances and substances hazardous to health. The survey
should note the type of ground on which the structure is erected, the condition of the roof
trusses, the type of framing used in framed structures and the load-bearing walls;
(d) Premises such as hospitals, telephone exchanges and industrial premises containing
equipment sensitive to vibration and dust and all premises sensitive to noise should be
located;
(e) A method of demolition should be formulated after the survey and recorded in a method
statement having taken all the various considerations into account and identifying the
problems and their solutions;
(f) A building should be checked and it should be verified that it is vacant.

12. Electricity
It is clear that electricity is vital to execute various activities in construction. However; it is also
dangerous unless it is handled well. That is to avoid accidents related to electricity all electrical
equipment should be of good quality, and they should be constructed, installed and maintained
by a competent person, and so used as to guard against danger.
Untidy place could a pretty good cause of accidents.

13. Explosives
Explosives, although very important to undertake construction works in rocky areas, are
extremely dangerous and have devastating effect if not properly handled. That is explosives
should be stored, transported, handled or used under conditions prescribed by national laws or
regulations and by a competent person, who should take all necessary steps to ensure that
workers and other persons are not exposed to risk of injury.

137
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

14. Health hazards, first aid and occupational health services

Many workers die or get sick due to exposure to various health hazards, lack of first aid or
insufficient occupational health services.
Health hazards
The measure health hazards or causes of sickness in the construction industry are mainly related
to one or any of the under listed items.
a) Hazardous substances: inhaling or coming in contact with toxic chemicals and/or wastes to
be disposed could cause various sicknesses ranging from simple skin etch to cancer and
other fatal diseases.
b) Dangerous atmospheres: this refers to a working environment where a toxic or harmful
substance may be present, or in which there may be an oxygen deficiency or it is a
flammable atmosphere. It is also related to working naked light or flame or hot work such as
welding, cutting and soldering.
c) Radiation hazards: construction workers could be exposed to ionizing radiations like in
nuclear industry which contain radioactive materials or to non-ionizing radiations like in
welding, torch and soldering operations. If proper measures, according to the national
regulations, are not taken, workmen could be subjected to danger ranging from cancer to
stroke.
d) Heat stress, cold and wet conditions: construction works in an extreme temperature could
be subjected to various health problems. A person working in a very high temperature for
example could face health problem ranging from fatal heat stroke to minor heat fatigue.
e) Noise and vibration: workers could be subjected to severe illnesses related to noise and
vibration which is beyond the permissible limit, unless measures are taken to protect
workmen from harmful effects of sound and vibration. This could include replacing
hazardous machines and processes by less hazardous ones, reducing the exposure of
workers, providing personal hearing protection etc.
f) Biological agents: this is related to the transmission of different types of diseases due to
biological agents.

138
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

First Aid
The availability of first aid that includes trained personnel and full first aid kit in construction
sites is very important for the safety of workers. However, workers in sites that do not have full
first aid facilities are observed to be subjected to severe injuries.

Fig.9-1 Simple first aid box

Occupational health services

One very important step of insuring the health and safety of workers is the practice of good
occupational health services. This includes the overall health surveillance that workers should
be subjected to in site, monitoring and control of the working environment and planning of
safety and health precautions, promoting awareness of possible health hazards, training etc.
however many sites become negligent of this and work force become subject to different types
of occupational health problems.

15. Welfare
It is quite important that workers should have access to sanitary and washing facilities or
showers; facilities for changing and for the storage and drying of clothing; accommodation for
taking meals and for taking shelter during interruption of work due to adverse weather
conditions. And drinking water should be available at a reasonable distance. However, when
there is no drinking water, no sanitary facilities, no washing facilities no cloakrooms, no
shelters, no living accommodation etc, workmen become subject to different types of health
problems which may also cause accidents.

16. Personal protective equipment and protective clothing

Many workers get injured when they fail to use personal protective equipment and closing
(PPE). This includes the following list of items.

139
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

Table 9.1 Safety appliances

S.No Category of Types of equipment ( as an Applications Typical Pictures
Personal example)
protective
equipment

1 Safety glass, goggles, face Protect from eye hazards, such

shields, sun glass, welding as due to flying fragments,
Eye face goggles etc objects large chips, particles,
protection sand dirt, chemicals etc.

2 Respiratory Filter masks , filter gases Provides protection to the

protection wearer from harmful airborne
substances, dusts and
contaminates & they usually
covers only the mouth and nose

3 Hand protection Different types of gloves, To protect employee from cuts,

such as cryogenic & lacerations, punctures,
chemical gloves chemical, electrical and other
related accident causes

4 Head protection Hard hats & Helmets Provides protection against

impact due to falling & flying
objects and/or electrical hazards

5 Hearing Ear defenders and earmuffs Provides protection against

protection hearing loss due to noise from
old tracks, grinders,

6 Foot protection Different types of shoes Required to protect employees

For example clog boots, it is
a type of shoes made of
wooden sole and leather sides
working in areas where there is
a danger of foot injuries due to
falling or rolling or objects
piercing the sole or where
protection against electrical
hazards.

7 Body protection Protective aprons, pants, Protect employees against

coats etc biological, radiations, physical,
chemical or electrical hazards

These all causes of health and safety problems can be grouped into two main groups;

 Shaping factors

140
________________________________________________________________________
CEng 512 – Construction Management Lecture Notes

 Originating factors
Shaping factors

This factor includes the following main categories:

1. Worker Factors. This refers to the attitude of workers towards safety, lack of education and
training, lack of supervision, poor communication, poor health, and long working hours.
2. Work place factors. This includes site layout, ground conditions, and environmental
conditions.
3. Materials and Equipment. This includes hazards related to materials, tools, and equipment
of all kind used in the site.

Originating influences/root causes

The originating influences in construction accidents are the high level determinates of the
nature, extent and existence of the immediate causes of accidents. This include
1. Permanent works design.
2. Project management.
3. Construction process.
4. Safety culture.

141
________________________________________________________________________