A History of Dictation in Foreign Language Teaching and Testing

Author(s): Charles W. Stansfield

Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 69, No. 2 (Summer, 1985), pp. 121-128
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations
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 A History of Dictation in Foreign

Language Teaching and Testing

CHARLES W. STANSFIELD

DICTATION IS ONE OF THE OLDEST TECHNIQUES

sought to imitate the child's learning of the

known for testing progress in the learning of

native language through the verbalization of

a foreign language.' Until the end of the

each action during play. Thus, the natural

Middle Ages, it was used to transmit course

method showed similarities to the total physi-

content from master (teacher) to pupil in the

cal response approach that is advocated today.5

first language classroom. It was also the usual

Supporters of the natural method discouraged

way of publishing a book in the medieval scrip-

the teaching of reading and writing in the for-

torium, a room in a monastery where a master

eign language. Gouin's widely read book on

commonly dictated to a group of scribes.2 From

teaching and studying languages illustrates his

these origins, which represent a kind of prehis-

thoughts regarding dictation: "No more dicta-

tory of dictation, it passed into the second lan-

tion lessons. This deplorable exercise is severly

guage classroom as certain groups began the

interdicted. ... It would be better simply to

study of modern foreign languages in the six-

copy; the pupil at least would not make mis-

teenth century.
takes, and to copy he does not need a master.

Dictation has long been associated with the

During the time that he scribbles and blots on

traditional or grammar translation method.

a page under dictation, he might assimilate it

The traditional method emphasized written

and read it over twenty times. Therefore we

translation and the memorization of rules of

have no more corrections, no more recitation

grammar. Although grammar translation tech-

of lessons, no more dictation" (pp. 331-32).

niques (paradigms, tables, declensions, conju-

The natural method received considerable

gations) were not fully developed until the be-

attention in the United States. The "Report of

ginning of the nineteenth century, its origins

the Committee of Twelve of the Modern Lan-

can be found in sixteenth-century textbooks

guage Association (MLA) of America on Pre-

that used the translation and memorization of

paratory Requirements in French and German"

proverbs as a point of departure for learning

proposed that more oral teaching be done in

vocabulary and grammar.3 Given the frequent

the language classroom.6 The influence of some

unavailability of textbooks, dictation probably

of Gouin's attitudes toward language teaching

continued to be relied upon as a means of trans-

methodology are apparent in it. Little mention

mitting foreign language materials to pupils.

is made of dictation as a teaching or testing de-

Thus, writing accurately from dictation would

vice. Under German, it is mentioned (p. 106)

have to be taught to foreign language pupils just

as "helpful in learning to spell" during the first

as it was surely taught to scribes.

year. Under French, the report (p. 115) slights

Because of its association with the grammar

dictation saying that in "reproducing French

translation method, dictation was strongly re-

sentences, several can be spoken in the time

jected by Gouin, who was the best known of needed to write one."

a group of methodologists who advocated the

Not all methodologists of the time agreed

natural method during the second half of the

with the report of the Committee of Twelve.

nineteenth century.4 The natural method

When acceptance of the report was being con-

sidered at the MLA convention in 1899,

Edward Joynes of South Carolina College

The Modern Language Journal, 69, ii (1985)

(today the University of South Carolina) criti-

0026-7902/85/0002/121 $1.50/0

?1985 The Modern Language Journal cized the report for failing to accord dictation

a larger place in modern language teaching.7

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 122 Charles W Stansfield

The report, again indicating the influence of extended by requiring transcription from pho-

the natural method, recommends those class- netic notation into foreign language script.9

room activities that involve the ear and eye stat- At the beginning of the twentieth century,

ing that it is false to depend on the eye alone. dictation began to appear in standardized tests

However, Joynes (p. xxviii) argues: of modern language since there was increasing

acceptance in theUnited States of the idea that

But it is equally false to exclude or depreciate the

some oral work should be done in a modern

value of the eye, which under our conditions has

language class. The Modern Language Asso-

largely--perhaps too largely - become our chief

ciation of the Middle States and Maryland

medium of contact with language and literature. It

made an effort to accredit oral work done in

is precisely here that we find the strongest argument

schools by developing a standardized oral test

in favor of dictation as a philosophical process. In

of Spanish, French, and German which would

dictation we have the most perfect combination of

faculties and functions. There is the accurate tongue, be administered in addition to the regular writ-

speaking to the listening and discriminating ear; ten examination on translation and grammar.

there is the reproductive hand, bringing back to the

The test, completed in 1915, required exami-

intelligent and critical eye that which the mind has

nees to do three things: 1) complete a ten-

heard by the ear: --all the faculties of perception,

minute dictation; 2) present a written summary

conception and expression are alert and in har-

in English of an oral passage read by the

monious cooperation. I can image no method that

examiner in the foreign language; and 3) pro-

could appeal more strongly to the attention or to the

vide written answers to general classroom ques-

intelligence.

tions read by the examiner. This aural test was

adopted by several institutions, including

Recognizing the global nature of dictation,

Joynes (p. xxviii) states:

Princeton, Columbia, Hamilton, and Cornell,

but was rejected by the College Entrance

Its value includes not spelling only - though this is

Examination Board for use in its admissions

no small matter--nor word form only, whether

testing program because of the difficulties of ad-

orthographical or grammatical, but all that belongs

ministering and grading it.

to grammar, phrase, or sentence. . .. All that is pos-

In the United States dictation received its

sible in composition or retranslation - whether in

most significant endorsement of this century

grammatical sentences or as an aid to accurate pro-

with the publication in 1915 of a book entitled

nunciation, as a stimulus to alert attention, and as

How the French Boy Learns to Write by Rollo

conducive to that Sprachgefiihl which rests so largely

on the quick apprehension of the significance of the Brown of Wabash College.'1 Brown, who

spoken language, it presents distinct advantages taught English rhetoric and composition,

which no form of written composition can possibly

became intrigued by the high standards ap-

secure.
parent in French textbooks on composition and

accordingly took a year's leave of absence from

teaching in order to observe classrooms in

At the very end of the nineteenth century,

France. He observed numerous classrooms in

dictation regained popularity when the direct

method was in favor. The direct method was both elementary and secondary schools. Brown

found that one of the unique aspects of the

purported by its advocates to be more scientific

French approach to teaching composition was

than the natural method, because it included

the daily use of dictation from primary school

the teaching of phonetics. Phonetic dictation

forward. Because of this dictation, French chil-

(phonetic transcription of the spoken language)

dren of ten or twelve could write a difficult pas-

became a common classroom activity. In his

sage of prose literature with almost perfect

Practical Study of Languages, Henry Sweet states

accuracy. Brown observed that this ability

that "Phonetic dictation is very stimulating to

transferred to the learning of foreign languages

pupils, and serves as a useful test of their acous-

as well, where dictation was also utilized

tic powers."8 This should first come in the stu-

dent's native language and after the skill of copiously. Upon observing English classes he

noticed that the students could spell with sur-

phonetic notation has been mastered, the stu-

dent should apply it daily to the transcription prising accuracy. Brown (p. 60) then con-

structed the following passage and dictated it

of the foreign language. Later, it was noted that

with advanced students, the exercise could be to a group of eleven- and twelve-year-old boys

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 History of Dictation 123

in an English class: "When General Washing-

errors, the ten most frequent were as follows:

ton was President of the United States, he had

words omitted, 159; confusion of dative and

a secretary who was directed to him to come

accusative, 142; Umlaut omitted, 119; capital

at a certain hour each day. More than once he

letter omitted, 111; mistakes in cases other than

was late and excused himself by saying that his

dative and accusative, 98; use of the wrong

watch was wrong. 'Then,' said the President,

word, 98; omission of h, 65; wrong gender, 58;

'if your watch is to blame, either you must get

single for double consonants, 51; and confu-

another watch or I must get another secre-

sion of ss and s, 47.14

tary.' " Brown continues to describe what hap-

The 1930s and 1940s saw the widespread use

pened: "First I read the paragraph through, in

of what was called the reading method in for-

order to be sure that every pupil understood

eign language teaching." This method grew

all the words; next I read it sentence by sen-

out of an extensive study of goals and methods

tence and the pupils took it down; and then I

in foreign language teaching in the United

read it through rapidly, so that they might

States conducted under the direction of Alger-

supply obvious omissions. There were twenty- non Coleman, then President of the Modern

eight boys in the class and eleven of them wrote

Language Association.16 What is commonly

the passage without error. Moreover, five

called the "Coleman Report" suggests that, of

others made only one error each, and no boy

the four communicative skills (listening, speak-

in the class made more than ten."

ing, reading, and writing), the only one that

After Brown returned to the United States

is attainable in the normal two-year sequence

he dictated the same passage to 500 boys and

of modern language study in the American high

girls of the same age in eighteen different

school is the reading skill. However, Coleman

schools. Of the total number of papers obtained

noted that at the time the study was conducted

only eleven were perfect. In general, the papers

(1924-29), few students were learning to read

contained numerous mistakes, many papers

with any degree of fluency. Therefore, Cole-

had as many as twenty errors, and some had

man suggested that activities involving the pro-

forty. Brown then administered the same dic-

ductive skills (composition, conversation, etc.)

tation to 500 college freshmen in two state uni-

be discontinued and that teachers employ only

versities and two private colleges. Only forty-

those activities that directly teach or implement

seven of these papers were perfect.

the reading process. One of the fourteen activi-

Brown concludes (p. 61): "This comparison

ties to which Coleman suggests (p. 271) stu-

and others of a similar kind that I have made

dents be limited is dictation: "They will write

are sufficient to convince one beyond doubt that

from dictation simple sentences and paragraphs

the French boy of eleven or twelve has gained

taken from material that is familiar."

materially over the American boy of the same

Since the reading method was widely ac-

age in writing language accurately."

cepted in the United States during the second

Brown's study soon became known to foreign

quarter of this century, we see that dictation

language teachers and was cited in articles and

was advocated as a teaching and major evalua-

textbooks on modern language teaching until

tion activity by proponents of the three major

World War II. As a result, dictation was used

methods (grammar-translation, direct, and

by proponents of the grammar translation

reading) that were used in this country prior

method, who said it may serve as a test of a

to World War II. It continued to be prominent

student's preparation of the day's lesson, thus

throughout the 1950s. During that decade a

making individual student translation superflu-

well-known methods text contained a chapter

ous, and by proponents of the direct method

(33 pp.) on "Dictation and Aural Comprehen-

through World War II.11 At least one book was

sion.1"" The importance that it attributed to

written on dictation and numerous articles dealt

dictation can be seen in its first sentence: "In

with it in whole or in part.'2

most languages, dictation is an indispensable

One of the most interesting articles to be

teaching device, it is almost a method of teach-

published on dictation during this period con-

ing, for by means of it so many phases of the

tains a tabulation of errors made by sixteen stu-

language may be taught."

dents in a first-year college German course over

During the 1960s, the use of dictation began

the period of a year. " Out of a total of 1,755

to decline sharply because of the development

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124 Charles W Stansfield

field of psychology. It emphasizes the view that

and widespread adoption of the audio-lingual

language is simply a set of conventions result-

method, the historical and theoretical under-

ing from continued interaction between

pinnings of which began with the very favor-

humans during communicative encounters.

able results obtained by the Army Specialized

Dictation appears to lack any relation to the

Training Program (ASTP) in the preparation

type of behavior that human beings normally

of interpreters and translators during World

use to communicate during such encounters.

War II.

Because of this, dictation, which had been a

The success of the ASTP in training people

staple in language teaching and testing for the

to speak and understand a second language in

first sixty years of the century, was now given

less than a year of study, and the admitted in-

a critical reconsideration - especially from the

ability of previous methods to teach aural-oral

standpoint of language testing. Here, dictation

skills in the United States, caused the inevitable

showed the additional liability of not being a

cyclical reaction against all that had been done

discrete-point test; that is, one which assesses

before.'18 Dictation became a victim of this reac-

learning of a single point of phonology, lexicon,

tion as leading authors and proponents of the

or syntax, and which involves only a single

"new-key" audio-lingual method of foreign lan-

communicative skill.
guage teaching either directly attacked it or

Lado was one of the first to criticize dicta-

tacitly rejected it by failing to make any men-

tion in a book that was widely used in NDEA

tion of it whatsoever.

institutes.21 His entire treatment (p. 34) of the

As previously stated, although much of the

subject is reprinted here so that it might be con-

theoretical basis for the audio-lingual method

trasted with Meras' thirty-three pages on the

dates back to the ASTP of World War II, the

same topic.
method itself did not have much influence on

public school foreign language teaching until

Dictation is favored by many teachers and students

the 1960s, due to the inevitable time lag be-

both as a teaching and testing device. However, on

tween the development of theory and its appli-

critical inspection it appears to measure very little

cation in practice. The launching of the first

of language. Since the order of words is given by

Russian Sputnik in 1957 and the subsequent

the examiner as he reads the material, it does not

passage by the United States Congress of the

test word order. Since the words are given by the

National Defense Education Act (NDEA) in

examiner, it does not test vocabulary. It hardly tests

1958 stimulated other events that augmented

aural perception of the examiner's pronunciation,

the decline in popularity of dictation. Certain

because the words can in many cases be identified

provisions of this act provided federal support

by context if the student does not hear the sounds

for the retraining of foreign language teachers correctly. The student is less likely to hear the sounds

on a massive scale with the result that, between incorrectly in the slow reading of the words which

is necessary for dictation. Spelling and a few matters

the decade from 1959 to 1968, some 27,000 lan-

of inflection and punctuation can be tested through

guage teachers attended special NDEA insti-

dictation, but the complicated apparatus of dictation

tutes designed to improve their overall language

is not required to test such matters. Simpler tech-

proficiency and modernize their teaching meth-

niques can be substituted.

ods. 19

While attending NDEA institutes, teachers

Another text widely read by NDEA institute

were indoctrinated in the theoretical basis of

participants was Brooks' Language and Language

the audio-lingual method, most of which came

Learning. 22 In a fashion similar to that of Lado,

from the fields of linguistics (structuralist

Brooks issues a warning (pp. 268-69) to

school) and psychology (behaviorist school). As

teachers about the use of dictation in language

Moulton points out, one of the basic tenets of

testing.

structural linguistics was that "Language is

speech, not writing."20 This tenet caused the Though it is a useful class exercise, dictation has im-

postponement of the teaching of reading and portant limitations, especially when used as a test.

It is complicated and specialized, and it involves a

writing skills by proponents of the audio-lingual

kind of skill that is of little use outside the classroom.

method.

A dictation makes demands, at the same time, upon

Another tenet of new key methodology, that

listening comprehension, phonemic discrimination,

language is "a set of habits," comes from the

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 History of Dictation 125

and knowledge of morphology, to say nothing of method in language teaching circles. Neverthe-

spelling, punctuation, arrangement, and other details

less, a study was done during the decade which

of prime importance to a printer. The writing of dic-

served as a precursor in both methodology and

tation has nothing to do with speaking and requires

approach to the numerous empirical studies on

a special kind of listening in which the factors of slow-

dictation that were conducted during the seven-

ness of speech and repetition are exaggerated far

ties. In 1964, Valette reported the results of a

beyond the limits of normal communication. More

study she conducted at the University of South

important still, in a dictation the student is led along

Florida.28 Six beginning French classes were

a linguistic path chosen by someone else; this is far

divided into two treatment groups. Group A

from being an accurate indication of how well he can

received daily dictations during each meeting

do when he may follow a path of his own choosing.

throughout the semester. Group B practiced

At best, a dictation will tell us how well a student

dictations only three or four times during the

can write from dictation, a behavior pattern that is

semester. At the end of the course all sections

unusual outside of the learning situation, and cer-

received the same departmental examination

tainly an uncommon mode of communication.

which included a fifty-word dictation. Valette

found correlations between dictation score and

Brooks accepts the use of dictation as a class-

room exercise for teaching the graphic repre- total score on the examination of .78 for Group

A and .89 for Group B. She concluded that for

sentation of sounds (p. 269) but cautions, "the

mistake is to look upon ability to write dictation French, at least, dictation is a good measure

as an accurate index of mastery in all the lan- for overall student proficiency, although the

guage skills, which of course it can never be." lower correlation for Group A led her to specu-

late that performance on it may be improved

Another respected textbook author of the day,

Politzer, does not even mention dictation.23

by practice.

Although a constant proponent of eclecticism

In spite of its favorable findings, Valette's

in language testing, Rivers, like Brooks, accepts

study went relatively unnoticed for the re-

the use of dictation as a teaching device but re-

mainder of the sixties. Interest in dictation re-

jects it in testing because it is not a discrete turned again in the 1970s due to the extensive

point test.24 She states (p. 290): "Traditional

research into integrative measures of language

foreign language tests have tended to test too

proficiency spearheaded by John Oller. He

many elements in interrelationship so that it has

analyzed the scores on the University of Cali-

been impossible to tell what the result of the

fornia at Los Angeles (UCLA) English as a

test really shows. A test of this type which is

Second Language Placement Examination

frequently given is the dictation."

(ESLPE) of 100 foreign students entering the

Harris criticizes dictation on similar

university in the fall of 1968.29 The UCLA

grounds.25 In a book devoted exclusively to the

examination consisted of five parts: 1) dicta-

testing of English as a second language he states

tion; 2) a forty-five-minute composition; 3) a

(p. 5): "As a testing device dictation must be

vocabulary test involving the matching of syno-

regarded as generally both uneconomical and

nyms; 4) a phonology test based on the dis-

imprecise."
crimination of minimal pairs; and 5) a gram-

The major textbooks published in Europe

mar test which required the student to recog-

during the 1960s did not give dictation any

nize correct and incorrect sentences. Oller

more favorable treatment than it received in the

found that dictation predicted scores on all

United States. Bennett accepts the use of dic-

parts of the ESLPE better than did any other

tation in both teaching and testing but com-

single part. Oller intercorrelated scores of

plains that: "It has little relation to any real-

nearly 800 new foreign students on the ESLPE

life activity."26 Another author, Otter, in a

entering UCLA between 1969 and 1971, and

book-length study of language testing states:

found an average correlation between dictation

"Dictation seems to be an extravagant use of

and total score of .91. Later Irvine, Atai, and

half an hour of scarce examination time.""'27

Oller correlated the scores on dictation of a

As has been demonstrated in the first part group of students of English as a foreign lan-

of this paper, attitudes toward dictation re-

guage in Iran with their scores on the various

mained negative throughout the 1960s due to

sections of the Test of English as a Foreign Lan-

the pervasive influence of the audio-lingual

guage (TOEFL).30 They found that dictation

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126 Charles W Stansfield

correlated best with the student's listening com-

others, following Oller's lead, conducted over

prehension and total TOEFL score. They con-

fifty studies of dictation during the 1970s, and

cluded that it was a good measure of listening

their findings were invariably favorable.33 As

comprehension and overall language profi-

a result, by the end of the decade authors of

ciency. They also noted that it is simple to con-

textbooks on language testing were endorsing

struct, administer, and score.

its use. In her handbook on classroom testing

In other publications Oller has described practices, Valette presented the view that more

why dictation is a highly valid test of language research is needed on the effectiveness of dic-

proficiency. Borrowing from current theory in tation as an examination.34 But in a revised edi-

the field of cognitive psychology, Oller and

tion published a decade later, Valette described

Streiff posit that dictation taps the learner's dictation as a precise measure of listening com-

internalized grammar of expectancies at work prehension skills.35

during the listening process.31 During compre- In another recent handbook of foreign lan-

hension, the listener continuously synthesizes

guage testing written for the classroom teacher,

speech into "chunks" and formulates hypotheses

Cohen devotes eight pages to a discussion of

about what is said in each. This process is dictation.36 Citing Oller's research, Cohen de-

known as analysis-by-synthesis.32 If the per-

scribes dictation, which he views as a pragmatic

ceived speech matches the hypotheses, the test since the words are given in context, as one

meaning is understood. If not, the internalized of three pragmatic tests that recent research has

expectancy grammar formulates a new hypoth- shown to be effective. Thus, while Lado de-

esis about the input heard. The listener who scribed dictation as a poor measure of language

can construct accurate hypotheses that match proficiency, because the context may aid the

what the speaker says is considered to be a recognition of words that might not be recog-

highly fluent listener. On the other hand, the nized in isolation, Cohen sees a dependence on

inability of the listener to construct such hy- contextual cues as a requirement for a valid

potheses causes a communication failure. Mis- measure of functional language ability. This

comprehension or miscommunication occurs change in the attitudes of language testing

when the listener combines a group of elements specialists toward the role of context in testing

into a "chunk" of speech and mistakenly reflects the degree to which they have been in-

assumes it to be identical to the language pro- fluenced by the school of discourse analysis in

duced by the internalized grammar. When the linguistics. In discourse analysis, an under-

internalized grammar is incomplete, the best standing of the context in which language is

internally constructed hypothesis the learner used is viewed as essential to the understand-

can generate may deviate substantially from the ing of meaning.37

actual stream of speech. Oller and Streiff point At present, dictation is widely used in both

out (p. 78) that we can see this process at work language teaching and testing. Its validity is so

in dictations when ESL students turn a phrase widely accepted that it is now recommended for

like "scientists' imaginations" into "scientists' use on locally constructed proficiency tests

examinations." Therefore, the ability to write utilized for placement purposes.38 Moreover,

a good dictation does not merely mean that one it is beginning to appear on standardized tests

can transcribe sounds to letters. Rather, it is of language proficiency. For instance, on the

an indication of the presence of an internalized English as a Second Language Assessment Battery it

grammar of the language which is at least as occurs in the traditional written format as part

developed as the difficulty level of the passage of the listening comprehension section.39 On

dictated. Thus, according to Oller, dictation the Secondary Level English Proficiency Test, a

can be viewed as a psycholinguistically valid multiple-choice version of dictation is used. The

measure of the learner's overall language pro- multiple-choice version requires the student to

ficiency because it invokes the learner's inter- retain a stimulus statement while locating the

nalized expectancy grammar. correct printed version of the statement in the

Oller's view of dictation received wide dis- test booklet. The printed options do not test

semination during the 1970s. However, he and spelling or the accurate discrimination of mini-

his associates were not the only scholars to con- mal sound differences. Rather, they test the

duct research on this test format. Dozens of relationship between elements within the sen-

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 History of Dictation 127

tence by presenting these elements in various pointed out, over the decades attitudes toward

logical configurations.40 Although multiple- foreign language teaching have been influenced

choice dictation has received initial acceptance by new schools and approaches in linguistics

due to the credibility of traditional dictation, and psychology.41

it cannot be assumed that both forms are It remains to be seen how future generations

equally integrative or efficient as measures of will view dictation. Given the cyclical nature

overall language skills. Additional research on of attitudes toward language teaching, it would

multiple-choice dictation is needed in order to

not be surprising if dictation enjoyed less popu-

gain a more precise understanding of its larity among the next generation. The present

validity.
generation, however, views it quite favorably,

The evolution of attitudes toward dictation

and interest in it may be even greater among

has run parallel to the evolution of attitudes researchers than among teachers.

toward foreign language teaching. As Kelly has

'4Since Betz's article lists the end of course grade for the

NOTES

sixteen students involved, the author calculated the coeffi-

cient of correlation between number of errors made on dic-

tation during the year and end of course grade. The result-

'I wish to express my appreciation to L. G. Kelly of the ing correlation was .89.

University of Ottawa and to my colleague, Gordon Hale, '5The reader unfamiliar with the reading method should

for helpful comments on an earlier version of this manu- read the excellent brief summary of its historical develop-

script, and to Juan Moran for his assistance with the bib- ment and methodology in Wilga M. Rivers, Teaching For-

liography. The earlier version of this paper was delivered eign Language Skills (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1968).

at the Third International Conference on the History of 16Algernon Coleman, The Teaching of Modern Foreign Lan-

the Language Sciences, Princeton Univ., 19-23 August

guages in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1929).

1984.
17Edmond A. Meras, A Language Teacher's Guide (New

2L. G. Kelly, 25 Centuries of Language Teaching (Rowley, York: Harper & Row, 1954).

MA: Newbury House, 1969).

'8The direct method was not widely adopted in the

3Renzo Titone, Teaching Foreign Languages: An Historical United States due to the inability of American teachers to

Sketch (Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press, 1968). speak the languages they taught.

4F. Gouin, The Art of Teaching and Studying Languages, trans.

19John S. Diekhoff, NDEA and Modern Language Foreign

H. Swan & V. Betis (New York: Scribner, 1894). Languages (New York: MLA, 1965).

5James J. Asher, "Children's First Language as a Model

20William Moulton, "Linguistics and Modern Language

for Second Language Learning," Modern Language Journal, Teaching in the United States 1940-1960," Trends in Euro-

53 (1972), pp. 133-39; JamesJ. Asher, Learning about Lan- pean annd American Linguistics, 1930-1960, ed. C. Mohr-

guage through Actions (Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks, 1979). mann, A. Sommerfelt & J. Whatmough (Utrecht: Spec-

6"Report of the Committee of Twelve of the Modern Lan- trum, 1961), pp. 82-109.

guage Association of America on Preparatory Requirements 21Robert Lado, Language Testing: The Construction and Use

in French and German," Report of Committee on College Entrance of Language Tests (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961).

Requirements (Chicago: National Education Association, 22Nelson Brooks, Language and Language Learning (New

1899), pp. 77-125.

York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960).

7Edmond S. Joynes, "Dictation and Composition in 23Robert L. Politzer & Charles N. Staubach, Teaching

Modern Language Teaching," PMLA, 15 (1900), pp.

Spanish: A Linguistic Orientation (New York: Blaisdell, 1961).

xxv-xxxi.
24Rivers (note 15 above), p. 290.

8Henry Sweet, The Practical Study of Languages (London:

25David F. Harris, A Language Testing Handbook (New

Dent, 1899).
York: McGraw-Hill, 1969).

9Clarence E. Leavenworth, "The Dictation Exercise-

26W. A. Bennett, Aspects of Language and Language Teaching

Its Variations and Values," Modern Language Journal, 10 (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1968).

(1926), pp. 483-90.

27Harold S. Otter, A Functional Language Examination: The

'0Rollo W. Brown, How the French Boy Learns to Write

Modern Language Association Examinations Project (London:

(Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1915).

Oxford Univ. Press, 1968).

"Joynes (note 7 above); Leavenworth (note 9 above).

28Rebecca M. Valette, "The Use of the Dict6e in the

12Walter Ripman, French Dictation: A Handbookfor Teachers

French Language Classroom," Modern Language Journal, 48

with Sentences and Passages for Practice (New York: Dutton, (1964), pp. 431-34.

1922).
29J. W. Oller, "Dictation as a Device for Testing Foreign-

'3Annette Betz, "The Function of Dictation in the Teach- Language Proficiency," English Language Teaching, 25 (1971),

ing of Modern Languages," Modern Language Journal, 63 pp. 254-59.

(1979), pp. 150-56.

30Patricia Irvine, Parvin Atai & John W. Oller, Jr.,

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Sun, 06 Mar 2016 16:22:20 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 128 Charles W Stansfield

"Cloze, Dictation, and the Test of English as a Foreign Lan- 36Andrew D. Cohen, Testing Language Ability in the Class-

guage," Language Learning, 24 (1974), pp. 245-52. room (Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1980).

31John W. Oiler, Jr. & Virginia Streiff, "Dictation: A 37". L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Oxford:

Test of Grammar Based Expectancies," Testing Language Pro- Clarendon, 1962); John R. Searle, Speech Acts: An Essay in

ficiency, ed. Randall Jones & Bernard Spolsky (Arlington, the Philosophy of Language (London: Cambridge Univ. Press,

VA: CAL, 1975). 1969); J. Sinclair & R. M. Coulthard, Towards an Analysis

32Ulric Neisser, Cognitive Psychology (New York: Apple- of Discourse (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1975).

ton Century, 1967). 38Andrew Harrison, A Language Testing Handbook

"The author conducted a computer search of the ERIC/ (London: Macmillan, 1983).

CIJE and Language and Language Behavior Abstracts databases 39Maria Lombardo, "The Construction and Validation

using the descriptors "Dictation," "Second Language Test- of the Listening and Reading Components of the English

ing," and "Research." On-line perusal of the abstracts iden- as a Second Language Assessment Battery," Bilingual Edu-

tified 106 studies involving dictation during the period from cation Technology, ed. Raymond V. Padilla (Ypsilanti: Eastern

1970 to 1984. Michigan Univ., 1981).

34Rebecca M. Valette, Modern Language Testing: A Hand- 40Charles Stansfield, "Reliability and Validity of the Sec-

book (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1967). ondary Level English Proficiency Test," System, 12 (1984),

"3Rebecca M. Valette, Modern Language Testing, 2nd ed. pp. 1-12.

(New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1977). 41Kelly (note 2 above), pp. 301-60.

Language Educators Honored

recipient of the Florence Steiner Award for

THE EMMA MARIE BIRKMAIER AWARD FOR DOC-

Leadership in Postsecondary Foreign Lang-

toral Dissertation Research in Foreign Lan-

uage Education, while Eleanor Sandstrom

guage Education was presented to Elizabeth

(Philadelphia Public Schools) was the recipient

Bernhardt (Ohio State University) and to

of the Florence Steiner Award for Leadership

Joyce G. Sager (MacDuffie School, Spring-

in Secondary Foreign Language Education.

field, MA) by the American Council on the

Both of these leadership awards are supported

Teaching of Foreign Languages at its annual

by the Illinois Foreign Language Teachers As-

meeting last November. The National Text-

sociation. Jacqueline Hansen (Boulder Valley,

book Company's Award for Building Commu-

CO, Public Schools) and Charles Stansfield

nity Interest in Foreign Language Education

(Educational Testing Service) shared the Paul

went to Jean S. Hughes, French and English

Pimsleur Award for Research in Foreign Lan-

teacher at the Ordean Junior High School in

guage Education for their co-authored article:

Duluth, MN. Robert C. Lafayette (Indiana

"Student-Teacher Cognitive Styles and Foreign

University) received the Nelson Brooks Award

Language Achievement: A Preliminary Study"

for Excellence in the Teaching of Culture.

(published in The Modern Language Journal, 66

Constance Knop (University of Wisconsin), a

[1982], pp. 263-73).

member of the MLJ editorial board, was the

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions