Theoretical Application Outline – Phase 3

Person-Centered Theory (Neukrug, 2018)

I. Founder of theory and current leaders (Neukrug, 2018)
a. Carl Rogers
b. Natalie Rogers, Carl Rogers’ daughter, continued his work
II. Major philosophical and antecedent influences of the theory
a. Philosophical Stance (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Free will vs. Determinism
1. Centered in free will because it holds that people can learn to
understand their defenses and grow in ability to make their own
choices. Free will is critical to psychological well-being as it
reflects the freedom to move away from defenses and integrate
inner experiences. However, the theory can be deterministic in the
sense that objective tests can be valuable but only within the
context of the person’s individual experiences.
ii. Holistic vs. Atomistic view of humans
1. More focused on holistic view of humans because all parts of the
person work to either integrate or reject experiences. Theory views
people like organisms as they react as a unified whole to their
environment.
iii. Phenomenological vs. Objective reality
1. Very phenomenological in that the person's well-being’s perception
of reality functions from their understanding of the world.
However, we can still come close to observing this inner
experience.
III. Personality Development (Person-Centered Powerpoint):
a. Nature of humans
i. Humans are born neither inherently bad or evil, but are essentially good in
nature. Further, people are constantly focused on existential choices and
growing further in their lives. Also, people desire to be in close relation
with others, attain self-actualization, and process their values as a whole
organism.
b. Role of the Environment
i. The environment is important in how it provides information for the
individual to make value judgments on their experiences.
ii. The environment shapes our sense of self in how we see our self-worth.
c. Major developmental, personality, and learning constructs (Person-Centered
PowerPoint, slides 17-19)
i. “Personality Concepts Defined:
ii. Experience
1. Private world of the individual
iii. Reality
1. Private perceptions of the individual, Social reality consists of
perceptions that have a high degree of commonality among
individuals
iv. Self
 1. Organized gestalt of “I” or “me”
v. Positive regard
1. Need to be prized, accepted, and loved
2. So addictive that it becomes the most potent need of a developing
person
vi. Conditions of worth
1. Based on approval from significant others
2. Once internalized, individuals cannot regard themselves positively
unless they meet expectations and conditions of others
vii. Symbolization
1. Process by which individual becomes aware of experiences
viii. Organismic valuing process
1. Ongoing process in which individuals freely rely on the evidence
of their own senses for making value judgments
ix. Fully functioning person
1. Someone who relies wholly on organismic valuing process”
IV. Nature of Maladjustment (Person-Centered Powerpoint)
a. The differences between one's actual self and their ideal self can lead to
incongruence. Incongruence can be understood as when one is not aligned with
one’s inner being and their holistic values.
b. People possess an inherent ability to distance themselves from maladjustment.
c. When parental love is highly conditional, it increases the likelihood of pathology
development.
V. How clients change according to the theory (Person-Centered Powerpoint)
a. Two individuals are in psychological interaction.
b. The client is undergoing a state of incongruity.
c. The counselor is consistent and fully engaged in the therapeutic relationship.
d. The client encounters unconditional positive regard.
e. The client encounters empathetic comprehension.
f. The counselor can communicate and the client accepts these conditions.
VI. Role and activity of the Counselor
a. Relationship with client (Person-Centered Powerpoint)
i. The therapeutic relationship is characterized by its egalitarian,
nondirective nature, where the counselor does not perceive the client as ill
or sick. It is based on the assumption that the client voluntarily seeks
assistance and is an active, responsible participant, fostering a warm
atmosphere of honest acceptance and understanding. This relationship is
firmly rooted in ways of being and attitude, rather than relying on specific
techniques.
b. Major techniques used (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Congruence or genuineness: when the counselor is completely authentic
with the client about themselves and their presence reflects this stance
while being completely present with where the client is.
 ii. Unconditional positive regard: when the counselor approaches the client
with full positive acceptance of who the client is and anything they may
say.
iii. Empathy: deep understanding of a client that can be demonstrated in
various ways that acknowledge that the counselor heard and understands
what the client has expressed
iv. Reflection of feelings: parroting or repeating back the content of a client’s
statement.
v. Other interventions extend from these conditions and are used when
appropriate (Person-Centered Powerpoint)
1. Accepting, appropriate self-disclosure, confrontation, feeling
reflections, immediacy, listening, reflection of content, reflection
of meaning, respecting, and understanding.
c. Use of diagnosis and appraisal (Person-Centered Powerpoint)
i. The client's self-assessment is more important than objective assessments.
ii. The client represents the primary wellspring of knowledge, and the
counselor should respect this rather than impose a diagnosis.
iii. The counselor adheres to the client's guidance during the assessment.
iv. Tests can be relevant, particularly in later stages, if requested by the client.
v. If formal assessment is required, it is imperative to engage the client in the
process.
d. Evaluation of client progress (Person-Centered Powerpoint)
i. Client change can be evaluated by observing various indicators, such as
whether the relationship is established upon core conditions, if the client
drops rigid defenses, if the direction of therapy lies in the hands of the
client, if clients are confronted with their personal power, and if clients are
empowered to choose their own values and goals.
VII. Populations for which the theory is and is not applicable (Person-Centered Powerpoint)
a. Person-centered therapy can be suitable for the following populations across a
wide variety of settings: those in need of crisis intervention, children, adolescents,
adults, both voluntary and mandated clients, and individuals dealing with both
minor and major problems.
i. Even with these specific populations, anyone can benefit from the usage of
the theory’s core conditions in therapy (Person-Centered Powerpoint)
b. Not helpful for those looking for a quick solution. Not helpful when cultural
background makes it difficult to see oneself as able to make change or is not as
accepting of feeling/expressing emotions. Some conditions, like phobias, may not
be a good fit for this theory.
VIII. Research on the theory (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Research shows high efficacy for the theory being able to reduce the gap between
the client’s ideal self and their own self concept.
b. Research has repeatedly shown that empathy and a good therapeutic alliance is
critical for effective client outcomes.
IX. Limitations and Criticisms (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Could be seen as methodologically weak as it is difficult to study internal
processes.
 b. Limited by the development of the therapeutic relationship, the client’s problem,
the counselor’s ability to be empathetic, the cognitive complexity within the
counselor, and the need for the client to be able to receive empathy.
X. Personal Insight
a. In general, I enjoyed person-centered therapy. I appreciate the array of techniques
it offers, and it appeals to my strong inclination to view people in a positive light
no matter what. I firmly believe in the potency of empathy and authenticity,
especially in a world that frequently seems insincere. However, I believe that the
therapeutic relationship, while valuable, might not be sufficient for profound
change. I believe there's a need for more proactive guidance in the process of
reconciling different aspects of one's life. While I hold great admiration for the
theory, I sense it may be lacking a crucial element.

Gestalt Theory (Neukrug, 2018)

I. Founder of theory and current leaders (Neukrug, 2018)
a. Fritz and Laura Perls
II. Major philosophical and antecedent influences of the theory
a. Philosophical Stance
i. Free will vs. Determinism (Neukrug, 2018)
1. Has an emphasis on free will because believes that every person
has the ability to attain an infinite number of personality traits. We
have the free will to choose to embody one or the other of two dual
personality traits until we are able to synthesize them together.
2. Is anti-deterministic in that we always have the choice to break
down blockages and dismantle internal defenses.
ii. Holistic vs. Atomistic view of humans (Neukrug, 2018)
1. By definition, Gestalt theory is holistic because it comes from the
psychological term gestalt which essentially means that the whole
is greater than its parts. The theory believes that all parts of the
person’s being (body, mind, and soul) are inseparable.
iii. Phenomenological vs. Objective reality (Neukrug, 2018)
1. Gestalt therapy is rooted in the humanistic traditions of
existentialism and phenomenology. The theory asserts that an
individual's reality is shaped by their unique experiences, and they
have the capacity to make choices throughout their life that can
lead to the creation of a novel way of existing in the world.
III. Personality Development
a. Nature of humans (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
i. This theory holds the view that human nature is rooted in the concept of
organismic self-regulation, indicating an innate capacity for self-
regulation. It maintains that individuals are intrinsically motivated and
possess a high degree of capability to address their own challenges,
provided they have an awareness of their internal and external
environment. In this framework, the theory asserts that the most pressing
needs naturally take precedence.
 1. From the very beginning of life, infants are born with a
fundamental motivation and innate ability for social interaction and
attachment.
ii. It is in our nature to seek self-regulation using one of two techniques:
1. Organismic: more natural as it integrates mind and body while
acknowledging reality with full awareness with holistic learning
and choosing.
2. Should-istic: less natural as one is disconnected from genuine
experience by only experiencing it cognitively and centers on
‘shoulding’ what is.
b. Role of the Environment (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
i. The environment is necessary to consider because the individual cannot be
understood apart from their environment. This is so important that Gestalt
theory believes that environments where they feel resource insecure can
lead to a person not being able to engage with present experiences.
ii. Also, development involves moving away from environment for support
and finding support within themselves (Neukrug, 2018).
c. Major developmental, personality, and learning constructs (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Need-identification and need-fulfillment
1. Finding a pressing need in the foreground (what is in immediate
perception) and then coming into contact with the need. This
process continues until the person’s self is formed.
ii. Ego boundary (Neukrug, 2018):
1. The difference in how a person sees themselves and the world
around them. Is able to change and morph if they add aspects of
external reality into internal identity.
iii. Field Theory Perspectives (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
1. Explores the context in which an event occurs rather than
categorizing it or searching for a cause-and-effect chain.
2. In this perspective, a person is an integral part of the field.
3. It emphasizes that no action occurs in isolation.
4. The observer defines the phenomenological field, necessitating an
understanding of the observer's perspective.
5. Field approaches prioritize description over speculation,
interpretation, or categorization.
iv. Unfinished business (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
1. Feelings from past memories or fantasies that remain unspoken
and persist into the present, obstructing the ability to connect with
others.
v. Impasses/blockages (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Impasses or blockages may come from behaviors not aligned with
a person’s true nature, stop people from experiencing reality, and
lead to dysfunction.
2. Introjection involves absorbing the values of significant others
without personal examination, leading to outward alignment with
 these values while feeling incongruent internally. Sometimes,
nonverbal cues reveal this internal conflict.
3. Projection occurs when one attributes their own qualities to others,
enabling self-deception and avoiding self-acknowledgment.
Retroflection is like inhibiting impulses toward others, redirecting
them inward, often resulting in physical tension as emotions are
held back.
4. Desensitization is numbing the senses to avoid experiences,
contrasting with retroflection. It's akin to appearing unemotional or
in complete control.
5. Deflection is the act of avoiding contact with others through tactics
like changing topics, excessive politeness, or rudeness, hindering
genuine interaction.
6. Egotism is excessive self-focus that hinders real connections with
others, preventing genuine contact even when two individuals are
present.
7. Confluence blurs boundaries between individuals, leading to a loss
of personal identity and a failure to distinguish "self" from "other."
It's the result of an overly fused sense of identity.
vi. Need satisfaction cycle (Neukrug, 2018):
1. The cycle begins with a "zero point" or withdrawal phase, where
the individual is calm. They then transition to a new sensation,
become aware of an associated need, plan for it, take action, make
contact with the object to fulfill the need, experience satisfaction,
and return to the withdrawal stage. This cycle encapsulates the
process of need satisfaction.
IV. Nature of Maladjustment (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
a. According to Gestalt therapy, anxiety and maladjustment stem from a variety of
factors, including the paradoxical theory of change, which suggests that
attempting to become someone one is not can perpetuate the same issues. These
issues also result from the inability to connect with the present moment, often
influenced by backgrounds rooted in impoverished environments. Additionally,
anxiety and maladjustment can be linked to the presence of neuroses, where
neurotic self-regulation, rather than healthy organismic self-regulation, is
regarded as a creative adaptation to past hardships that weren't properly addressed
when the individual's environment changed. Furthermore, cognitive processes that
involve excessive futurizing and unsupported breathing contribute to these issues.
V. How clients change according to the theory (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
a. The client changes by experiencing an increase in self-knowledge, fostering self-
acceptance, and achieving growth through deep engagement with their current
existence. This transformation involves a shift towards focusing on the Here-and-
Now, as opposed to fixating on what "should be, could be, or was." The client's
focus also extends to their present needs, wishes, goals, and values. In this
process, they learn to manage anxiety by altering their thought patterns toward the
present moment and improving their breathing, which enhances body awareness.
VI. Role and activity of the Counselor
a. Therapeutic goal (Neukrug, 2018):
i. The goal of therapy is to move the client from little to no awareness of
self, where one is ineffective in responding to needs and struggles taking
responsibility, to a healthier state of being where they are self-aware,
understand and respond to needs in the moment, and is able to be
responsible for themselves.
b. Relationship with client (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
i. The client-counselor relationship involves direct engagement, an active
partnership, and a commitment to experimentation. While there can be
confrontation in the therapeutic relationship, it is less prevalent nowadays.
The primary objective of this relationship is to establish contact with each
other without passing judgment.
c. Major techniques used (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Empathy: used to fortify the therapeutic relationship and help the
counselor understand the client and their phenomenological view of the
world.
ii. Being directive: when the counselor decides to use specialized techniques
in a guiding manner depending on the client’s needs.
iii. Being confrontational: when the counselor directly addresses parts of the
client’s life that block them from experiencing, is manipulative, or is
disconnected from their true identity.
iv. Avoiding intellectualizations: when the counselor encourages the client to
stop avoiding their experiences by only thinking about them and help
direct them to actually feel and engage with their experiences.
v. Focusing on nonverbal behaviors: because the theory believes that
unresolved and unintegrated experiences can be revealed in our nonverbal
behavior, the counselor needs to focus on the client’s implicit behavior and
draw attention to it and its meaning.
vi. Experimenting: the creative and spontaneous generating of different
techniques that are adaptive to the client with the general goal of
deepening the client’s self-understanding.
1. Specialized techniques come from experimenting and include the
following: using ‘now’ language, I-Thou communication
(roleplaying), I-It language, experiencing the present, not
gossiping, making statements out of questions, the dialogue game
and empty chair technique, I take responsibility for that, playing
the projection, exaggeration technique, feeding the client a
sentence, ‘I have a secret’, making the rounds, and dream work.
d. Use of diagnosis and appraisal (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
i. No strict view of diagnosis or appraisal as the person’s individual
awareness and their personal journey is more important than any
assessment.
e. Evaluation of client progress (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
i. For the theory, client progress is assessed by how far along they are in
their journey toward awareness and health, their ability to interact with
 what is happening in their person-environment field, and their
development of maturity and creativity in their way of being.
ii. Progress is also measured by how they progress through the following
layers:
1. The cliche layer: This represents typical behavior in everyday
small talk, often involving insincere responses.
2. The role-playing or phony layer: In this layer, individuals adopt
personas to avoid genuine contact, including the "topdog" and
"underdog" aspects.
3. The impasse layer: It's when one realizes they've been living a
false existence, leading to anxiety and self-questioning.
4. The implosion layer: Individuals fear not being loved if they reveal
their true selves, often leading to self-deadening.
5. The explosive/authentic layer: The ultimate goal, where
individuals allow themselves to feel truly alive, experiencing
emotions and reconnecting with authenticity. This is the layer of
true experience and self-expression.
VII. Populations for which the theory is and is not applicable:
a. Gestalt therapy is more effective and more applicable for those who are relatively
higher functioning but still struggle with the following: neuroticism,
perfectionism, rigidity, depression, and phobias (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint).
b. Gestalt therapy, with its emphasis on new learning experiences and challenging
cultural and behavioral norms, may not be well-suited for some populations.
Particularly, individuals from non-Western cultures, where emotional expression
may not be a priority and collectivist values emphasizing deference to others
prevail, could feel uncomfortable with this approach. Additionally, those who are
not comfortable with delving into forgotten memories, feelings, and thoughts may
also find Gestalt therapy challenging. While the approach may not be ineffective,
it may require significant adaptation when working with these populations
(Neukrug, 2018).
VIII. Research on the theory (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Gestalt therapy's holistic nature poses challenges for research, making it difficult
to measure elusive concepts such as "the whole person." Nevertheless, some
research, including meta-analyses, has been conducted, indicating the following:
Gestalt therapy is generally effective and at least as satisfying as behavioral or
cognitive therapy. It shows promise in reducing depression and anxiety, and the
empty chair technique proves useful for addressing anger, unfinished business,
decision-making, and simple phobias. Furthermore, it appears more effective than
empathic reflections in enhancing depth of experiencing, awareness shifts, and
conflict resolution. Preliminary evidence suggests that Gestalt group therapy
might be helpful for individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD).
However, research in this area is limited, and more studies are needed to evaluate
the approach's effectiveness with diverse populations.
IX. Limitations and Criticisms (Gestalt Theory PowerPoint)
a. Criticized for being too confrontational,
b. Not enough emphasis on cognitive processes and psychoeducation.
 c. Can be too focused on using techniques.
d. Limited in that counselor has to be relatively highly developed as far as their
personality is formed.
X. Personal Insight
a. For gestalt therapy, I can certainly appreciate how some of its principles resonate
with real-life experiences. Avoiding taking responsibility and seeking to fulfill our
need cycle are aspects that many people can relate to. However, I have some
reservations. I find that gestalt therapy can be too confrontational, which does not
really suit my therapy style. Additionally, I think that the theory relies too much
on the number of different techniques that if they are prioritized may not arise
naturally. In general, I can respect the theory, but I found little I would want to use
personally.

Existential Psychotherapy (Neukrug, 2018)

I. Founder of theory and current leaders (PPT)
a. Founder: Rollo May
i. Viktor Frankl
ii. Jim Bugental
iii. Irvin Yalom
b. Current Leaders (PPT):
i. Alfried Langle
ii. Orah Krug
iii. Kirk Schneider
iv. Emmy van Deurzen
v. Erik Craig
II. Major philosophical and antecedent influences of the theory
a. Philosophical Stance (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Free will vs. Determinism
1. Very anti-deterministic and believes in the freedom of the
individual to choose to define or redefine themselves. Believes that
client is fully capable of change.
ii. Holistic vs. Atomistic view of humans
1. Is holistic in that the focus is on the person as a whole and how the
internal parts work together, rather than being reductionistic.
iii. Phenomenological vs. Objective reality
1. Focused on phenomenological reality because the client’s
subjective experience is crucial to understanding the client’s
internal truth. Objective reality exists, but it is filtered through
subjective experiences.
III. Personality Development
a. Nature of humans (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Humans are born neutral in nature.
ii. Beliefs about human nature:
1. “We are born into a world that has little inherent meaning.
2. We are born alone and we will die alone.
3. We alone make our lives meaningful.
 4. We bring meaningfulness into our lives through the choices that we
make.
5. Meaningful choices only occur if we are conscious of our
aloneness and our limited time on earth.
6. Anxiety, feelings of dread, and struggles in life are a natural part of
living and are important messages about how we make meaning in
our lives and how we relate to others.
7. Limited freedom is experienced through the realization that we
choose our existence.
8. With recognition that we choose our existence comes the
responsibility to choose wisely for ourselves and to recognize how
those choices affect those close to us and all people” (Neukrug,
2018, pp. 165).
b. Role of the Environment (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Being in a safe environment where people can interact with their truest
and most authentic self is the key to finding harmony and self-
actualization.
c. Major developmental, personality, and learning constructs
i. In general, childhood development is not important to therapy.
ii. Stages of development (PPT):
1. Innocence: A state of neutrality where we, like other animals,
pursue our needs without inherent moral judgment.
2. Rebellion: The desire for freedom while hesitating to embrace the
responsibilities that come with it.
3. Ordinary: Adherence to conventional norms and the embrace of
traditional values and conformity.
4. Creative: Embracing one's destiny and confronting anxiety with
bravery.
iii. “We exist in multiple ways
1. Umwelt (being-in-nature)
2. Mitwelt (being-with-others)
3. Eigenwelt (being-for-oneself)
4. Uberwelt (being-with-cosmos)” (Existential PowerPoint).
iv. Mechanisms to avoid responsibility (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Compulsivity: becoming overwhelmed by an activity that distracts
one from existential anxiety.
2. Displacement: placing problems onto others to avoid responsibility
(i.e. projection, psychosomatic illnesses, blaming, etc.)
3. Playing the victim: identifying with the role of victim to avoid
existential guilt around an event
4. Losing control: blaming the losing sanity or temper to avoid taking
responsibility
5. Avoiding autonomy: feeling unmotivated or stuck to avoid making
choices
6. Willing-denial: deny the possibility of choice (i.e. self numbing,
fantasy world, denial, etc.)
 7. Physical disease: self-created disease (maybe from stress) that
takes away responsibility
v. Isolation (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Feeling alone either physically or internally where one separates
out parts of oneself.
2. Existential isolation: realizing ones existential loneliness in that we
are alone at birth and death
vi. Anxiety (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Existential anxiety: anxiety from experiencing feelings of
loneliness, meaninglessness, and fearing death.
2. Neurotic anxiety: fear from the defense mechanisms that form to
avoid existential anxiety.
vii. Guilt (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Neurotic/moral guilt: feeling remorse from bad behavior toward
self or others.
2. Existential guilt: feeling remorse after surpassing neurotic guilt
where one is sad about not fulfilling one’s potential because of
existential anxiety.
IV. Nature of Maladjustment (PPT):
a. For existential therapy, maladjustment is primarily rooted in dishonesty, which
serves as the foundation of psychopathology. This dishonesty results in the
exclusion of certain aspects of our conscious awareness, giving rise to existential
anxiety and the risk of our deception being revealed. This process further leads to
the development of neurotic anxiety, characterized by an inauthentic response to
one's existence. As neurotic anxiety intensifies, individuals tend to act upon this
anxiety, giving rise to psychopathological symptoms. Often, maladjustment in
existential therapy is associated with an overemphasis on one level of being, a
lack of consciousness, and a pervasive sense of inauthenticity.
V. How clients change according to the theory (PPT):
a. In existential therapy, the process of change unfolds through the understanding
that the therapeutic relationship is inherently 'curative.' It is rooted in the belief
that authentic transformation can only occur in the present moment. The
therapeutic relationship is constructed on the foundation of being together, and it
embodies the principles of authenticity, equality, and an I-Thou relationship.
VI. Role and activity of the Counselor
a. Relationship with client
i. The therapeutic relationship is vital to existential therapy in that this equal
and collaborative relationship allows the client to feel safe enough to
access their real self (Neukrug, 2018).
ii. Counselor must keep in mind the following four dimensions of a
counseling encounter (PPT):
1. Self (client), self (counselor), relationship (client-counselor), and
cosmological.
b. Major techniques used (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Dialectical method: an open dialogue between counselor and client that is
respectful and accepting to allow for philosophical discourse.
 ii. Educating about existential therapy philosophy: psychoeducation can help
the client learn more about the theory and themselves as well as open the
client up to discussing the relevant topics.
iii. Developing an authentic relationship: the free-flowing back and forth
between the client and counselor that is very authentic and allows the
client to feel accepted as a person not an object.
iv. Listening, showing empathy, being nonjudgmental, acceptance, and
inquiring: various interventions that come from valuing the client’s
phenomenological perspective so their inner world can be understood
v. Confrontation: challenging the client with various degrees of severity to
bring awareness to inconsistencies in the client’s life through questions
vi. Encouragement: praise client’s growth so they can continue
vii. Paradoxical intention: try to make the client’s symptom occur so they can
learn to reduce their occurrence
viii. De-reflection: also known as refocusing, is when the counselor guides the
client to avoid over-focusing on an issue and develop a deeper existence.
c. Use of diagnosis and appraisal (Neukrug, 2018)
i. The existential approach does not emphasize techniques, let alone
diagnosis or appraisal. In fact, existential therapy does not focus on
symptom reduction or curing a diagnosis, rather it focuses on how the
symptoms of a what might be a diagnosis hold meaning in the client’s life.
ii. Techniques and assessments “…might only succeed in 'technologising' or
'operationalising' [its] practice, thereby limiting it to a rigid set of
techniques, which in turn, severely contradict its aim” (Neukrug, 2018, p.
176).
iii. Counseling goals:
1. “Increase authenticity
2. Balance 3 levels of being
3. Acceptance of existential anxiety
4. Increase in consciousness
5. Willing – moving from responsibility to creative action” (PPT).
d. Evaluation of client progress (PPT):
i. For existential therapy, client progress can be assessed, but it cannot be
easily measured due to the highly individualized nature of human
experience. However, a notable indicator of progress is the alleviation of
symptoms, particularly regarding neurotic anxiety, which serves as an
encouraging sign. Ultimately, the therapeutic journey aims to lead the
client towards existential reconciliation and a sense of hopefulness.
VII. Populations for which the theory is and is not applicable (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Appropriate Population for Existential Therapy:
i. Existential therapy is appropriate for clients from diverse ethnicities,
cultural backgrounds, and sociological practices. The therapy
acknowledges that a person's worldview is shaped by their cultural and
social context. Existential therapists work to understand and respect the
influence of a client's ethnicity, culture, and sociological experiences on
their perception of the world.
 ii. Existential therapy is suitable for clients who are open to self-reflection
and exploring their own beliefs and values. It is particularly beneficial for
individuals who are willing to examine their spirituality, personal value
system, and their impact on society. Existential therapy encourages self-
awareness and responsibility for one's choices.
b. Not Appropriate Population for Existential Therapy:
i. Existential therapy may not be suitable for clients who hold extremely
rigid and unchanging beliefs, especially if these beliefs are highly
dogmatic and resistant to self-reflection.
ii. Existential therapy generally operates from a relativist perspective,
respecting the individual's personal truths rather than relying on absolute
moral or religious truths. Clients who are seeking clear-cut moral or
religious guidance or are looking for therapy aligned with specific
religious teachings may not be the best fit for existential therapy.
VIII. Research on the theory (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Existential therapy does not focus on symptom reduction but rather on
understanding the meaning that symptoms may hold in a person's life. This makes
it difficult to identify specific outcome measures for research, as the therapy aims
to address abstract goals such as conscious living, wise choices, and finding
personal meaning.
b. Research in existential therapy is further complicated by the considerable
variation in how the approach is delivered. Clients in existential therapy may
replace neurotic symptoms with what are considered healthier symptoms, making
it nearly impossible to measure such changes as traditional progress.
c. Despite the challenges in measuring outcomes, research suggests that existential
therapy is associated with positive outcomes, such as increased authenticity, a
strong therapeutic alliance, and enhanced empathy. It also shows potential
efficacy for individuals coping with serious diseases, trauma, and a range of
psychological issues. However, more research is needed to fully understand the
effectiveness of existential therapy.
IX. Limitations and Criticisms (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Existential therapy's focus on abstract goals and meaning-making makes it
difficult to measure and assess its effectiveness using traditional outcome
measures. This limitation raises questions about the therapy's empirical support
and objective evaluation.
b. The considerable variation in how existential therapy is delivered can be seen as a
limitation, as it can lead to challenges in standardizing the therapy and assessing
its consistency. This variability may also make it challenging to draw clear
conclusions about the therapy's efficacy and application.
c. While some positive findings and potential applications are mentioned, the
excerpt also acknowledges that research on the effectiveness of existential therapy
has been limited. This limitation suggests that there is a lack of comprehensive
empirical evidence to support its outcomes and impact, potentially making it less
well-established compared to other therapeutic approaches.
X. Personal Insight
a. In general, I agree with this theory in that our society is orchestrated to avoid
anxiety around existence and death. I also agree that many of the defense
mechanisms in the theory definitely happen. I also believe that if these kinds of
issues are relevant, perhaps during a transition or toward the end of ones life,
these techniques could be helpful. However, I am pretty skeptical about its
universality to apply to all clients and I tend to disagree that the only way for a
client to get better is in a therapeutic relationship.