Human milk, also known as breast milk, is the natural milk produced by lactating mothers that best

nourishes their infants. It is a highly complex fluid that provides the ideal nutrition and bioactive
components required for optimal infant growth, development, and well-being. Its specialized
composition can modify the function of the infant’s GI tract, immune system, and in brain development.
Human milk is produced in the mammary glands of the breast in response to hormonal changes during
pregnancy and lactation. Lactation requires the breast to change in composition, size, and shape during
each stage of female development.

Mothers’ own milk is considered to be the best source of infant nutrition [1]. Extensive evidence has
shown that breast milk contains a variety of bioactive agents that modify the function of the
gastrointestinal tract and the immune system, as well as in brain development. Thus, breast milk is
widely recognized as a biological fluid required for optimal infant growth and development.

Human milk composition is dynamic and varies throughout lactation to meet the changing needs of the
growing infant. It contains a balanced combination of macronutrients, including carbohydrates
(primarily lactose), proteins (such as lactoferrin, casein, and whey proteins), and fats (comprising
essential fatty acids). The concentration of these components can vary depending on the stage of
lactation and the individual's nutritional status.

In addition to macronutrients, human milk is rich in bioactive components that contribute to the infant's
health and development. These include antibodies, immune cells, enzymes, growth factors, hormones,
cytokines, and other protective compounds. These bioactive factors help support the infant's immune
system, promote healthy digestion, facilitate organ development, and provide protection against
infections and diseases.

Human milk is uniquely tailored to meet the specific needs of human infants. Its composition is
influenced by various factors such as maternal diet, genetics, health, and environmental factors.
Breastfeeding is recommended as the optimal method of infant feeding, providing numerous short-term
and long-term health benefits for both the infant and the mother.

Cow milk refers to the milk produced by female cows, typically of the species Bos taurus. Dairy cattle
have been specifically bred and raised for milk production. Currently, the best dairy cows are capable of
producing over 30 000 kg of milk in a single lactation. The ability of dairy cattle to produce large
quantities of milk depends on their ability to partition nutrients and body reserves toward milk
production and away from other biological processes. In early lactation, the energy requirements for
milk production increase rapidly and are greatest during peak lactation (4–6 weeks after calving).
The composition of cow milk is different from human milk and is specifically designed to meet the
nutritional needs of calves. It contains a balance of macronutrients, including carbohydrates (primarily
lactose), proteins (such as casein and whey proteins), and fats (comprising various fatty acids). The exact
composition can vary slightly depending on factors such as the breed of cow, diet, and stage of lactation.

Cow milk also contains a range of vitamins, minerals, and other bioactive components. These include
calcium, vitamin D, phosphorus, potassium, riboflavin, vitamin B12, and other nutrients. However, it's
important to note that the amounts and availability of these nutrients can vary depending on factors
such as the cow's diet and farming practices.

Due to the differences in composition between cow milk and human milk, it is not considered a suitable
substitute for human milk for infants. Cow milk can be consumed by humans of all ages and is commonly
used for drinking, as an ingredient in various food products (such as cheese, yogurt, and butter), and as a
base for dairy alternatives such as milk substitutes made from soy, almond, or other plant-based
sources.

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