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2022

Understanding Motivation to Learn English: A Comparison of Urban and

Rural Students at a Saudi Arabian University
Sami Almansour

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 i

Understanding Motivation to Learn English: A Comparison of

Urban and Rural Students at a Saudi Arabian

University

Sami Almansour

This thesis is presented as part of the requirement for the conferral of the degree

Doctor of Philosophy (Education)

University of Wollongong

School of Education

March 2022
 ii

Abstract

Proficiency in English is an important component of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030. While

upholding Arabic language, the Saudi Arabia (SA) government is reforming the educational

system to improve students’ achievements. Explicitly stated in the Vision is a clause

dedicated to uplifting the educational standards to enable SA to compete with the world on an

equal footing. Although there is no explicit plan to improve English instruction, there is

increasing need to teach English for competitive innovation and for considering national

reform initiatives in an increasingly global world. The Saudi government has spent billions of

dollars offering incentives to international institutions to enter into partnerships with SA

universities enabling them to offer joint programmes in undergraduate and postgraduate

studies. Despite the aspirations of the government, Saudi students’ English language

proficiency remains slower to develop. Some studies in other jurisdictions have attributed the

lack of English proficiency to low motivation. This thesis addresses the problem of low

motivation in the SA context. It reports on a mixed-methods investigation of motivational

factors that affect language learning in urban and rural SA contexts; exploring the potential

that rurality is related to motivation.

To undertake the quantitative study, the researcher administered questionnaires to 233

university learners using a version of Gardner’s (2001) International Attitude/Motivation Test

Battery (IAMTB) adapted by Makrami (2010) and translated into Arabic language.

Quantitative data was analysed utilising multiple regression analyses and t-tests. To

complement the dataset, semi-structured interviews were undertaken with six teachers and 16

students participated in one of five focus group discussions. The qualitative data was
 iii

transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis to explore salient themes and issues

emerging from students’ and teachers’ perspectives.

The findings suggest that whilst there is a strong correlation between eagerness to learn

English and instrumental motivation, urban students are more motivated compared to rural

students. It seems urban students’ exposure to better job opportunities and limited

occupations in rural SA requiring English were largely responsible for these differences.

Building on these findings, this study developed novel insights into English as a Foreign

Language (EFL); adding to the existing conceptual model. Like Gardner’s (1985, 2001,

2005) Motivation Theory, the model proposed in the current study has the same three main

components: motivation, integrativeness, and attitudes toward the learning situation.

However, the current model adapts Gardner’s (2001) model to include ‘parental

encouragement’ within ‘other support’ thereby expanding its cultural sensitivity and

relevance.

Based on both the quantitative and qualitative data, students also perceived their peers and

teachers to have a positive influence on their learning. While students thought peers were

highly influential in their motivation, their intrinsic motivation appears to be facilitated by

their teachers’ provision of psychological support, relevant teaching activities, and a friendly

attitude. Overall, this thesis is significant because it provides essential information for

educators, practitioners, and policy makers who influence EFL learning outcomes and

provides in-depth and well-rounded understanding of the EFL motivational learning

processes and teaching practices in the Saudi Arabian context; helping fill a gap in current

knowledge about important contemporary developments in SA and how best to support them.
 iv

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to my family for their patience and support for me to complete this PhD project

successfully. I am also thankful to all those who helped me, and I wish them success in their

lives.

There are a few notable people who I would really like to mention. I am very thankful to my

main supervisor, Dr Elisabeth Duursma, for her continuous support and thought-provoking

guidance and highly constructive feedback. Elisabeth continuously guided, supported, and

encouraged me throughout my PhD journey. Associate Professor Irina Verenikina, my

supervisor until December 2020 – I am very grateful for her extraordinary support and

productive feedback. Dr Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan not only offered her personal

guidance, but she also suggested necessary research skills which contributed considerably to

the completion of this PhD. Last, but not least, it was due to Associate Professor Pauline

Jones’ help that I managed to complete my thesis. Under the guidance of all my supervisors, I

was able to understand the qualitative and quantitative methodology relevant to my research.

Thank you all and I really enjoyed my PhD journey with my supervisory team.

I am also especially thankful to my mother, as she always asked about my studies and health.

I am also particularly thankful to my wife and children, who were always by my side. My

little children sacrificed so much to live with me and continue their studies at times alone

while I was working on my thesis. My wife, who was always supportive, I am forever

grateful as she also took care of the children in my absence. Thank you all. Great thanks to

my participants at Shaqra University and colleagues who spared their time to help me.
 v

Certification

I, Sami Almansour, declare that this thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for

the conferral of the degree Doctor of Philosophy (Education), from the University of

Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. This

document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution.

Date ………………………………………….
 vi

Abbreviations

EAL English as Another Language

EALD English as an Additional Language or Dialect

EFA Exploratory Factor Analysis

EFL English as a Foreign Language

EGP English for General Purposes

EM Extrinsic Motivation

ESL English as a Second Language

ESOL English for Speakers of Other Languages

ETEC Education and Training Evaluation Commission

ESP English for Specific Purposes

EWL English as a World Language

IAMTB International Attitude/Motivation Test Battery

IM Intrinsic Motivation

L2 Second Language

MoE Ministry of Education

SA Saudi Arabia

SDT Self-Determination Theory

SGAS Saudi General Authority for Statistics

 vii

Glossary of Key Terms

Extrinsic motivation Becker (2008) defines extrinsic motivation as one’s psychological

behavior that is compelled by external rewards such as grades, praise,

money, and fame. This type of motivation arises from outside the

individual, as opposed to intrinsic motivation which originates from

inside the individual. With student learning in mind, extrinsic

motivators take the forms of “prizes, grades, test scores, vocations,

college,” as well as praise (Ginsberg, 2005, p. 220)

Integrative motivation According to Gardner (2001), “the integratively motivated

individual is the one who is motivated to learn the second language,

has a desire or willingness to identify with the other language

community, and tends to evaluate the learning situation positively” (p.

9). This is the same definition used in this study.

Intrinsic motivation When a student completes an activity because of its inherent

satisfaction and not for a separable consequence (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Motivation Defined by Gardner (1985) as “the extent to which the individual

works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and

the satisfaction experienced in this activity” (p. 10). The same

defination is adopted in this study.

Rural university is an institution of higher education that is located in a rural area and

serves primarily rural communities offering a range of academic

programs and courses, including undergraduate and graduate degree

programs, and “builds new combinations of knowledge in co-

 viii

production with local actors to meet the specific and unique needs of

the region” (Charles, 2016, p. 764). The main focus is on fields that are

relevant to rural communities such as agriculture, natural resources,

environmental studies, education, healthcare, and business. They play

an important role in providing educational and economic opportunities

to rural communities, contributing to the development and growth of

rural regions with an “explicit notion that the mission of the university

includes “actively engaged in the economic development of the local

and regional areas in which they are located” (Uyarra, 2010, p.1229).

Urban university is a higher education institution situated in a major urban location, with

a significant population of commuting students. Its educational

offerings encompass a diverse range of undergraduate, graduate, and

professional programs, thereby fostering greater accessibility to higher

education for students residing in urban communities. By

implementing educational, research, and service initiatives tailored to

the urban environment, an urban university demonstrates its

commitment to the local community, and strives to address the unique

challenges faced by its constituents (Martinez-Brawley, 2003, p.7).

Both urban and rural universities receive equal funding, and

undergraduate education is provided free of charge, without any

discrepancies.
 ix

Table of Contents

Abstract .....................................................................................................................................ii

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. iv

Certification .............................................................................................................................. v

Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................... vi

Glossary of Key Terms ..........................................................................................................vii

List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... xv

List of Figures .......................................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background Information ............................................................................................. 1

1.2 Overview of Saudi Arabia ........................................................................................... 2

1.2.1 Population, other Relevant Demographics and Context ..................................... 2

1.2.2 Latest Political Changes in SA: Saudi Vision 2030 ............................................. 7

1.3 EFL Teaching in SA .................................................................................................... 8

1.3.1 Historical Context ................................................................................................ 8

1.3.2 Possible Reasons for Inadequate Progress in English Proficiency ................... 11

1.4 The Current Study ..................................................................................................... 18

1.4.1 Motivation .......................................................................................................... 18

1.4.2 Purpose .............................................................................................................. 20

1.4.3 Significance ........................................................................................................ 21

 x

1.4.4 Research Questions............................................................................................ 22

1.5 Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................... 22

1.5.1 English as a Foreign Language (EFL), Second Language (ESL), and Other

Related Concepts ............................................................................................................. 22

1.5.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation ..................................................................... 25

1.6 Structure of the Thesis............................................................................................... 27

Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................... 29

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 29

2.2 Conceptualisations of Motivation ............................................................................. 30

2.3 Studies on Motivation of EFL Learners .................................................................... 34

2.3.1 Motivation for Listening and Speaking .............................................................. 41

2.3.2 Motivation for Reading and Writing .................................................................. 50

2.3.3 Affective Variables which Motivate Students ..................................................... 64

2.4 Studies on Students’ EFL Motivation in Arab Countries ......................................... 70

2.5 Motivation to Learn EFL in SA ................................................................................ 78

2.6 Differences Among Urban and Rural Students ......................................................... 85

2.7 Summary of Factors Influencing English Language Learning ................................. 92

2.8 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 94

Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................... 97

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 97

3.1.1 Setting the Scene ................................................................................................ 97

 xi

3.1.2 Overview of Self-Determination Theory and Motivation Theory ...................... 98

3.2 Self-Determination Theory ....................................................................................... 99

3.2.1 Summative Schema............................................................................................. 99

3.2.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation ................................................................... 105

3.3 SDT and its relationship to the urban and rural cohorts .......................................... 108

3.4 Gardner’s (1985) Motivation Theory ...................................................................... 109

3.4 Gardner’s (1985) Motivation Theory and its relationship to the urban and rural

cohorts ................................................................................................................................ 114

3.5 Researcher’s Model of Motivational Factors .......................................................... 115

3.5.1 Summarising Links Between the Literature and Models ................................. 115

3.5.2 Building on Previous Knowledge: Other Supports .......................................... 119

3.6 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 122

Chapter 4: Methodology...................................................................................................... 123

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 123

4.1.1 Overview .......................................................................................................... 123

4.1.2 Study Context ................................................................................................... 125

4.2 Research Design ...................................................................................................... 126

4.2.1 The Need for a Mixed Methods Approach ....................................................... 126

4.2.2 Addressing the Research Questions ................................................................. 128

4.3 Participants .............................................................................................................. 133

4.3.1 Students ............................................................................................................ 133

 xii

4.3.2 Teachers ........................................................................................................... 138

4.4 Data Collection Methods ......................................................................................... 138

4.4.1 Questionnaire for Students .............................................................................. 138

4.4.2 Focus Groups with Students ............................................................................ 140

4.4.3 Interviews with Teachers ................................................................................. 142

4.4.3.1 Open-ended Questions, Probes and Prompts used in the Interviews with

Teachers ......................................................................................................................... 143

4.4.4 Pilot Study ........................................................................................................ 145

4.5 Methodology for Data Analysis .............................................................................. 146

4.5.1 Principles and Procedures for Quantitative Data Analysis ............................ 146

4.5.2 Procedures for Qualitative Data Transcription and Analysis ......................... 148

4.5.3 Strategies for Merging The Quantitative and Qualitative Data Sets ............... 149

4.6 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 151

Chapter 5: Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data ........................................... 152

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 152

5.1.1 Opening Context .............................................................................................. 152

5.1.2 Overview of the Research Questions and Research Procedures ..................... 152

5.2 Main Themes that Emerged from the Data ............................................................. 154

5.2.1 Importance of English ...................................................................................... 155

5.2.2 Specific Benefits from Learning English.......................................................... 157

5.2.3 Value of the Role of Teachers and Classroom Learning Strategies ................ 162
 xiii

5.2.4 Impact of Peers ................................................................................................ 167

5.2.5 Important Role of Parents ................................................................................ 169

5.3 Perceptions of Teachers Regarding Motivation of Students ................................... 172

5.3.1 Teachers’ Years of Experience Teaching English ........................................... 172

5.3.2 Teacher Perceptions on Motivating Students .................................................. 172

5.3.3 Methods of Motivating Students....................................................................... 174

5.3.4 Class Activities for Students............................................................................. 175

5.3.5 Teacher Perceptions on the Curriculum .......................................................... 176

5.3.6 Teacher Perceptions of how Urban and Rural Students Differ in Motivation 177

5.4 Government policy, religion, and other cultural factors ......................................... 178

5.5 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 180

Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation of Quantitative Data......................................... 182

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 182

6.2 Participant Demographics ....................................................................................... 183

6.3 Questionnaire .......................................................................................................... 184

6.4 Analysis ................................................................................................................... 184

6.4.1 Factor Analysis ................................................................................................ 184

6.4.2 Labelling and Analysis of Factors ................................................................... 194

6.5 Motivation and Performance Measures of Urban and Rural Learners.................... 195

6.6 Multiple Regression Analyses ................................................................................. 196

6.7 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 200

 xiv

Chapter 7: Discussion .......................................................................................................... 201

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 201

7.2 Summary of Key Findings ...................................................................................... 201

7.3 Specific Findings to the Three Research Questions ................................................ 202

7.3.1 RQ1: Do Urban and Rural Students Differ in Motivation? ............................. 202

7.3.2 RQ2: Can Teaching Methods Influence Motivation? ...................................... 209

7.3.3 RQ3: How do Lecturers and Peers Influence Students’ Motivation?.............. 214

7.4 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 228

Chapter 8: Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 231

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 231

8.2 Revisiting the Findings............................................................................................ 231

8.3 Contribution to the Revised Theoretical Framework .............................................. 232

8.4 Contribution to EFL Teaching Practice and Curriculum Design in SA .................. 235

8.5 Implications for universities and government ......................................................... 238

8.6 Limitations of the Thesis ......................................................................................... 240

8.7 Avenues for Future Research .................................................................................. 242

References ............................................................................................................................. 244

 xv

List of Tables

Table 1: Key Facts about Saudi Arabia ..................................................................................... 5

Table 2: Pronunciation Challenges Between Arabic and English ........................................... 15

Table 3: Three Views of Motivation ........................................................................................ 32

Table 4: Summary of EFL Studies Including Instruments and Findings................................. 36

Table 5: Key Issues Raised in the Reviewed Literature .......................................................... 92

Table 6: Seven Subtypes of Intrinsic and Extrinic Motivation (Vallerand & Bissonnette,

1992) ...................................................................................................................................... 107

Table 7: Links Between Key Themes in the Literature and Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005)

Socio-Educational Model....................................................................................................... 118

Table 8: Research Questions, Method of Data Collection, and Data Collected .................... 131

Table 9: Number Of Participants By Faculty/College ........................................................... 136

Table 10: Summary of Key Themes that Emerged from the Focus Groups .......................... 156

Table 11: Summary of Specific Factors that Motivate Students to Learn English ................ 158

Table 12: Summary Of Teacher-Related Factors That Increase Students’ Motivation To

Learn English ......................................................................................................................... 164

Table 13: Summary of Student Opinions on What Peers do to Motivate Them ................... 168

Table 14: Summary Of Ways Parents Encourage Students To Learn English ...................... 169

Table 15: Summary of Most Common Reasons for Disliking English ................................. 170

Table 16: Participants by Age, Location, and Access to their Marks .................................... 183

Table 17: Eigenvalues and Variance for Each of the 10 Retained Factors ............................ 186

Table 18: KMO and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Values...................................................... 187

Table 19: Varimax Rotation Component Matrix for Questionnaire Variables...................... 191
 xvi

Table 20: Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples T-Tests for Motivation of

Urban and Rural Learners ...................................................................................................... 196

Table 21: Regression on how Motivational Factors Predict English Performance Scores.... 199
 xvii

List of Figures

Figure 1: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia........................................................................................... 3

Figure 2: Schema of Self Determination Theory (Deci et al., 2000) ..................................... 101

Figure 3: Gardner’s (2000) Socio-Psychological Model ....................................................... 111

Figure 4: Sampling Procedures and Data Collection ............................................................. 135

Figure 5: Scree Plot of English Motivational Factors ............................................................ 190

Figure 6: Regression Standardised Residual Histogram ........................................................ 197

Figure 7: Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardised Residual .......................................... 198

Figure 8: Modified Gardner’s (2000) Socio-Psychological Model ....................................... 234

 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background Information

English language is used globally in the media, business, education, and social environments

(Rose and Galloway 2019). As a result, it is increasingly becoming invaluable for countries to

increase the English language competence of their students for them to fully participate in the

growing English language community worldwide (Enever, 2018). The rapid economic

growth in Gulf States, especially in Saudi Arabia, has been primarily driven by the petroleum

and gas industry, resulting in the influx of expatriates from various parts of the world to meet

the increasing demand for labour in these sectors as well as in construction and other

businesses. Since English is the main language in such international settings, it has always

been crucial for effective communication between Saudi nationals and expatriates. As today's

students will become tomorrow's co-workers or employers of expatriates, acquiring English

language skills is essential for them to participate and succeed in such international work

environments (Elyas & Picard, 2018). Graduating students who proceed to work in these

industries may face language barriers or challenges communicating in English (ibid.) if these

barriers are not obliterated. Thus, learning English can assist in promoting communication

with other employees (Picard, 2018).

Therefore, increasing English language proficiency seems to be of particular relevance to SA

as it is widely acknowledged that many SA students learning English are failing to obtain an

acceptable level of proficiency (Al-Shehri, 2020). Yet job satisfaction, better working

opportunities, increased professional advancement, and improved career have been associated

with English language proficiency (Arkoudis et al., 2009).

 2

What is really known about English as a Foreign Language (EFL) motivation in SA and what

can instructors do in class to motivate students? These questions are of considerable interest

to researchers, teachers, and students. Several studies have investigated these key questions

over the past five decades, but many remain unanswered. The focus of this thesis is on

exploring what motivates students to learn EFL, including the impact of strategies that

teachers use, and whether students perceive them as motivating. This thesis also pursues

perceptions of students and compares the accounts of students in urban and rural settings with

regard to their motivation to learn English. In undertaking these investigations, a mixed

methods design is utilised in order to triangulate quantitative and qualitative data.

Consistent with the above, the main aim of Chapter 1 is to introduce the current study. First,

an overview of the area where the study took place, Saudi Arabia, is presented. This is

followed by a section on the background to English language teaching in SA, the significance

of the study, and the research questions. This chapter concludes by providing the structure of

the remaining parts of the thesis.

1.2 Overview of Saudi Arabia

1.2.1 Population, other Relevant Demographics and Context

Saudi Arabia is located in the Southwest of Asia. It is bounded by seven countries and three

bodies of water. Toward the west, the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba form a coastal border

which extends to the southern part of Yemen. To the north, SA is bounded by Kuwait, Iraq,

and Jordan.

Figure 1 shows the map of the kingdom of SA.

 3

SA is the largest of the Arab countries with approximately 2.23 million square kilometres in

area (Arnolds, 2006). Most of the land is covered by one of the largest deserts in the world,

the Rub Al-khali or ‘Empty Quarter’ (Holbah, 2015). The population was 33,413,660 as at

the end of 2018, of which 37% are immigrants seeking economic opportunities (Saudi

General Authority for Statistics [SGAS], 2018). The majority of native Saudi Arabians are

Muslims and most of them, about 98%, are Arabs (Holbah, 2015). SA is the core place of

Islam practice as it has two holy mosques in Mecca and Medina; these two are considered the

holiest in Islam (Ross, 2021). Millions of Muslims from around the world converge in SA

annually to perform pilgrimage, which requires SA residents to speak the different languages

of visiting people, including English, in order to facilitate communication (Alkhannani,

2021).
 4

Figure 1: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Source: www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/middle-east/saudi-arabia/

Unlike most other countries, particularly in the Middle East and North Africa, SA has never

been under the control of a modern European power and hence has not had the impacts of

colonisation or missionary influence (Elyas & Picard, 2010). However, during the Roman

Empire, there was contact with a significant number of foreign traders due to trade in

aromatics, myrrh, and frankincense (Al-Rasheed, 2010). Areas of SA such as Mecca

continued to have contacts with foreign people, their languages, and cultures throughout this

period (Wynbrandt, 2010).

In terms of geographical divisions, SA has 13 provinces with most of the agricultural land

located in the southern province (Al-Jamhoor, 2005). Shaqra University where the current
 5

study was undertaken is headquartered in Shaqra, a town in central SA about 190 kilometres

north-west of the capital Riyadh. The university has various colleges geographically spread in

the largest area of SA covering several governorates and sub-governorates lying in the west

of Riyadh (Alotaibi, 2021).

Population growth in the Kingdom impacted upon age structure pressurising sectors such as

education and employment (Salam, 2013). The growth of population was a result of

pronatalist policies and the decision to declare the use of birth control in any form and under

any circumstance as contrary to the faith of Islam; in fact birth control is not practised

because it is contrary to Islamic beliefs (Salam, 2013) and hence is illegal. However, recently

birth rates have been falling as a result of increase in education and age at marriage (Alhusain

et al., 2018). The current Saudi 2030 Vision considers that contraception has a fundamental

role in reproductive health improvement and women’s empowerment (Lacalle-Calderon et

al., 2017).

Table 1 shows key facts about SA. Its size of population has expanded tremendously due to

natural increase and immigration (Rahman, 2018; Rahman & Alsharqi, 2019).

Table 1: Key Facts about Saudi Arabia

Description Total
Area (sq km) 2,149,690
Population (2018) 33,413,660
Median age (years) 29.9
GDP per capita, USD (2017) $54,500
Capital Riyadh
Religion Muslim
Age distribution (2017)
0-14 years 25.16%
15-64 years 71.54%
 6

65+ 3.3%

Note. Adapted from Saudi General Authority for Statistics (SGAS, 2018)

The SA economy has changed significantly since the oil boom days of the 1980s, resulting in

a very high Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita (Hasanov et al., 2022). Globally, SA is

the richest oil producer and a major exporter to many different countries around the world

(Nurunnabi, 2017). The exploitation of the huge natural oil resources has resulted in

increased interaction with English-speaking trading and political partners including countries

such as the United States and United Kingdom (Alrabai, 2016). This has increased the need

and value of learning English as it is crucial in business, politics, education, and science.

Currently, there are hundreds of foreign companies operating in SA with the highest

concentration in the petroleum industry and these companies employ thousands of workers

from various parts of the world (Hasanov et al., 2021). Most of the foreign employees speak

English, and consequently there is a greater need to learn and communicate in English.

Saudi citizens also require English to fully participate in other social and economic domains.

For example, English is a requirement for employment in most private businesses and other

government organisations such as in Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco). English

has also become a requirement to complete higher education in some majors at universities

such as in nursing, engineering, and medicine, and the medium of instruction in these courses

is English (El-Moussa, 2021).

With the availability of resources, SA has pursued the development of healthcare and

education services, subsidised prices for fuel and other commodities, supply of desalinated

water, and other forms of public benefits (Blazquez et al., 2017). With regard to education,

the main foundations of the higher education system in SA are based on the teaching of
 7

Islam. There is a centralised system of control and educational support with state funding

resulting in free education at all levels (Asquer & Alzahrani, 2019). Educational policies are

administered by the Ministry of Education (MoE), General Presidency of Girls’ Education,

and General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training (MoE, 2014).

The availability of free education allows Saudi students to study abroad in countries such as

Australia, Canada, Egypt, Jordan, UK, and USA, with the costs of education paid by the SA

government (Alhazmi & Kamarudin, 2021).

Within SA, the educational curriculums in schools are diverse. They include a variety of

subjects such as math, science, literature, history, Arabic, and Islamic studies (Alharbi, 2021).

The MoE sets overall standards and oversees the education system. All national primary

schools require children to pass a national examination at the end of Grade 6 of primary

school and obtain an Elementary Education Certificate before proceeding with further studies

(MoE, 2014). In high school, students take examinations which include English examinations

twice a year under the supervision of the MoE in order to proceed to the tertiary level (MoE,

2014). The national test includes the Territory-wide System Assessment (TSA) of basic

competency, administered at years 3 and 6 in each primary school and at year 3 in secondary

school. Objective data is obtained regarding students’ performances in Chinese language,

English language, and mathematics. Related to this is the teaching of English which appears

to be a key component of the current SA education system. In 2017, the MoE stated that its

vision was to build a Globally Competitive Knowledge-based Community (MoE, 2017).

Despite this implied promotion of English, the Ministry’s Vision documentation has its main

objective as building students’ Islamic, national, and intellectual identity in terms of

knowledge, skills, and values while the objective of enhancing local and international

partnerships is mentioned last. The suggestion here is the emphasis on Islamic and national
 8

values education underpinning all teaching in SA, including the teaching of English. Despite

government and industry encouragement during the past few decades to expand the teaching

of English, some segments of the community exhibit a reluctance or apprehension towards

learning the language (Elyas & Picard, 2010). The teaching of English has started in schools

from primary grade in the past couple of years and as a result of the Saudi Vision 2030

(discussed in next section). This may be interpreted as a One could perceive this as a

proactive step towards meeting the current economic demands for language proficiency in

present-day Saudi Arabia.

1.2.2 Latest Political Changes in SA: Saudi Vision 2030

Currently, the mastery of English is becoming ever more essential in SA given the country’s

Vision 2030 (Government of Saudi Arabia, 2022). Saudi Vision 2030 presents the country’s

three main long-term goals and expectations: 1) a vibrant society, 2) a thriving economy, and

3) an ambitious nation. This includes transitioning the Saudi economy from an over-reliance

on oil revenues to a more balanced, investment-based model. The National Transformation

Program (NTP), which flows from this model, sets out an ambitious roadmap for education

reform in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Alshuwaikhat & Mohammed, 2017). The success of

Saudi Vision 2030 largely depends on reforms in the education system. One of its key areas

is English language proficiency which would enable Saudis to learn and ultimately take over

from the huge number of expatriate workers in the country. Non-Arabic foreign expatriates in

SA mainly speak English (Alrashidi & Phan, 2015). It is anticipated that the approach would

generate a better basis for employment of young Saudis. The long-term plan of SA is to

attract and retain the finest Saudi and foreign minds and provide them with all they need in

terms of providing support for English language learning. The NTP emphasises a curriculum

focused on rigorous standards in English literacy (Alshuwaikhat & Mohammed, 2017).

 9

Moreover, large numbers of students come from rural areas. In terms of exposure to

languages other than Arabic and awareness of the linguistically-driven economic

opportunities, they may be less fortunate than urban counterparts. However, rural students’

desire to change their life circumstances for the better, particularly through education, may as

well be a reason for more English exposure. The current study examines motivational factors

that affect language learning in urban and rural SA contexts because geographic location is

presumed to be one such factor in need of deeper exploration.

With the proposal of SA’s Vision 2030, the government has realised the importance of

English language proficiency for Saudi students. This has resulted in Saudi students being

sent abroad to learn English in English-speaking environments successfully and contribute

toward English language development in SA (MoE, 2018).

1.3 EFL Teaching in SA

1.3.1 Historical Context

The teaching of English or any other foreign language in SA is relatively recent. During the

early history of education in SA, there was a general reluctance to teach English or any other

foreign language. The teaching of English as a foreign language is believed to have been

introduced into the SA educational system in 1928; a few years after the establishment of the

Directorate of Education in 1923 (Al-Seghayer, 2011). Only a handful of schools included

English in their curriculum and there were a limited number of hours allocated to its teaching

at all levels. In the Middle Eastern region, most Gulf States have had relatively similar

approaches in terms of how English is taught in primary and secondary schools. For example,

Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, SA, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates (UAE) all have similar

divisions of grades and hours of English language instruction (Kirkpatrick, 2016). As a result
 10

of a lack of exposure to English during the school years, low English language proficiency

exists in the Gulf States. However, in countries like Bahrain there is a higher percentage of

international students at universities which appears to mitigate this and facilitates

communication in English.

Exposure to English language in SA has been limited compared to other neighbouring

countries such as the UAE because of the relatively low number of foreigners or expatriates

working in the country. Although numbers of foreign workers in SA were the highest in the

Gulf States at 10.068 million in 2013 (Garavan et al., 2016), it was the lowest in terms of

percentages (32.7%) compared to Bahrain (51%), Kuwait (67.7%), Oman (43.7%), Qatar

(88%), and UAE (87%). In UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain foreigners make up the

majority of the population (Garavan et al., 2016). In contrast to other countries, SA does not

(currently) grant visas to visitors unless they are sponsored by their employers, therefore

Saudis have differential exposure to English depending on their contact with industries that

include expatriate workers and access to English medium media. Recently, tourist visas are

being issued for approved tour groups (Alkhaldi et al., 2022). Visas are mostly issued for

business travel, family visits, and religious tourism such as Umrah and Hajj visas (Ibrahim et

al., 2021). There are only five companies licensed to sponsor tourism visas (Ibrahim et al.,

2021).

The English language was gradually introduced in SA in the later part of the twentieth

century after the oil boom. Economically, English has become important for several reasons.

Knowledge of English is increasingly important to enable communication in the business

sector which has experienced a huge influx of foreigners. Working in multinational

companies forces local employees to communicate with foreigners in order to facilitate

commerce and knowledge exchange. In another context, to succeed academically, knowledge

 11

of English is a definite advantage. Knowing English enables students to have a broader range

of access to medical and scientific literature than if they only know Arabic. Therefore,

competency in English broadens the life opportunities for many Saudi people.

English is gradually being introduced in Saudi Arabian public life. For example, many

private companies and stores are encouraging English in a bid to use the language for

communication (Elyas, 2008). One of the Saudi government radio stations and its second TV

channel are in English (Alqarni, 2021). Although Arabic is the official language, English is

used in the country in many situations, for instance road signs and shop names in addition to

printed materials in many places like banks, airports, travel organisations, and post offices.

However, the current exposure to English is not yet extensive. Not all Saudis are able to

understand and speak the language. As a result, the upper and middle classes are keen to send

their children abroad to learn the English language (Elyas, 2008).

Speaking English remains a demanding task for many Saudi students because of very limited

time still allocated to teaching English language in classrooms. Saudi students spend at least

nine years learning the English language and yet they largely attain inadequate levels of

communication competence (Al-Nasser, 2015) because students study English only for a few

hours per week (Al-Seghayer, 2014). It is important to note that English language learning

was only included in the curriculum of primary schools in SA in 2003 (Elyas & Picard,

2010). Students in SA attend primary school for six years and then proceed to secondary

school for an additional six years. The English curriculum taught during these years is

centrally controlled by the MoE. At each grade level, English teachers are given an identical

syllabus with guidelines and deadlines they are required to follow. However, despite the

number of years of learning English during primary and secondary school the limited number

of hours allocated to classroom learning results in low level English language proficiency
 12

(Al-Seghayer, 2014). Hence, the approach or methods used (e.g., grammar

translation/communicative) to English language and lack of exposure or motivation may be

contributing factors to low English proficiency. Kirkpatrick (2016) and others (e.g.,

Aryadoust, 2017) have discussed these multiple factors including motivation and other

approaches which have been imported from Anglophone countries which sit uneasily

alongside local approaches to learning. These will be addressed further in Section 1.3.1

below.

Currently, the mastery of spoken English is becoming ever more essential in SA given the

country’s Vision 2030 (Bagley & Portnoi, 2014). In general, as stated by Faruk (2013), Saudi

nationals’ attitudes toward English language is highly positive as most believe it is

fundamental to the country’s future prosperity and is needed in various industries. Even

though such attitudes exist, English language proficiency and all other measures of English

language learning have not been satisfying in terms of nearing or fulfilling aspirations.

1.3.2 Possible Reasons for Inadequate Progress in English Proficiency

There are various constraints for students to attain proficiency in EFL. According to Faruk

(2013), EFL learners’ proficiency levels remain inadequate and below expectation. Research

attributes this to four major constraints: beliefs and attitudes; components of curriculum; and

pedagogical and administrative constraints (Faruk, 2013). These are discussed below.

1.3.2.1 Beliefs and Attitudes

Poor attitudes and low motivation hinder students’ learning progress. The use of Arabic as an

official language of the country is embedded in all communication from government

departments to the education system. The widespread use of Arabic as the primary medium
 13

of communication among Saudis has undermined the use and value of English among Saudi

students resulting in very poor attitudes (Al-Mashary, 2006; Alqahtani, 2011; Khan, 2011).

Alqahtani (2011) asserts that students think English is not useful for their social or academic

lives. Such attitudes contribute to poor performance in English. Alharbi (2021) adds that

Saudi students do not understand why they should make an effort to learn English when they

can use Arabic in any context. Zaid (1993) argues that since Saudi students believe there is

no need to learn English as it will not be required for increasing job opportunities or social

activities, they study English just to obtain the required exam score rather than as a tool they

would use for communication in their lifetime. In addition, students’ perception is that

English is not easy to learn (Al-Seghayer, 2014).

Limited time for instruction has also been identified as a factor hindering English proficiency.

SA policy on English language teaching in institutions of higher education is torn between

the strong desire to preserve the Arabic language and pressure caused by globalisation

requiring more access to international trade, politics, and commerce using English as a

medium of communication. This challenge is observed in the policy statement of the MoE

(formerly Ministry of Higher Education) that “Arabic is the language of instruction in

universities. Another language can be used if necessary; however, this should be made by a

decision from the council of the university concerned” (MHE, 1999, p. 17). Such

pronouncements limit the amount of time allocated to English at universities. The situation

has largely been the same at primary schools. English was first taught four times a week (45

min each session) in grades 4, 5, and 6 only (Zafer, 2002). English as a subject was

subsequently removed from the old education system (i.e., elementary school) and introduced

at both intermediate and secondary school levels leading to six 45-min sessions per week at

both intermediate and secondary school levels (Zafer, 2002). This was changed again in 1980
 14

to four 45-min sessions per week at both intermediate and secondary school levels (Zafer,

2002). The number of contact hours have not been changed since then. Despite these

developments, strong tensions exist because of the ambiguous rationale behind the teaching

of EFL in SA, its shaping/reshaping, and the extent to which current desires have been

satisfied. For example, many parents are resentful of their children being taught English

because they would want them to master Arabic in the early stages to enable them to read and

understand Arabic which is used in Islamic text such as the Holy Quran and Holy Hadeeth

(the sayings and heritage of the Prophet Mohamed peace be upon him). Such challenges

reduce the amount of time allocated to English; more time needs to be allocated for teaching

English (Al-Seghayer, 2014).

The negative emotions about the English language stem from anger, anxiety, hopelessness,

pride, boredom, and shame which have adversely contributed to Saudi EFL students’

achievement (Ismail, 2015; Sadiq, 2017). According to the researcher’s own teaching

experience, some EFL Saudi university students have shown different emotions toward

learning English. Most emotions are negative and involve nervousness, frustration, and

anxiety resulting in a low desire to learn. Some studies on English language learning in SA

have models and strategies related to causes and effects of anxiety (Koka et al., 2019). Saudi

EFL students have been found to experience very high levels of anxiety when asked to speak,

write, and read in English. This was found to have a demotivating effect on learners (Koka et

al., 2019). Students study English for a significant number of hours and any perceived lack of

meaningful progress contributes to negative emotions. EFL teachers often fail to create a

relaxing and welcoming environment in the classroom contributing to negative emotions

(Ismail, 2015). In such instances, students find the EFL classes boring and annoying (Ismail,

2015). It is possible that such negative emotions toward learning English will result in failure.
 15

Difficulties in learning English can also be traced to pronunciation challenges. For example,

Barros (2003) investigated obstacles hampering EFL students’ speaking proficiency and the

results revealed that Arabic youth struggled to pronounce eight English consonants. Table 2

has four of the eight difficult consonant sounds present in the Arabic Phonetic System. These

consonant segments are found in both English and Arabic but their phonetic realisation is

different. It was also noted in the study by Barros (2003) that an incorrect articulation of the

four phonemes is not likely to cause any miscommunication with English speakers, however

the exception was /ŋ/ and /d/ sounds which were recorded as causing 65 miscommunications

resulting in a foreign accent.

Two of the eight consonants which were identified in their study as causing problems in

pronunciation are not present in the standard Arabic Phonetic System. These are: /p/ and /v/.

Their counterparts, /b/ and /f/, are in the phonetic system and Arabic speakers have a

tendency of substituting these. The incorrect pronunciation of these two consonant sounds

produce a foreign accent and consequently lead to misinterpretation of meaning by speakers

of English.

Table 2: Pronunciation Challenges Between Arabic and English

Consonant in Found in the word Miscommunication Problems in

a
Arabic and English Problems pronunciationa
/ŋ/ ‘buying’ [bayɪŋ] Yes
/ɫ/ ‘civil’ [sɪvɪɫ] No
/d/ ‘bed’[bɛd] Yes
/r/ ‘risk’ [ɻɪsk] No
/p/ ‘play’ [pley] Yes
/v/ ‘five’ [fayv] Yes
/b/ Arabic speakers have a tendency of Yes
substituting the voiced bilabial /b/ for
the voiceless /p/
 16

/f/ Arabic speakers have a tendency of Yes

substituting the voiceless /f/ for the
voiced /v/

a – Summary of results from study by Barros (2003).

1.3.2.2 Components of Curriculum

The second (curriculum) constraint is inadequate and unstimulating teaching methods and

teaching resources. In the early 1990s, Zaid (1993) conducted a comprehensive analysis of

the practices of EFL teaching in SA schools to assess the effectiveness of the education

system. Using questionnaires and several on-site classroom observations, he examined the

EFL textbooks, teaching methods, and teacher preparation at government schools. He used a

questionnaire to obtain information from education supervisors in major cities of SA

(Dammam, Jeddah, and Riyadh), officials at the MoE, and EFL and language teachers. The

classroom questionnaires were complemented by observations in several areas across SA.

The main focus of the observations was mainly on the pedagogical approaches used by EFL

instructors in classes and learners’ attitudes to the approaches. The results revealed that EFL

classes were teacher-centred and that the audio-lingual method was the dominant teaching

practice.

A decade ago, a visitor to an English language classroom would have observed the absence of

any teaching aids (Shehdeh, 2010). In addition, schools were not provided with relevant

teaching resources such as wall charts, flash cards, posters, audio and visual aids, language

software, e-learning resources, a well-equipped language computer laboratory, and other

facilities (Shehdeh, 2010). As a result, Saudi EFL learners are not sufficiently exposed to

authentic reading and listening materials and their interest in learning English is not

stimulated. Some studies assert that students should have control over their own learning, and

this is achieved by promoting oracy, student-centred instruction, and cooperative learning

 17

(Khan et al., 2017; Łockiewicz, 2019). However, it is predicted that the impact of e-learning

and mobile technologies is likely to have an impact on EFL teaching with SA EFL teachers

likely to draw more on international resources and work in partnership with international

organisations to deliver English teaching (Picard, 2018). Another limitation of the curriculum

is that Saudi EFL learners are exposed to grammar, vocabulary, and reading passages but

have little exposure to communicative situations or communication functions and because of

this students are not required to actively use English in the classroom or outside it (Rehmand

& Alhaisoni, 2013).

The way in which students participate in class is crucial for EFL learning. Recently, Al-Ahdal

and Alharbi (2021) observed that EFL students in SA have, over the past decade, moved from

being reserved to active participants in a classroom environment. They state that changes in

the socioeconomic and political environment across the world have brought dependence on

English for facilitating economic and political linkages. New thoughts of teaching languages

have been incorporated into the teaching of EFL. ‘Chalk and talk’ methods which dominated

EFL classrooms in SA have now been replaced by technology-enabled teaching/learning

tools. These changes have happened everywhere in SA although at a very slow pace with

those who have benefited first being urban schools. The technology-enabled

teaching/learning tools have replaced a standard classroom consisting of an instructor as the

sole controller of the learning process, which in most cases was in Arabic. Learners were

disconnected and struggling to understand the content they were receiving. This has been

replaced in SA by a basic premise of unlimited opportunity for students to participate in the

learning process, empowering students of English with technologies in EFL learning (Al-

Ahdal, 2013).
 18

1.3.2.3 Pedagogical Constraints

The third constraint is pedagogical. Most aspiring teachers who join English departments or

TEFL programs in SA are not proficient in English and a significant proportion of them

graduate from programs at colleges of languages and translation or colleges of arts that

prepare them to specialise in translation or English literature. Saudi Arabian English teachers

are trained in courses provided by English language departments at several Saudi University

Colleges of Arts and Colleges of Education. Teachers also have the opportunity to attend in-

service training programs to learn modern teaching methods (Alhamad, 2018). However,

some are not specifically trained to teach English. Thus, Shehdeh (2010) and Khan (2011)

state that due to teachers’ inadequate training, some are not qualified for the job of teaching

EFL.

1.3.2.4 Administrative Constraints

Administrative and other constraints have been identified as further challenges confronting

English language teaching in SA. Among the administrative constraints is centralisation (Al-

Seghayer, 2014). A long process of consultation is needed to make small changes to the

curriculum or the learning process in classroom in general. This has been detrimental to the

teaching of English in the Saudi context. Besides, there is a lack of cooperation and

partnership in sharing expertise locally, regionally, and globally; and the absence of a

comprehensive EFL strategic plan. There are few opportunities such as teacher exchange

programs, communication with native speakers of English or other professional development

avenues open to teachers. Bodies like the British Council exist but there are no collaboration

programs that build the professional expertise of teachers (Al‐hazmi, 2003).

 19

1.4 The Current Study

1.4.1 Motivation

The three following and interrelated reasons inspired the current study. Firstly, this study

examines the motivation of urban and rural students in learning English in the first years of

university. It is noticeable that for the millennium generation (born between 1990s and 2010),

there is a significant rise in English proficiency among newly admitted students at university

in comparison to previous intakes (Alqarni, 2020). During the last few years, there has been a

growing number of students demonstrating an intermediate to advanced level in English

proficiency. It is possible to find a tenth of students with outstanding levels of English

language proficiency in an average class as opposed to one or none in the last two decades

(Alqarni, 2020). Some first-year students demonstrate a remarkable level of English language

proficiency as compared to others. This could be that some students are graduates of urban

schools and some from rural schools. This study investigates whether students demonstrate

significant differences in English competency and whether there are differences between

students from urban and rural settings. This is crucial for improving the modest EFL

outcomes in the Saudi Arabian first years of university context.

There are numerous studies on EFL motivation in the Saudi context but these mainly

concentrate on methodological and pedagogical implications in classroom settings (e.g., Al-

Kathiri, 2015; Alenezi, 2020; Almalki & Williams, 2012; Alrabai, 2016; Al-Seghayer, 2014;

Alshumaim & Alhassan, 2010; Al Zumor et al., 2013; Barnawi, 2016). For example, one

study examined how limited number of hours allocated to EFL in the classroom resulted in

low level English language proficiency (Al-Seghayer, 2014), while another investigated

factors that influence EFL proficiency in the curriculum, and the teaching methods used, and
 20

noted the lack of verbal and written practice (Alrabai, 2016). Al-Kathiri (2015) examined the

use of online platforms to support classroom practices. A comprehensive search of the

relevant literature did not yield any study comparing EFL learners’ motivation and

achievement in their first years of university study with particular reference to urban or rural

settings. This study fills a gap in English language learning literature in SA.

Secondly, recent developments in EFL research such as the dynamic and complex nature of

EFL motivation has been uncovered (Ali, 2016). Concepts such as ‘EFL national interest’

orientation have been suggested to refer to how English is being used as a tool to promote a

country’s culture, and other concepts such as EFL international ‘ideal EFL self’ and ‘ought

EFL self’ (Ali, 2016). This research is reviewed in detail in Chapter 2 (see Section 2.1).

Thirdly, there is a dearth of literature that compares EFL learning in urban and rural areas of

SA. A few studies that compare the motivation of EFL learners in urban and rural areas are in

other countries such as Pakistan (e.g., Azher et al., 2010; Chohan & Rana, 2016). For

example, Chohan and Rana (2016) obtained students’ responses from urban and rural schools

in Pakistan and analysed their attitudes toward learning English. While both countries have

the largest percentage of Muslim population, there are marked differences between SA and

Pakistan. SA has invested heavily in the physical infrastructure of primary and secondary

schools, increased the number of instructors, and invested significantly in the use of

computers in education relative to Pakistan (Almekhlafi & Almeqdadi, 2010; Al Mofarreh,

2016). The focus of most EFL studies in SA has been on investigating the validity of

motivational models on explaining behaviours of EFL students (e.g., Alshahrani, 2016; Daif-

Allah & Aljumah, 2020), student’s families, and teachers’ perceptions of motivational factors

that affect language learning (e.g., Holbah, 2015) or language strategies (Aljuaid, 2015).
 21

1.4.2 Purpose

This study investigates students’ motivation to learn English as a foreign language in SA, in

particular, in urban and rural areas where it has already been widely acknowledged that EFL

students do not have high levels of motivation (Alrabai, 2016; Daif-Allah & Aljumah, 2020).

The reasons for this phenomenon are diverse and complex, but extant research on motivation

within the SA context has not focused on motivation of urban and rural students in the first

year of university.

Motivation has been widely accepted by both teachers and researchers as one of the key

factors influencing the rate and success of foreign language learning (e.g., Abrar-ul-Hassan,

2014; Cheng & Dörnyei, 2007). Without sufficient motivation learners cannot accomplish

long-term goals. Neither appropriate curricula nor good teaching are enough on their own to

ensure student achievements (Abrar-ul-Hassan, 2014). To investigate motivation of students

based in urban and rural areas data collection involved semi-structured interviews with

qualitative analysis and a survey involving quantitative analysis.

The theoretical framework for the research is grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT;

Deci & Ryan, 1985) and Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Motivation Theory, which assist in

explaining students’ motivation in EFL. SDT is a theory of human motivation and personality

that involves individual’s innate psychological needs and inherent growth tendencies (Deci &

Ryan, 2012). In terms of language learning motivation, Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005)

Motivation Theory focuses on three variables of attitudes toward learning which are the

situation, motivation, and integrativeness, as well as the interaction between the two factors

of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to produce integrative motivation. Specifically, the

present study examined intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as described by SDT (Deci & Ryan,
 22

1985) and integrative and instrumental orientation as explained by Gardner and Lambert

(1972). These are both seminal and enduring frameworks that continue to have relevance in

the contemporary context.

1.4.3 Significance

This study will be useful to researchers, educators, and teachers involved in the SA context of

teaching English as a foreign language. An in-depth understanding of how SA learners and

teachers perceive a variety of factors that affect students’ motivation and hinder learning is

crucial in predicting how this may affect students’ competence in English.

At a practical level, understanding the factors that influence motivation will contribute to

efforts to enhance students’ English proficiency. Specifically, this study explored the

differences in motivation of urban and rural based students and possible ways to enhance

their motivation to learn English. The current study complements existing literature of EFL

motivation as it addresses the gap in this area. In particular, it provides insights into what

motivates urban and rural students through in-depth analysis of both qualitative and

quantitative methods, and how significant others such as peers, lecturers, and parents may

influence their motivation to learn English. Furthermore, the findings of this research build

on the key frameworks proposed in Deci and Ryan’s (1985) Self-Determination Theory and

Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Motivational Theory by expanding understanding and

applicability in researching motivation within the SA cultural context.

1.4.4 Research Questions

This study addresses three research questions:

 23

1. What are the differences in motivation between urban and rural Saudi Arabian university

students in their first year of studying English?

2. Which aspects of student motivation predict their English results?

3. How do lecturers and peers influence SA students’ motivation to learn English?

1.5 Definition of Key Terms

1.5.1 English as a Foreign Language (EFL), Second Language (ESL), and Other

Related Concepts

There are a variety of definitions and acronyms that relate to students studying English as

another language (EAL), with major terms being English as a World Language (EWL),

English as a foreign language (EFL), and English as a Second Language (ESL). Ali (2016)

and Lamb (2004) suggest that EFL competence may be attainable in a globalising world

where English is viewed as a World Language (EWL). This is interesting to consider as Ali

(2016) found four aspects of the learners’ positive attitudes toward EWL: attitudes toward

non-native varieties of English, attitudes toward English as a main source of global

communication, attitudes toward the use of English as a tool of cross-cultural

communication, and attitudes toward the supremacy of native speakers and their Englishes.

The study revealed that learners’ attitudes toward EWL had a positive correlation with

learners’ motivational orientations.

In his study, Ali (2016) referred to the EFL students’ motivation as their efforts, desire,

affect, and attitudes. The term ‘foreign language’ refers to any language that is not the native

language of the country (Crystal, 2006). Even if a country has an ‘official’ language and then

people speak other languages which are not official, as long as those languages are not native,

they are considered foreign. English as a foreign language (EFL) refers to the use of English
 24

by speakers with a different native language (Illés & Akcan, 2017) where English is taught

within a non-English speaking country. However, the terms ‘first language’ or ‘background

language’ are preferred to ‘native’ language now (Keijzer, 2020). Typically, EFL study is

either for career progression while one works for an organisation particularly a business with

an international focus or to pass examinations as an essential part of a student’s education.

Most people who study English as a foreign language (EFL) usually study English so they

can communicate when travelling or in business situations (Thornbury, 2006). EFL may be

part of a non-English speaking country’s school curriculum or it may be supplemented by

students undertaking private lessons. The interplay of the roles of the learning context and

English language learning as well as motivational factors affect the learners’ performance.

English language learning, as we have seen, takes place in many different contexts in which

the role of English varies and the purposes for which learners require English vary.

The term ESL refers to situations where non-native speakers of English are living in an

English-speaking country and need English to adequately function in the community. In

Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and US this use of English is called ESL (Trudgill &

Hannah, 2017). In the UK and Ireland, the term ESL has been replaced by English for

speakers of other languages (ESOL; Arnot et al., 2014) and most recently, it has been

replaced in schools by EALD – English as an additional language or dialect (Scarino, 2021).

English is not widely utilised for written and verbal communication in SA and is seen as a

foreign language, second to the national language Arabic. SA is considered to be an EFL

teaching and learning context (Aljohani, 2016). In countries where English is spoken and

used by the general population, such as in Australia, English is the first language for many

and the national language (Kiesling, 2019). There are a number of people for whom English

is not their first language but is crucial for day-to-day living and in such circumstances is
 25

considered to be an ESL teaching and learning context (Kiesling, 2019). The fundamental

distinction between ESL and EFL relates to whether English is commonly spoken in the

country. Differences may be more complex as different strategies are often taken into

consideration such as applying distinct methodology of teaching when teaching EFL as

compared to ESL. For example, most ESL learners comprise a heterogeneous population

when compared to most EFL contexts. While EFL contexts such as in SA exist, homogenous

ethnic, linguistic, social, and cultural practices exist (Osman, 2015). In this study, the

students are immersed in a linguistically and culturally Arabic dominated environment in

their daily lives and English in SA is learnt as a foreign language. Therefore, the term English

as a foreign language (EFL) is used across the thesis.

The distinction between EFL, ESL, and EWL is quite complex as can be seen from the above

discussion. For the purposes of the current study, the term EFL is used to refer to the English

learning context in SA. It is apparent that the distinction between EFL and ESL shows

differences among learners in terms of ethnic and cultural backgrounds, English acquisition

levels, and linguistic abilities as well as the purposes for learning English.

1.5.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

In the field of language teaching, the distinction has always been made between intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is evident when a student completes an activity

because of its inherent satisfaction and not for a separable consequence (Lamb, 2017; Ryan &

Deci, 2000). When students are motivated in an intrinsic way, they are moved to act because
 26

of the challenge or fun and not because of external rewards or pressures. Students who are

intrinsically motivated are said to study a language because they have a genuine interest in a

subject or generally enjoy the process of learning (Lasagabaster & Beloqui, 2015). In the area

of language learning, it is generally believed that intrinsic motivation is the most desirable

form of motivation and studies have repeatedly demonstrated its benefits for academic

achievement (e.g., Lamb, 2017). For many language educators, intrinsic motivation is

synonymous with motivation (Duncan, 2018). As a result of its importance in the classroom,

intrinsic motivation is usually represented in well-known theoretical models of language

learning such as Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Socio-Educational Model. Some studies have

examined a bi-dimensional view incorporating extrinsic motivation arguing that different

combinations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determine academic achievement goals

(Lemos & Veríssimo, 2014).

Students who have extrinsic motivation learn a language not for its own sake but for some

other motives usually external. This could be to avoid negative consequences (Lamb, 2017).

In an educational setting an intrinsically motivated student would learn the subject due to

his/her natural inclination toward studying hard and being receptive to new knowledge (Ryan

& Deci, 2000). Ryan and Deci (2000) state that extrinsic motivation refers to doing

something because it leads to a separable outcome such as that of avoiding sanctions or

behaviours are performed to satisfy an external demand or obtain an externally imposed

reward. Examples of extrinsic motivation include a student who does homework only

because of fears that teachers or parents may impose sanctions for not doing the homework.

The student is extrinsically motivated because the homework is being done to achieve the

separable outcome of avoiding sanctions. Similarly, a student might do homework because of

the belief it has value for a preferred career, is also extrinsically motivated because
 27

homework is being done for its value and not because the student finds it interesting. Some

studies have revealed that intrinsic motivation may not necessarily be undermined by

extrinsic motivation (Lemos & Veríssimo, 2014).

Students can take on different combinations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to achieve

their academic goals. Some researchers have also argued that giving students extrinsic

incentives related to academic performance could result in a feeling of being pressured or

controlled which may be detrimental to learner’s sense of well-being (Cerasoli et al., 2014;

Serin, 2018; Wijsman et al., 2019). Some have criticised the use of external rewards in the

classroom for diminishing the intrinsic motivation of students (Serin, 2018). Others contend

that extrinsic incentives for academic studies may undermine the development of long-term

intrinsic motivation (Lamb, 2017), although these views have also been challenged (e.g.,

Cameron et al., 2001). Cameron and Pierce (1994) conducted a meta-analysis involving 96

experimental studies that used between-groups designs to compare rewarded subjects to

nonrewarded controls on four measures of motivation. The results showed that a negative

effect appears when expected tangible rewards are given to individuals simply for doing a

task. Cameron et al. (2001) later concluded that the negative effects of reward were limited

and could be easily prevented in applied settings.

1.6 Structure of the Thesis

There are eight chapters in this thesis. In the introduction chapter, the background to the

problem, the role and place of English in Saudi Arabian society, and the extent of exposure to

English in urban and rural settings are discussed. An overview of English teaching methods

within the education system of SA is also given. The aims of the study, research questions,

and significance of the study are also discussed. Chapter 2 contains a review of literature on
 28

motivation and teaching strategies supporting motivation. It begins by discussing literature

which focuses on the motivation of learners to study English in countries where English is

spoken as a foreign language, followed by an analysis of EFL in Arab-speaking countries.

EFL in SA is then discussed separately as the educational context and policies for learning

English in SA are different from those in other countries. Next, an overview of studies that

compare the motivation of EFL learners in urban and rural areas is provided. The final

discussion is on the latest changes in the context in SA which affects the future of teaching

and learning in the country (The Vision 2030). The chapter concludes by identifying the gap

in the literature which led to the aims of the current study.

Chapter 3 provides the theoretical framework of the study. It gives a detailed analysis of Self-

Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and Motivation Theory (Gardner, 1985, 2001,

2005), as together they provide a framework to help understand students’ motivation in EFL,

and their relevance to students from urban and rural settings is highlighted. Chapter 4 sets up

the research methodology and describes the research methods, procedure, and data collection

and analysis. Chapter 5 presents the qualitative results of the study with the purpose of

finding linkages between EFL proficiency and student background (urban or rural). Given the

dearth of in-depth research on English learning motivation in SA, the individual teacher

interviews and student focus group discussions were designed to inform the results from the

administration of the survey instrument. Chapter 6 presents the quantitative results of the

study which includes descriptive statistics for the main study involving the survey instrument

with a focus on the relationship between competence in English and whether students are

from urban or rural areas. Chapter 7 consolidates and integrates the results of the qualitative

and quantitative analyses with proper relevance to the prior theoretical research and students’
 29

background. Finally, Chapter 8 concludes the thesis with discussion and analysis of the

significance of the findings and recommends directions for further research.

 30

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The current study investigated the motivation of EFL learning among rural students

compared to urban students at a Saudi Arabian university, and three main interrelated reasons

inspired the current study. The first and perhaps most profound reason is related to recent

developments in EFL research. For example, recent research has uncovered the dynamic and

complex nature of EFL motivation (Ali, 2016). Some studies have come up with new

concepts such as ‘EFL national interest’ orientation referring to how English is being used as

a tool to promote a country’s culture, and other concepts such as EFL international posture,

‘ideal EFL self’, and ‘ought to EFL self’ (Ali, 2016). These recent developments associated

with EFL motivation seem to be inspired by English emerging as a global language. This

thesis investigated urban and rural EFL learners’ motivation in the context of these recent

developments. This chapter provides the basis for building the study’s theoretical framework

presented in Chapter 3 as well as evidence for the research problem.

The crucial role that motivation plays as a factor in learning cannot be underestimated. There

is unanimous acknowledgment of the important role it plays in EFL acquisition of a non-

primary language. It is not surprising that over the past five decades there have been many

studies examining various aspects of motivation in the teaching and learning of EFL. This

chapter presents a discussion and critical evaluation of the relevant literature currently

existing on motivation in education generally and the specific role motivation plays in EFL

learning and teaching. First studies of motivation for listening and speaking are presented,

and next are studies on reading and writing. This is followed by a review of studies on

students’ EFL motivation in Arab-speaking countries and SA which are discussed separately
 31

as the educational context and policies for learning English in SA are different from those in

other countries. Finally, studies that investigated the role of motivation in urban and rural

contexts are discussed and critically evaluated. Although there are numerous studies on EFL

in SA, none have systematically compared urban and rural students’ learning difficulties from

students and academics’ perspectives. The current study seeks to address this gap.

2.2 Conceptualisations of Motivation

Motivation varies and depends on individuals and their culture. In fact, Dörnyei (1998)

comments that “although motivation is a term frequently used in both educational and

research contexts, it is rather surprising how little agreement there is in the literature with

regard to the exact meaning of the concept” (p.117). Many teachers find motivation to be the

most challenging and complicated issue (AlQuyadi & Alwass, 2020; Scheidecker &

Freeman, 1999). The following sections reveal different schools of thought about the concept

of motivation and how this relates to a Saudi Arabian collectivist, highly religious, and

conservative society with a particular focus on urban and rural learners on which this thesis is

based.

The conceptualisation of motivation has many different interpretations. Beck (2004) asserts

that motivation theorists have fundamentally different views of what motivation is and hence

approach the application differently. Over the past three decades there have been strong

attempts to conceptualise the general term. For example, Pintrich and Schunk (2002)

suggested that the term is originally derived from the Latin verb ‘movere’ presenting

motivation as something that energises us to go, keeps us moving, and helps us complete

tasks.
 32

Motivation has been viewed from behavioural and cognitive perspectives. It has also been

referred to as determining “the extent of active, personal involvement in EFL learning”

(Oxford & Shearin, 1994, p. 12). While Harmer (2001) states it is “an internal drive which

pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something” (p. 51), the early

conceptualisation has linked motivation with inner forces like will, volition, traits, and

instincts. Contemporary scholars have linked it to a person’s thoughts, emotions, and beliefs

(Harmer, 2001). Freud (1966) provided early views that an individual’s behaviour is a result

of forces within them and that motivation reflects their physical energy within. In contrast,

Skinner (1968) viewed motivation as behavioural and not arising from inner forces. Many

contemporary views regard motivation as an input responsible for initiating, directing, and

sustaining behaviours. For example, Wentzel and Brophy (2014) define motivation as a

“theoretical construct used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, persistence, and

quality of behaviour, especially goal-directed behaviour” (p. 2). Similarly, Dörnyei and Ottó

(1998) view motivation as a function of a person’s thoughts and define it as the “dynamic

changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies,

terminates, and evaluates the cognitive and motor processes whereby initial wishes and

desires are selected, prioritised, operationalised, and successfully or unsuccessfully acted out”

(p. 25). Others have conceptualised motivation in broad terms. It has been seen as

“responsible for why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the

activity, and how hard they are going to pursue it” (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003, p. 614).

Cognitive and behavioural scientists and even constructivists have always held different ideas

about the world, including those on motivation. Behaviourists view motivation as dealing

with expectations for good work being rewarded (Brown, 2021), whilst cognitive theory

researchers refer to motivation as “the choices people make as to what experiences or goals
 33

they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they exert in that respect” (Brown, 2021,

p. 160). Constructivists emphasise the social context and the impact this has on individuals.

These views are summarised from the work of Brown (2021, p. 162) in Table 3 below.

Table 3: Three Views of Motivation

Behaviouristic Cognitive Constructivist

Anticipation of reward Driven by basic human needs Social context community
(exploration, manipulating, etc.)
Desire to receive positive Degree of effort expanded Social status security and security
reinforcement of group

External, individual forces in Internal, individual forces in Internal, interactive forces in

control control control

In educational settings, motivation explains the degree to which students devote attention and

energy to various learning activities. Pintrich and Schunk (2002) assert that it focuses on

learners’ cognitive abilities and is a process whereby goal directed activity is instigated and

sustained. Hence in educational settings, they say it is a process, not product, because it is not

observable and can be inferred only from behaviours like the choice of tasks, effort,

persistence, and verbalisation. They also argue that learners have to undertake activities,

either physically or mentally. Examples of physical activities are those that involve

persistence and effort, while those involving mental activities involve planning, researching,

monitoring, and decision-making. Further, within educational settings, Brophy (1999) asserts

that motivation is used to explain the degree to which students invest attention and effort in

various pursuits, which may or may not be the ones desired by their teachers. In subsequent

years, Brophy (2004) provided a clarification of this definition by stating that ‘motivation to

learn’ refers to students’ tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and
 34

try to get the intended learning benefits from them. It is clear from the above

conceptualisation of motivation that behaviouristic, cognitive, and constructivist views are

not in conflict with one another but complement each other in articulating what motivation is

about generally and in educational contexts.

These conceptual foundations have provided the basis for psychologists to define motivation

in EFL environments. It is generally acknowledged that learning a second language is a

complex process (Beckner et al., 2009) because various aspects play significant roles in

promoting or hindering learning and acquisition processes. These include learning

preferences, individual capabilities, methodological approaches, and motivations. The focus

of this thesis is on motivational perspectives. Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) social-

psychological model, which will be discussed in the next chapter, defines motivation as “the

combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favourable

attitudes towards learning a new language” (p. 10). This is supported by Ellis (1994) who

states that EFL motivation refers to “the effort that learners put into learning the language as

a result of their need or desire to learn it” (p. 509). Others claim that this type of motivation

refers to the need to engage in a particular activity, in this case the need to use the language

(Jordens & Lalleman, 1996). Motivation is a crucial consideration in analysing EFL learning

including in urban and rural settings. Regardless of various viewpoints that may be raised on

EFL motivation, this thesis takes the view that motivation is an internal, psychological force

that resides within an individual. The absence or presence of the internal force influences the

level of energy a person puts into English language learning and use such as effort, devotion,

willingness, and self-regulation.

 35

2.3 Studies on Motivation of EFL Learners

Studying motivation for learning English involves identifying a variety of factors which drive

students when they are studying the English language and its different components. This

section reviews empirical studies relevant to this research such as studies into motivation for

writing, reading, speaking, listening, and the characteristics of the learning process and

organisation that motivate students’ learning.

Motivation has always been a central issue in education generally and in EFL. It has been

identified as one of the most challenging and complex issues for educators (Hadfield &

Dörnyei, 2013). Hadfield and Dörnyei (2013) assert that at times, teachers adopt trial and

error hoping to discover the best possible combination of strategies and classroom activities

that promote motivation, engage learners, and result in English language success. Attempts to

address this issue in EFL has shifted from simply defining what motivation is within the

psychological schema to the identification of aspects of motivation exhibited by students

(Dörnyei & Kubanyiova, 2014).

Motivation research has been viewed as having several phases. In EFL, motivation research

has evolved and integrated with mainstream motivational psychology (Dörnyei & Ushioda,

2013; Ushioda & Dörnyei, 2012). Dörnyei and Ushioda (2013) identified the following

phases of motivation research:

1. Social-psychological period (1959-1990), portrayed by the work of Gardner and his

colleagues in Canada;

2. Cognitive-situated period (during the 1990s), depicted by studies drawing on cognitive

theories in educational psychology;

 36

3. Process-oriented period (early 2000s), characterised by a focus on motivational change;

and

4. Socio-dynamic period (current), defined by a concern with dynamic systems and

contextual interactions.

This thesis acknowledges these phases of research on motivation but also recognises that

research sees the role of teachers, parents, and the environment in an individual’s experience

(Lantolf, 2000; Lantolf & Throne, 2006). As a result of this perspective, EFL language

acquisition is viewed as being formulated through individuals interacting with other members

in their community. Hence, the role of cognitive views and sociocultural approaches are

crucial in EFL learning as the environment, social settings, and cultural issues associated with

the English language need to be considered.

Table 4 shows EFL studies that reflect Dörnyei and Ushioda’s (2013) motivation phases.

They were selected based on whether they were on EFL motivation, evaluated students’

motivational levels, and used a motivational instrument. Coincidentally, most of the studies

used the International Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (IAMTB) with a few studies using

their own questionnaires or adapting questionnaires from other studies. The numbers of

participants involved ranged from 4 to 1,395. Most were conducted with university students

with a few involving high school students. No studies included urban and rural participants.

Most also applied quantitative methods with a few using qualitative methods. The table

additionally covers studies on motivation conducted in various geographical locations.

 37

Table 4: Summary of EFL Studies Including Instruments and Findings

Authors Location Setting Instruments used N participants Methods used Findings

Abidin et al. Libya Secondary Gardner’s (2004) 180 students, 94 Quantitative, There were significant attitudinal differences toward
(2012) school IAMTB male, 86 female descriptive statistics learning English based on gender and field of study but not
year of study.
Abu-ghararah Saudi University Developed own 432 female Quantitative, Students are not given enough opportunities to practice
(2014) Arabia questionnaire students descriptive statistics speaking in English.
Al-Dosari Qatar High school Gardner’s (2004) 424 male Interviews and Confirmed that attitudinal and motivational variables are
(2016) IAMTB students descriptive statistics essential for EFL learning; parents gave significantly more
support to female than male students.
Albedaiwi Saudi University Developed own 6 male teacher Interviews and Exposure to English was greater in Saudi Arabian urban
(2014) Arabia interview questions participants observations, narrative areas than in rural areas because of the huge population of
and observation and grounded theory English-speaking foreign employees.
approach
Al-Shamy Saudi University IAMTB developed by 113 students, 28 Mixed method Participants had very high level of integrativeness and
(2012) Arabia Gardner (2004) females 73 Quantitative, instrumentality.
males descriptive statistics
and interviews
Elsheikh (2014) Saudi University Adapted questions 100 female Quantitative, Participants were intrinsically, extrinsically, and
Arabia from Dörnyei et al. students descriptive statistics interactively demotivated. Students were instrumentally
(2006) motivated.
 38

Authors Location Setting Instruments used N participants Methods used Findings

Gan et al. China University Own questions 9 successful and Interviews, diaries, and Participants’ most successful strategies for students to
(2004) 9 unsuccessful grounded theory learn EFL was immersing themselves in English through
2nd year EFL methodology listening to English broadcasts and learners sought their
students own resources to improve their listening and speaking
skills.
Gardner et al. Canada University Gardner’s (1985) 170 volunteers Quantitative, Aptitude, integrative motivation, and mode of presentation
(1985) IAMTB descriptive statistics influenced rate of learning.
Halimi et al. Kuwait University Questionnaire 233 students, Quantitative, Moderate to high level of anxiety in English classrooms
(2019) adapted from 107 males, 126 descriptive statistics and suggested strategies to reduce anxiety.
Gardner’s lAMTB females
(2004)
Islam et al. Pakistan University Adapted questions 975 students, Quantitative, Validated the EFL Motivational Self System with attitudes
(2013) from Dörnyei et al. 396 males, 579 descriptive statistics to the learning experience and focus on self being the
(2006), Taguchi et al. females strongest predictors of learning effort.
(2009), Ryan (2009),
and Yashima (2009)
Laudari (2014) Nepal High school Adapted questions 1,257 students, Quantitative, Main factors affecting learners’ English language learning
from Ryan (2009), 609 males, 648 descriptive statistics motivation were attitude to learning English and ideal EFL
Islam et al. (2013), females self.
and Gardner’s (2004)
IAMTB
Lee et al. (2018) Hong High school Adapted questions 1,395 students, Quantitative, Secondary students were not motivated to write in English.
Kong from Dörnyei (2005), 699 females, descriptive statistics They suggest that students’ writing environment and
Dörnyei & Csizér 696 males
 39

Authors Location Setting Instruments used N participants Methods used Findings

(2002), Dörnyei & experience may be possible causes of students’ low level
Ushioda (2011), and of motivation.
Troia et al. (2013)
Makrami (2010) Saudi University Used Gardner’s 507 students, Quantitative, Significant differences in motivation between English for
Arabia (1985) IAMTB 299 males, 208 descriptive statistics General Purposes and Specific Purposes.
females
Motlhaka Various Universities Used Gardner’s - Meta-analysis Cooperative learning activities develop EFL listening and
(2012) countries (1985) IAMTB promote student motivation in order to enhance students’
EFL proficiency.
Ngo et al. Vietnam University Used Language 422 students, Quantitative, Both English major and non-English major students
(2017) Learning Orientation 180 English descriptive statistics demonstrated high levels of motivation to learn English
Scale (LLOS–IEA) major 242 non- because of the context of learning English in Vietnamese
(Noels et al. 2000) English major higher education as they value learning English in order to
and Gardner (2010) get some instrumental benefits.
Pathan et al. Pakistan University Questionnaire 145 first and Quantitative, Students learn English for intrinsic purposes as both,
(2010) constructed following third year descriptive statistics instrumental and integrative motivation were reported.
Gardner (2004) and students
Dörnyei (2009)
Zafarghandi & Iran University Questionnaire based 34 students Quantitative, Positive attitude toward English was the most important
Jodai (2012) on Gardner’s (2004) descriptive statistics result of this study.
IAMTB
Zanghar (2012) Libya University Except for items 4 40 students, 10 Quantitative, Students’ integrative motivation was higher than
and 5, of the 14 from each of 4 descriptive statistics instrumental motivation.
items, all items from levels
 40

Authors Location Setting Instruments used N participants Methods used Findings

Gardner’s IAMTB
(2004)
Zheng (2010) China University Survey and interview 4 students Longitudinal study Participants were more inclined to recycle a smaller range
questions using semi-structured of simple words while leaving difficult academic words.
interviews Possible reasons for this approach included sociocultural
context of the participants.
 41

Overall, most research that was carried out to investigate students’ motivation and

attitudes has used Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) IAMTB to measure language

learners’ motivation and attitudes. The IAMTB is a questionnaire made up of

statements that students rate using a Likert scale. It has been widely translated into

different languages and used in various countries. The reviewed studies reveal that

success in EFL learning is directly related to students’ attitudes toward the second

language and its community (e.g., Al-Shamy, 2012; Lee et al., 2018; Ngo et al.,

2017). Therefore, students’ motivation and attitudes toward learning a second

language and toward the second language community group have been widely

investigated.

Differences between males and females in their motivation have also been identified,

resulting in several observations about gender effects. Gender has been recognised in

a few studies as an effective variable in language learning motivation, with significant

differences observed in their motivation and attitudes toward learning a language (Al-

Dosari, 2016; Alharbi, 2021). For example, female students have shown higher

integrative motivation and positive attitude toward the second language and its

community than males (e.g., Dörnyei & Clement, 2001; Mori & Gobel, 2006).

Desire to learn a language, attitude, and motivation have been closely linked. It is well

established that motivation has a powerful role enabling students to be successful in

learning a second or foreign language (Gan et al., 2004; Gardner et al., 1985) and

motivation has been assessed in terms of three components: (1) individuals’ desire to

learn a language, (2) individuals’ attitudes toward learning the language, and (3)

individuals’ motivation or willingness to make an effort in learning the language

(Gardner et al., 1985).

 42

Many studies have been conducted in the field of second and foreign language

learning to measure students’ motivation and attitude. However, few empirical studies

have examined EFL and Arab learners’ motivation toward learning English, and none

have explored differences among Saudi urban and rural students specifically. What

follows is an overview of motivation for listening, speaking, reading, and writing;

variables such as emotions, attitudes, feelings toward English which motivate

students; studies on students’ EFL motivation in Arab countries and SA, and the

relatively few studies that have examined Arab students’ motivation toward learning

English as a foreign language in urban and rural settings.

2.3.1 Motivation for Listening and Speaking

2.3.1.1 Listening

One of the most critical areas where considerable attention is required in EFL

teaching involves listening skills. Listening has been defined as receiving,

constructing meaning, and responding to verbal and/or nonverbal messages (Purdy,

1997). Subsequent explanations have asserted that listening is a receptive process that

entails creating, representing, negotiating, and responding to what a speaker says

(Rost, 2002). Steinberg (2007) claimed that listening is the individual ability to use

the auditory sense for deriving meaning and understanding from a message, while

Richards and Schmidt (2010) indicated that listening is the process of understanding

speech in a first or second language. The study of listening comprehension processes

in second language learning focus on the role of individual linguistic units (e.g.,

phonemes, words, grammatical structures) as well as the role of the listener’s

expectations, the situation and context, background knowledge, and the topic.
 43

A considerable amount of time learning English is usually devoted to reading, writing,

and speaking, yet listening is vital in the language classroom because it provides input

for the learner (Newton & Nation, 2020). Hence, a focus on listening is important as

students’ belief that they have high potential would give them energy and intention to

succeed and therefore high levels of motivation – a key focus of this thesis. An

analysis of listening reveals various ways in which it has been defined. Four essential

dimensions of listening have been identified: physiological, psychological,

sociological, and communicative (Wolvin, 2010).

The physiology of listening extends to the neurology of the process (Goss, 1995). This

relates to the auditory and visual receptors being received and the stimulus recorded

in the brain. In response to auditory stimuli, it is believed the prefrontal cortex of the

brain is where comprehension occurs (Kane & Engle, 2000). Women and men were

found to have no substantive differences in brain activation patterns during listening

tasks (Frost et al., 1999), however the current study will not focus on differences

between males and females since only male students participated in the study.

In terms of the psychology of listening, researchers disagree as to how the short-term

memory system receives and holds information however they agree that the attention

span is as short as a few hundred milliseconds to up to about 30 seconds (Cowan,

2019). Attention to the message is affected by an individual’s working memory

system as well as the perceptual filter. The purpose of the perceptual filter is to act as

a stimulus such that a person’s particular attitude may alter the message received. This

is especially important in the context of the current study. The SA student’s

background, mental and physical state, and role and experience all make up the

perceptual filter and shape the learner’s expectations for the English content being
 44

presented. The more relevant the stimuli, the more likely they are to be better

understood by a learner (Wolvin, 2010).

The third component of listening is sociological, and this relates to the listener’s

feedback. It has generally been accepted that no matter how competent or effective a

person is in listening, as long as the person is perceived as not listening by the other

interactants very little may be accomplished (Lin, 2012). This perception is shown by

how the listener accurately understands the message which reflects listening

competency. The sociology of listening extends to the idea that different cultures

express their listening differently (Wolvin, 2010). In low context cultures, that is,

those that communicate information in direct, explicit, and precise ways such as the

Australian and other Western cultures a lot of information is exchanged explicitly

through the message itself. However, in high-context cultures, those that

communicate in ways that are implicit and rely heavily on context such as SA there is

high reliance on a common understanding of rules and cultural values. Cultural

variables such as beliefs and nonverbal codes are expected to reduce uncertainty

(Wolvin, 2010).

Lastly, the communicative dimension refers to the dialogic relationship. This denotes

a listener who engages in the dialogue with a fellow communicator in a genuine

accurate empathic manner and in an unconditional positive regard.

The meaning of listening within an EFL context can be determined within the range

of the physiological, psychological, sociological, and communicative components.

Listening is crucial when learning English for this thesis because it provides input for

writing, speaking, and reading skills. It is crucial to note that applying listening skills
 45

to an EFL environment also requires understanding the accents of various speakers

(Nowrouzi et al., 2015). In this way, a learner who is actively listening can understand

the vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation simultaneously.

In contrast to speaking, writing, and reading, listening is considered to be more

difficult for EFL students because it involves interpreting, understanding, evaluating,

and memorising (Al-khresheh, 2020). EFL students are expected to face significant

obstacles to acquire proficient listening comprehension. Hamouda (2013) found that

some EFL curriculum focus more on English vocabulary, reading, and grammar than

on developing listening skills. A subsequent study confirmed that “listening is not yet

fully integrated into the curriculum and needs to be given more attention in a language

learning setting” (Renukadevi, 2014, p. 60). This may be due to the limited number of

textbooks that focus on listening skills, yet they are a fundamental skill which must be

learned by considering what good speakers do (Louma, 2004).

2.3.1.2 Motivation for Listening

Listening activities in the classroom can have a positive impact on students’

motivation to communicate in groups. What emerges from the discussion of

motivation for listening below is that EFL learners’ goals and desires are generally

related to their success and motivation to learn the foreign language. What appears to

be missing from prior studies is how this relates to students from urban and rural

environments.

In developing EFL listening, some studies have demonstrated that cooperative

activities promote a motivating, non-threatening environment conducive to learning.

For example, Motlhaka (2012) utilises a meta-analysis to establish a comprehensive

 46

and systematic understanding of learning EFL including the development of listening.

Since this was a qualitative meta-analysis there was no effect size of a specific

variable, however Motlhaka (2012) found that cooperative learning activities develop

EFL listening and promote student motivation. Still, these findings need to be

regarded with caution as meta-analysis has the potential for publication bias and

skewed data because there can be disproportionate representation of studies (Gage et

al., 2017). Despite this, Brownell (1994) affirmed that a successful listening process

in class or outside depends on a person’s need to understand spoken language. This

entails drawing from their background knowledge of that particular language as they

strive to improve their communicative competence. Kumaravadivelu (2006) further

asserts close links with specific knowledge and skills. When listening, students

frequently engage in communicative activities with a diverse range of learning

opportunities to express their feelings and ideas enabling them to be highly motivated

and competent (Kumaravadivelu, 2006). One strand of the study reported on in this

thesis explores the opportunities students have for listening and how these relate to

their levels of motivation in English language learning.

There are several challenges related to the way EFL students are motivated to listen.

Gan et al. (2004) examined EFL students’ motivation and challenges regarding

listening through interviews and diaries. They focused on the link between self-

directedness in listening for language learning using grounded theory methodology,

and found that the most successful strategies for students to learn English was

immersing themselves through listening to English broadcasts. In addition, EFL

students noted that listening training was limited in class and learners had to seek their

own resources to improve their listening skills. Where students are being taught
 47

listening skills, the development of this skill can be improved whenever their goals,

learning needs, and attitudes toward EFL are taken into consideration (Gilakjani &

Ahmadi, 2011). One area of focus for the current study is examining students’

motivation for listening and analysing available resources that aid listening including

their needs.

Teachers can have a powerful impact on students’ demotivation. In a study in Japan,

Kikuchi and Sakai (2009) sought to find the factors that demotivated EFL students. A

questionnaire and interview guides were developed to examine demotivating factors

for students in Japanese high school English classrooms. Participants included five

college students attending two private universities and one public university who

shared their views about demotivation in the interviews. In addition, 42 students at a

public university responded to a questionnaire consisting of mostly open-ended

response questions. Kikuchi and Sakai (2009) found that teachers have an important

role to play in ensuring they do not contribute to the demotivation of students.

Teachers who spoke with a low voice demotivated students as they could hardly be

heard in class. Kikuchi and Sakai (2009) asserts that teacher-related factors which

may cause demotivation in EFL learning are crucial to consider. A low voice is often

accompanied by a fast-teaching pace, bad responses to questions, unclear

pronunciation, and too much homework. Since teachers are the leaders of a

classroom, the motivation of teachers will affect learner’s motivation (Dörnyei, 2001;

Montalvo et al., 2007). The motivation of teachers will enhance students’ motivation

as well. This study explored whether teachers display interest and thereby contribute

to the motivation of students toward listening skills.

 48

The aforementioned studies show that motivation in listening is highly reliant on

cooperative activities which promote a motivating, non-threatening environment

conducive to learning. Several studies have revealed that learners who immerse

themselves in English through listening to English broadcasts benefit by developing

their listening skills. Also, listening activities that did not include familiar topics did

not motivate students to learn English. While some studies were conducted in SA,

they are different from the current study as they did not examine differences in

motivation between urban and rural students.

2.3.1.3 Speaking

Speaking is a skill EFL students need to acquire in their class and its definition

depends on the context. Speaking refers to an interactive process of communicating

meaning that involves producing, receiving, and processing information (Lichtman,

2021). It is the ability to use English in oral form. It is much more than simply

knowing the grammatical and semantic rules of a language; it is about the control of a

highly diverse set of activities which involves many distinct mental and physical skills

(Lichtman, 2021). In addition, it is dependent on the context in which it occurs

including the people involved in the conversation, their experiences, the purpose of

speaking, and the physical environment (Cunningham, 1999). In most EFL contexts,

the speaking skill is limited to the ability to conduct a simple conversation such as

expressing regret, gratitude, agreement, an offer, and certainty at junior and senior

high school levels. This study explored the relationship between English speaking

proficiency and motivation of first year university students.

 49

2.3.1.4 Motivation for Speaking

Teachers play a significant role in motivating students to speak English. Some

students may feel it is not possible for them to exchange ideas and learning

experiences in English (Dincer & Yesilyurt, 2017). Another disposition that has often

been observed in SA is that students do not feel they can speak English in a casual

manner the way they do when speaking Arabic as they may have difficulties in

expressing and thinking their ideas in English. A further challenge that affects

students’ motivation is fear of being mocked by others if they make mistakes when

speaking English (Dincer & Yesilyurt, 2017). This is supported by Urrutia and Vega

(2010) who state that learners’ speaking proficiency is impacted by their hesitation,

insufficient vocabulary, and the worry of being judged by others. Teachers, it is

argued, should help build up students’ confidence in spoken English since it is

teachers who set the tone for learning activities. However, teaching activities also

have to be relevant and interesting for students to participate.

The availability of interesting activities that motivate students to learn is also

essential. Alharbi (2021) analysed the effectiveness of speaking activities for EFL

students in SA. Participants responded to a questionnaire consisting of 17 statements

about their views on learning to speak. In the findings, most students stated that

speaking activities were not interesting and did not motivate them to learn English.

For example, problems with some of the materials were that emphasis was on topics

not of interest to students as they did not have information related to Saudi culture.

Similarly, Hamad’s (2013) study noted the importance of speaking activities being

relevant to students’ interests to motivate them to learn oral English skills. Hamad

(2013) collected data using a questionnaire distributed to 150 students studying at

 50

Mhayeal and Almajardah colleges of King Khalid University (KKU) in SA. The

results revealed that listening activities did not contain interesting exercises that

motivated students. Most studies (e.g., Alharbi 2021; Hamad, 2013) note the

importance of stimulating resources such as interesting activities in SA classrooms.

Speaking cannot be taught in an isolated context, hence other skills such as reading

need to be considered (discussed in more detail below). Reading plays a major role in

mastering speaking, shaping ideas, and enhancing critical thinking skills. However,

most learners have little interest in reading classes or may only have interest in

reading a selection of passages. Isolated skills that are taught cannot assist learners to

read and communicate effectively through speaking. Rahmany et al. (2013)

investigated the effect of extensive reading on EFL learners’ motivation for speaking

in Iran. Their participants included 60 students at different levels; 20 elementary, 20

intermediate, and 20 advanced. They found that EFL students’ extensive reading

practices did not have any effect on motivation for speaking across the three levels.

Instead, Pardede (2011) and Lu and Julien (2001) suggest that EFL instructors should

design instructional material that is stimulating because of the discussion activities

and the motivational benefit embedded in the stories which encourage learners to

express their viewpoints.

The reviewed studies reveal that for speaking proficiency to develop, issues such as

insufficient vocabulary, worries about being judged by others, and difficulties in

expressing themselves must be addressed. The current study is concerned with the

teacher’s role for the exchange of ideas and learning experiences of students in

speaking English. The way teachers utilise available interesting content is an

 51

important factor for motivating students. This study investigated whether students

have the chance to practice the language.

2.3.2 Motivation for Reading and Writing

2.3.2.1 Reading

Immersion in an EFL learning context is an essential experience that takes place when

students read either with the teacher or among themselves to comprehend and acquire

the necessary reading skills. Reading is one of the most essential skills that should be

developed and nurtured as it is a precursor of successful learning (Solekah, 2021).

Reading is an interactive process which involves deriving meanings from texts (Al

Roomy & Alhawsawi, 2019). This claim is supported by Trehearne and Doctorow

(2005) who state that reading includes interaction of different variables such as the

text, reader, and environment in a sociocultural context. As such, it is also seen as a

complex set of cognitive activities involving many skills and dimensions such as a

clear grasp of meaning, thoughtful reaction, and integration (Nuzzaci, 2020). Yet,

reading is one of the most difficult tasks to address because some texts may be filled

with intense analytical discourse and some may contain specialised and idiomatic

language (Gunderson, 2014).

There are different variables that influence the reading performance of students.

According to Koda (2005), these include metacognitive awareness, background

knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, syntactic knowledge, and knowledge of grammar.

In addition to these variables, other factors influence a student’s reading performance.

These include a learner’s motivation, effective instruction on reading techniques,

depth and breadth of engagement in reading, text structure, genre, and rich vocabulary
 52

(Trehearne & Doctorow, 2005). The focus of this study is on examining the

motivations Saudi students in urban and rural areas have toward reading in their EFL

classes.

2.3.2.2 Motivation for Reading

Motivation is one of the most important factors that determine the way humans act

including the act of reading. It is “responsible for determining human behaviour by

energising it and giving it direction” (Dörnyei, 1998, p. 117). When students learn

English, the process is more than just a desire to learn another language other than

their first; it involves “far more than simply learning skills, or a system of rules, or a

grammar; it involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new social and

cultural behaviours and ways of being” (Williams, 1994, p. 77).

Learners must be motivated to immerse themselves into a new culture and be open to

cross-cultural connections (Williams, 1994). However, Hermosa (2002) believes that

positive reinforcements have favourable effects toward motivation in reading and

suggests teachers must design engaging and motivating reading activities for students

to develop their interest in reading. Some even suggest that for learners to be

motivated to read, parents and teachers must provide a good foundation at the word

level which would serve as a guide, providing opportunities to read with sufficient

interesting reading materials at the disposal of students. In addition, learning contexts

need to be stress-free and enjoyable because a student’s strengths and weaknesses

have to be taken into account when designing a reading program (Baker et al., 2000).

Villamil and de Guerrero (1996) explored EFL in a classroom context and found that

classrooms should engage students in social-cognitive activities such as reading. They

 53

demonstrated the value of enhancing and stimulating interactive processes by making

students interact socially in the EFL class. Ryan (2009) asserts that teachers stimulate

students’ learning through challenges such as quizzes, competitions, and games. The

teacher needs to use familiar examples to increase motivation and curiosity.

Furthermore, reading activities need to be differentiated to make them more inclusive

for all as their involvement boosts the development of intrinsic motivation. However,

Raffini (1996) also argues that the need for enjoyment and involvement is often lost

when teachers are constrained by lesson plans and curriculum design.

Several studies have explored factors that contribute to the motivation of students in

EFL acquisition. For example, Komiyama (2013) examined the factors underlying

EFL reading motivation of adult students. The results showed that adult students’

English reading motivation comprises both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which

confirmed the multidimensional nature of reading motivation. An examination of

students’ reading motivation when reading expository texts found there was a

significant and positive relationship between reading motivation and reading

proficiency (Jafari & Shokrpour, 2012). Ahmadi et al. (2013) examined the

relationship between students’ reading motivation and reading comprehension in the

Malaysian context with inclusion of expanded motivational multiplicity as the scope

of investigation in order to come up with a broader identification of reading

comprehension growth predictors. In their study they included motivation constructs

(interest, perceived control, collaboration, involvement, efficacy), text genres, specific

versus general contexts, and the self-versus other evidence sources about motivation

as multiple components under investigation. They found that reading motivation has a

positive impact on reading comprehension. Students with higher motivation tend to

 54

score higher in reading comprehension tests. In the Saudi Arabian context, the level of

reading motivation of students has been found to be low. In research by Alsamadani

(2011), 50% of respondents said they do not read unless it is absolutely required by

teachers or in other social contexts. Alsamadani (2011) also found that extensive

reading among Saudi EFL learners is an unpopular activity and that students did not

voluntarily read English materials outside of class time.

It is important to note that the problems of low levels of reading motivation are a

universal problem. Pitcher (2007) assessed adolescents’ motivation to read and the

cause of a decline through a descriptive survey method based at eight sites throughout

the United States and Trinidad. It was found that students’ motivation to read declined

because of the mismatch between what they are asked to read and their preferences.

The ability of teachers to consider learners’ interests and purposes is an issue that may

impact motivation.

2.3.2.3 Writing

Writing is considered an essential language skill and important productive activity

particularly for EFL students. Writing is a way of expressing feelings, ideas, and

exchanging information or a way of using words to express oneself (Taki &

Fardafshari, 2012). Writing can be a challenge for EFL learners and is important for

translating thoughts, ideas, and feelings (Taki & Fardafshari, 2012). When an

individual writes well, it also helps produce a logical argument. Writing a text for

most EFL learners is difficult because the writing process calls for a wide range of

linguistic and cognitive strategies (Luchini, 2010). There are three major types of EFL
 55

writing approaches: the product approach, process approach, and genre-based

approach (Seifoori et al., 2012).

In the product approach, learners are expected to produce an accurate textual form

that conforms to the model provided by their teacher. With this approach the final

product (i.e., the linguistic form) takes precedence over the process of learning to

produce the product. In other words, under a product approach, students are taught to

“develop competence in particular modes of written communication by

deconstructing and reconstructing model texts” (Christmas, 2011, p. 1). In a product

approach, successful learning is measured by how well-structured and grammatically

correct a text is.

In contrast, the process approach mainly focuses on the stages of writing such as

planning, drafting, revisiting or redrafting, and editing (Harmer, 2007). It is based on

a constructivist view and sees the author as a communal learner and communicator,

emphasising the importance of social interaction on learning. Finally, a genre-based

approach focuses on social contexts for which language is used (Widodo, 2006). It

views writing not only as a linguistic and social activity but a social act (Santoso,

2010). Hence, students are expected to present their work to a specific audience in a

particular context and with a certain purpose (Santoso, 2010). Understanding all the

above-mentioned writing strategies in EFL contexts is essential for formulating

success factors in motivating students.

There are also several common strategies for teaching writing in EFL contexts. These

include modelling, shared and guided writing, and interactive and independent writing

(Seifoori et al., 2012). In modelling, the instructor demonstrates and explains the
 56

reading strategies and writing processes being introduced. This is achieved by

thinking aloud the mental processes used when planning, drafting, conferring,

refining, or publishing. The teacher models the use of the selected reading strategy.

The learner is expected to participate by actively attending to the demonstrations. The

modelling of texts may assist students to become aware of the typical structural and

grammatical features of the text (Kongpetch, 2006). Sharing is when an EFL teacher

demonstrates the use of the writing processes to compose a range of texts and inviting

students to contribute ideas and information (Seifoori et al., 2012). Guiding involves

the provision of scaffolds for learners to use in the writing processes and in giving

feedback. Learners work with the assistance of the teacher and other students to

practise the use of the writing processes to compose a variety of texts. When using the

interactive method, teacher and students co-create and co-write. This involves a two-

way conversation around the creation of words, sentences, or paragraphs (Seifoori et

al., 2012). Finally, independent writing refers to a situation where students create and

write while the teacher monitors progress (Farr, 2010).

The impact of teaching strategies on motivating students to write can be significant

because writing instructional strategies can enhance students’ involvement in the

learning process, shifting the focus from instructor-controlled classrooms to learner-

centered ones (Bahous et al., 2011). The use of writing strategies that includes content

relevant to learner’s lives and provides corrective feedback can promote meaningful

participation for all students within the classroom and aid motivation (Bahous et al.,

2011). Other crucial elements of an effective EFL teacher such as being a good

manager, patient, enthusiastic, flexible, and intelligent are equally important (Seifoori

et al., 2012). While there has been considerable attention on effective ways of
 57

teaching writing to EFL students, the extant literature is limited in terms of how

teachers contribute to the motivation of students for writing in urban and rural

contexts.

Teachers have an important role to play when developing students’ writing skills. It

has been argued that teachers prioritise surface-level features of writing (Daud, 2012).

Some tend to focus on grammatical rules in writing activities. Alghizzi (2017) asserts

that teachers, unfortunately, allocate most of their time to surface-level features of

writing and analysing written papers piece by piece from sentence to paragraph

disregarding the whole unit of discourse. Yet, successful writers do not just string

sentences together in a grammatically correct manner (Sengupta & Falvey, 1998).

Daud (2012) argues that good writing is the reflection of good critical thinking which

requires the ability to understand key ideas and concepts; distinguishing main ideas

and arguments from subordinate ones; judging relevant ideas and providing reasons;

judging the credibility of sources of information; and being able to paraphrase them

and later draw conclusions based on these justifications. Engaging in all these tasks

requires a high level of motivation as well as control of the content and language

demands.

2.3.2.4 Motivation for Writing

Motivation is an essential component of successful language acquisition and is a

dynamic process subject to continuous change. Some studies have established the

existence of highly motivated students in writing tasks (e.g., Dörnyei, 2001; Elliott,

1999). In Elliott’s (1999) research, 60 students of English at Lisbon University

responded to a survey seeking to establish the reasons behind their problems with
 58

second language writing. Results revealed that students tend to be highly motivated

when undertaking their writing tasks because they got a wide range of information in

classroom activities to help them to complete writing tasks. Alrabai (2016) suggests

that each individual EFL student’s motivation is affected by internal factors related to

the individual learner and external factors related to the sociocultural and contextual

background of the learner. Internal factors include the students’ attitudes toward the

task, its intrinsic interest, perceived value, and relevance of the task. Motivation to

undertake a specific task is also influenced by students’ interest, a sense of agency,

and feelings of mastery and control over the learning task.

There are three psychological needs that must be met to enhance motivation. These

are: “(1) a sense of competency achieved through seeking out and overcoming

challenges; (2) autonomy; (3) relatedness – being connected to, and esteemed by

others belonging to a larger social whole” (Noels, 2001, p. 54). There is also another

important aspect when a student completes a writing activity because of its inherent

satisfaction. This is referred to as intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). To

increase this type of motivation, a sense of self-worth and self-determination

(Oldfather & West, 1999) are essential, and students need to be given “ample

opportunities for social interaction and self-expression” (Oldfather & West, 1999, p.

16). In addition, personal causation, interest, and enjoyment are also considered as

indispensable factors to influence motivation (Ryan et al., 2019).

When examining motivation in the SA context and the extent to which these

psychological needs are being met, we must consider the highly complex situation of

English in this context. Both Alkaabi (2016) and Lin (1996) suggest that English

plays a negligible role in students’ lives outside a formal learning environment in SA

 59

“especially if we consider that students may not have any opportunity to speak or

practice English outside classrooms” (Alkaabi, 2016, p. 19). There is dominance of

the Arabic mother tongue in most daily activities, offering limited chances to write

English outside or even inside the classroom (Alrabai, 2016).

The teacher’s role in motivating students’ interest in writing also has a profound

influence, particularly in relation to the facilitation role. A study by Lee et al. (2018)

in Hong Kong found that students were not motivated to write in English. In their

analysis, the authors considered the students’ learning situation level and the EFL

learning experience components of the EFL motivation self-system following Dörnyei

(2005). Lee et al. (2018) suggest that students’ writing environment and experience

may be possible causes of students’ low level of motivation. These low motivational

factors include: the methods teachers use to teach writing (for example, a heavy focus

on decontextualised grammar practice), the lack of interesting materials (the authors

suggest that Hong Kong teachers rely heavily on textbook materials which are often

remote from students’ experiences and interests), insufficient time for writing due to a

focus on the written product (such as single drafting), and teacher’s demotivational

feedback which consists mainly of detailed error feedback.

These factors were also highlighted by Lo and Hyland (2007) who found that

decontextualised grammar practice demotivated students. They report that despite low

English performance scores, the enthusiasm revealed by participants to the new

programme which had topical and contemporary issues suggested that encouraging

students to write about topics relevant and of interest to them can have a confidence

building and liberating effect. Absence of this will result in students focussing more

on achieving good grades in examinations rather than having a deeper understanding

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of English (Fan, 1993). The focus for students would be on “withholding personal

views, focusing on grammatical accuracy rather than ideas, and memorising model

compositions” (Fan, 1993, p. 74). The utilisation of limited strategies by teachers may

have an impact on students’ motivation to learn to write in English; one of the focus

areas of the current study.

Motivation can vary from time to time. Dörnyei (2003) argues that motivation is not

fixed and instructors such as EFL teachers can actively enhance learners’ motivation.

One effective way to enhance learners’ motivation to write is the provision of

opportunities for engaging in their writing classes to ensure they are relevant to their

cultural and societal context. In addition, there is need for a concerted effort to design

writing tasks that would derive interest and meaning from the students including

providing opportunities for self-expression and social interaction.

Another area which relates to student’s motivation to write relates to instructor

feedback. In a Hong Kong study, Lee (2008) asserts that teacher feedback consisting

primarily of detailed error feedback demotivates students. A major part of this could

be accounted for by the socio-cultural forces of teaching in Hong Kong where

teachers tend to focus on detailed error feedback. These conventional feedback

practices in various EFL contexts have been found to be ineffective due to the

inadequate amount of mediation they provide (Lee, 2014; Lee et al., 2018). A

meaningful, purposeful, and effective feedback in the process‐oriented EFL

classroom, and reconsideration of the role of the learner in the teacher-student

dialogue is proposed by the researchers as a motivating mechanism in their body of

work (Lee, 2014).

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The selection of topics can influence the motivation of students to write in English.

Bonyadi (2014) investigated the effect of topic selection on the motivation of EFL

students’ writing performance. Students studying for the Masters of Arts (MA) degree

in teaching EFL in Iran participated in the study. One group was assigned topics by

their teachers, while the other was offered to choose their own topics for writing. The

study found a positive effect of students’ self-selection of the topics on their writing

performances. Bonyadi (2014) suggested that allowing EFL students to have a say in

what they are writing about would help them in achieving a greater level of

motivation in their writing classes and better engagement. However, Bahous et al.

(2011) investigated perceptions of teachers and students through interviews and

surveys in Lebanon and found that learners are not motivated to learn English because

there is an over-emphasis on writing skills hence a balance between writing, reading,

listening, and speaking skills is essential. Similar findings were obtained in relation to

motivation to read in an EFL context.

Overall, self-selected reading material motivated students more than teacher selected

texts (Gobert, 2011; Threadkell, 2010). Threadkell’s (2010) qualitative study

investigated differences between learners’ perceptions of self-selected and teacher-

assigned texts and found that learners were highly motivated to read when they

selected their own text material. In addition, students appeared to increase their

understanding more when reading self-selected texts. However, the study participants

also highlighted that certain teacher-selected texts which contained high quality

vocabulary and included high-interest content were more motivating over student

selected content.
 62

The reviewed studies reveal that students consider language skills as equally

important and any reading and written text that involved texts not chosen by students

themselves tended to demotivate students (e.g., Bonyadi, 2014; Hall, 2011). Various

factors that influence students’ motivation have been suggested. These include

students’ writing environment and experience in class. In a classroom setting, factors

such as interesting materials and teacher’s motivational feedback have been

highlighted (Bonyadi, 2014; Threadkell, 2010).

2.3.2.5 Communicative Language in Classroom Activities

Although listening, speaking, writing, and reading are essential, the impact of

communicative classroom activities can also have a huge bearing on EFL students’

motivation. Cheng and Dörnyei (2007) evaluated the extent to which a comprehensive

list of motivational strategies derived from Western countries was perceived as

educationally relevant by Taiwanese EFL teachers. They found that the way teachers

present instructional materials has a strong effect on how learners perceive the

assigned activities. The results suggest that communicating an appropriate rationale

and strategic advice concerning how to approach a particular activity is an essential

ingredient for motivating students. In addition, the results showed that certain

motivational strategies are also culturally dependent. They noted an important

constraint, that although communicative activities have been promoted in Taiwanese

EFL classrooms during the past few years, their spread may be hindered by the

perception that learning should be serious hard work and a test-driven teaching

culture.
 63

Another study explored motivational issues in EFL Sudanese secondary classes (Al

Haj, 2011). Using direct observations, guided interviews, and previous studies to

obtain valuable information, Al Haj (2011) demonstrated that lack of motivation in

EFL classes was due to lack of developing programs which maintain students’

interest, problems with teachers and their training, school approaches, and failure of

support by families. However it was noted that a variety of classroom activities play

an important part in motivating learners and facilitate the acquisition of English skills,

hence it was recommended that teachers should use role-plays, problem-solving, pair

work, games, debates, group work, and interviews to motivate EFL students. Similar

results were obtained in Tuan’s (2012) study who examined motivational factors

influencing students’ English learning performance and effective ways of motivating

students. Tuan (2012) showed that 94% of participants agreed that motivational

activities are necessary and activities identified included group or pair work, playing

games, role-plays as well as watching films in English and listening to English audio.

Some studies have demonstrated different perceptions by teachers and students

regarding communicative language teaching. Ngoc and Iwashita (2012) compared

students’ and teachers’ attitudes toward four factors related to communicative

language teaching: the importance of grammar, quality and quantity of error

correction, use of group and pair work, and the role of teachers in the classroom.

Using a questionnaire and 88 first-year learners and 37 in-service teachers from two

universities in Hanoi, Vietnam, the results showed that both groups have favourable

attitudes toward communicative language teaching although teachers had more

positive attitudes than learners for all the factors except group and pair work. Students

welcomed and were enthusiastic with group and pair work because they seemed to be
 64

in control of their learning in the classroom. This is particularly important as this

study explored both students’ and teachers’ perceptions regarding learners’

motivation. They were asked to reflect upon teaching activities in class and

differences in urban and rural contexts.

The motivation to increase students’ English vocabulary has also been explored. Chou

(2014) investigated the extent to which activities, songs, stories, and games assisted

and motivated Taiwanese EFL students to learn English vocabulary. Using qualitative

and quantitative data collected through interviews, achievement tests, and self-

assessment questionnaires Chou (2014) demonstrated that songs, stories, and games

had a positive effect on students’ motivation to increase English vocabulary. Finally,

oral presentations were found to increase students’ motivation. Masmaliyeva (2014)

explored the effect of oral presentation of EFL teaching in class. Using an action

research approach, learners’ language proficiency, participation, and attitude were

analysed based on oral presentations. Results showed they increased students’

motivation, accuracy, ownership over learning, confidence, speech fluency, and a

sense of community.

Communicative language teaching success depends on a variety of factors. Among

the challenges are teachers’ ability to include the external pressures demanding that

learning in the classroom should be ‘serious’. There is also the challenge of meeting

curriculum requirements including tests. The extent to which these challenges inhibit

motivation in the SA context will be explored in the current study through

questionnaires and interviews to gauge the extent of differences between urban and

rural student cohorts.

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2.3.3 Affective Variables which Motivate Students

Emotions, attitudes, and feelings toward the target language have a major impact on

motivation. For example, Abidin et al. (2012) examined EFL students’ attitudes

toward learning English language at a Libyan secondary school. The study explored

whether there is any significant difference in the attitude of students toward English

language based on their demographic profiles such as field, gender, and year of study.

One hundred and eighty students participated in the study involving three features of

attitude: behavioural, emotional, and cognitive. The results revealed that most

students had negative attitudes toward learning English.

Significant differences related to gender and field of study have also been reported in

some studies. Abidin et al. (2012) showed that the attitudes of female secondary

school students toward English were slightly more positive than those of males.

Abidin et al. (2012) suggest that the gender differences may be attributed to diversity

of English teaching strategies and classroom activities employed by EFL teachers, and

the design and content of English curriculum may not be meeting the needs and

interests of male students. Access to resources outside the classroom may also be

important as suggested by a study by Kocatepe (2017). This study was conducted with

female Emirati tertiary students in the UAE and the findings suggest that students

utilised naturally occurring material resources such as movies, television, the internet,

and digital and print texts in the privacy of their homes. Gender is an important

variable that has consistently been associated with individual differences in emotions,

attitudes, and feelings toward EFL. Gender is a critical variable that influences every

aspect of the language learning process. As such, the difference in gender might affect

students’ motivation.
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Integrativeness has been found to be an essential component of EFL motivation. It

refers to a genuine interest in learning the second language in order to come closer to

the other language community (Gardner, 2001). In a variety of learning environments,

integrativeness has been found to be an important variable in predicting motivated

behaviour and success in language learning (e.g., Al-Shamy, 2012; Dörnyei, 1990;

Makrami, 2010; Yashima, 2002). This concept has occupied a central role in most

models of EFL motivation proposed in the last five decades. Students with integrative

motivation want to learn the language so they can better understand and get to know

the people who speak that language. This is distinct from instrumental motivation

where students want to learn a language because of a practical reason such as getting

a job promotion or getting into university (Masgoret & Gardner, 2003). Students in

this study will be classified as integratively motivated if they are open to other

language communities and have a positive attitude throughout the learning process.

An interest in foreign affairs and willingness to go overseas to stay or work has been

found to influence motivation toward learning EFL. Yashima (2002) examined

integrative attitudes toward learning situations and their alignment with the Japanese

EFL context. Yashima (2002) sought to capture the general attitude toward the

international community and EFL learning in Japan. The study examined the relations

among EFL learning and EFL communication variables using the socio-educational

model as a framework. They found that ‘international posture’ influences motivation,

which in turn influences proficiency in English, and define it as the interest in foreign

or international affairs, willingness to go overseas to stay or work, readiness to

interact with intercultural partners, and openness or a non-ethnocentric attitude toward

different cultures. Yashima (2002) also found that motivation affected self-confidence
 67

in EFL communication which led to willingness to communicate in an EFL context.

In addition to this indirect path, a direct path from international posture to willingness

to communicate in EFL was significant. Yashima (2002) additionally found that

motivation to study English contributes to students’ second language proficiency and

confidence. Gardner (1985) suggested that integrative motivation surpasses

instrumental motivation since it involves attitudinal factors and goal orientated

behaviours, which are essential to the EFL learning process. However, Dörnyei

(2001) asserts that integrative and instrumental motivation should not be viewed as

opposites of each other but rather that they are positively related and contribute to

achievement of the EFL learning process. The current study would examine whether

both instrumental motivation and integrative motivation are utilised by students in

EFL learning.

Intrinsic motivation and practical benefits also have impact on students’ motivation.

In a Vietnamese study, Ngo et al. (2017) compared the motivation of non-English

major and English major students at a Vietnamese university. Using SDT, the study

revealed that both groups of students demonstrated high levels of motivation to learn

English, however students majoring in English were more intrinsically motivated. The

study also revealed that students were learning a second language to obtain pragmatic

gains such as jobs. Interestingly, in both groups, students who were intrinsically

motivated invested the highest levels of effort to learn English and males reported

significantly lower levels of motivation than females. Similar employment

motivations were also reported in a study by Tokar (2017) who investigated factors

related to theological education that motivate students to learn English at an

evangelical seminary in Ukraine. Factors connected to theological education which

 68

students consistently mentioned within the top three were future employment,

communication with foreigners, and travel abroad. These studies show that both

intrinsic and instrumental motivation play a role in learning EFL.

A range of other factors have also been identified in prior studies. In the East Asian

context, Wang (2010) found Chinese university students were extrinsically motivated

to learn English. Residing abroad and academic discipline were found to have no

influence on EFL motivation, although having a family member who is proficient in

English positively influenced students’ motivation. Wang (2010) suggested that

family members or close relatives act as role models by motivating students to learn

English. In addition, students who frequently communicated in English outside their

classrooms displayed a higher degree of motivation than their colleagues who did not

speak English outside.

The findings of Wang (2010) are similar in terms of the extrinsic factors to the results

obtained by Chen (2014) who found that most Chinese students were extrinsically

motivated to learn English. Chen’s (2014) study reported that instrumental reasons

were cited as the main reasons such as pursuing higher studies, getting a good job in

the future, and passing English tests. Unlike Wang (2010) and Chen (2014), Pan et al.

(2010) found that most Chinese students were both extrinsically and intrinsically

motivated to learn English. However, Pan et al.’s (2010) study is similar to Ngo et al.

(2017) and Tokar (2017).

In Ngo et al.’s (2017) study, students were motivated to learn a second language in

order to obtain pragmatic gains such as jobs. Similarly, employment motivations were

also reported in the study by Tokar (2017). In Pan et al.’s (2010) study, intrinsic
 69

motivation involved admiring the lifestyle, culture, and English language of English-

speaking communities. It also involved a desire to increase their knowledge about the

world. On the other hand, students’ extrinsic motivation involved pursuing higher

studies abroad, passing English tests, securing a good job, and travelling overseas.

The relationship between affective variables and willingness to communicate has

links with motivation. Hashimoto (2002) examined affective variables as predictors of

reported foreign language use to communicate in the classrooms of Japanese EFL

students in Hawaii. They used the term ‘willingness to communicate’ (WTC) to

understand the phenomenon. Motivation and WTC affected reported EFL

communication frequency in classrooms as hypothesised by the authors. WTC is a

relatively recent addition to the affective variables, and has been used to describe an

individual’s personality-based predisposition toward approaching or avoiding the

initiation of communication when free to do so (McCroskey, 1992).

Hashimoto (2002) utilised the socio-educational model (Gardner, 1985) and WTC

model (Macintyre, 1994) to find that motivation and willingness to communicate were

found to be main causes of the frequency of EFL usage in classrooms. This is

supported by Ehrman (1996) who states that an individual defends his or her

emotional stability and self-respect in several ways such as through what he names

‘defence mechanism’. Indications of concern appear in that individual such as

reluctance to undertake a task, unwillingness to take part in an activity, in addition to

unfavourable behaviour. All are defence mechanisms which worried students utilise

to balance their emotional composure.

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In summary, emotions, attitudes, and feelings towards the target language have a

major impact on motivation. Diversity of English teaching strategies and interesting

classroom activities employed by EFL teachers may meet the needs and interests of

students. These have been shown to provoke positive emotional reactions that have

been suggested to increase the motivation of students. Significant attitudinal

differences related to gender and field of study have also been reported in some

studies but not year of study. In SA, the government mandates a single-gender

education policy where female students attend their classes in all segregated female

campuses hence the current study examines affective motivation factors at a

university with male students only.

The single-gender education policy in Saudi Arabia has had a significant impact on

the learning of the English language. Female only schools have been slower to adopt

English as a medium of instruction due to cultural and social restrictions, while male

schools have been more receptive to learning English. The curriculum designed for

female students has always been similar to that designed for males but course material

is usually much less extensive for females than for males (Alsuwaida, 2016). While

the current study focuses on a male university, the impact of government policy on

English learning is critical. AlJuhani (2021) demonstrated that co-education built their

confidence to communicate and negotiate with their peers improving English

language proficiency. However, in recent years, the Saudi government has

emphasized the importance of English language proficiency as a key component of

the country's economic growth and modernization, leading to increased efforts to

teach English in schools at all levels.

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While the single-gender education policy has its complexities, the divide between

urban and rural students is also a challenge Mohammed (2015). In urban areas,

resources and opportunities are more abundant, with access to language-learning

opportunities, including formal English language education. In rural areas, the

challenges faced by schools are more acute, with limited resources and often a

shortage of qualified teachers. In these areas, access to formal English language

education may be even more limited, which can make it more difficult for students to

develop their language skills. In addition, cultural norms that discourage mixing

between genders may further limit opportunities for practicing English in natural,

conversational settings.

2.4 Studies on Students’ EFL Motivation in Arab Countries

As the current study took place in SA, the context for this thesis is located within

Arab countries. Arab countries cover a large geographical area over two continents,

Africa and Asia, from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and

Indian Ocean in the southeast, and from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian

Sea in the east. There are many Arab countries including Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt,

Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, SA, Sudan, Syria,

Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen (Rabia, 2016).

Having discussed studies on motivation of EFL learners and affective variables in

general, it is useful to examine how motivation occurs and how people communicate

in EFL contexts in Arabic countries and see whether there are similarities and

differences. The context of Arab countries is quite distinct. Within them, Islam is the

main religion and Arabic the main language. In addition, the existence of a local
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formal education system was represented by Quranic schools for a very long time

(Akkari, 2004). The establishment of Quranic schools and the development of Islamic

education in SA is important to understand as it reflects the unique way in which its

education system has developed to its education institutions and arrangements that

exist today from primary through to higher education.

Quranic schools refer to schools in which Muslims learn their religion and are

normally found in a mosque, private premises, or houses. These schools were

established to offer religious instructions and promote Islamic religious culture in

general (Marghalani, 2018). Islamic education is provided for individuals to master

the basic tenets of Islam predominantly by sheer memorisation of the Arabic script

(Mattson, 2012). Within these schools, learners are taught the Quran (holy book), of

the prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), faith (jurisprudence), and Hadithi

(sayings). Other subject areas are taught depending on whether the teacher is

sufficiently well versed in the content of that area.

Mattson (2012) states that Quranic schools attempted to produce Islamic education

which had significances in Muslim societies. Islamic education through Quranic

schools has been part and parcel of SA since the early centuries. Normally, the teacher

is a man born and bred in the village, highly regarded as a religious man, and a

respected member of his society (Marghalani, 2018). During the teaching process, the

teacher sits surrounded by Quranic and other religious books with a cane (stick)

nearby. Holding a cane is a traditional practice that one may lean on. The main goal of

Quranic schools is to spread Islamic religion and develop the spiritual well-being of

its students through Islamic teachings. Teachers in these schools cite the need for total

commitment and motivation on their part in achieving the objectives of Quranic

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traditional schools. English is often seen as a tool for spreading Islamic teachings and

promoting cross-cultural understanding.

As a result of the spread of Western ideas and education across the world, a

combination of Islamic and non-Islamic content emerged in the educational

curriculum. At the beginning of 1929, out of 14 subjects provided at elementary level

four were Islamic. Around the 1930s, the number of Islamic subjects increased to six

of the 21 delivered across the country. However, by 1968 there were five Islamic

subjects out of 19 and this proportion remained stable until 1980 (Marghalani, 2018).

Although the proportion of Islamic subjects varied over the years, specific Islamic

subjects such as the Qur’ān were maintained while Islam was embedded in other

subjects like civic education, history, maths, general science, geography, and art. This

was aimed at maintaining Islam as the core of both formal and embedded curricula in

SA. Arabic language is also perceived as an important part of the curriculum to

include four to seven subjects. Like any other language, the teaching of English is

associated with the culture of its native speakers. It is perceived to be the carrier of

Western cultures and Christian values hence a threat to Islamic values and identity,

affecting the motivation of students.

Motivation toward EFL has also been linked to practical factors. In UAE, Suliman

(2006) investigated students’ motivation toward EFL in the state secondary schools.

The results showed that UAE students had practical reasons such as the prospect of

getting a high salary or completing university studies as motivating factors. In

contrast, difficulties with specific aspects of English such as vocabulary, structure of

sentences, and spelling were found to be demotivating factors. Similar demotivating

factors were found by Keblawi (2005) whose study was conducted on Arab students
 74

in Israel. The study involved 294 Arab EFL learners asked to state the factors that

demotivated them. The results revealed that students can be demotivated by

difficulties with grammar and vocabulary. Interestingly, another UAE study revealed

similar results; Qashoa (2006) found in their study among high school students,

English teachers, and supervisors that Arab students were more instrumentally

motivated to learn English than integratively.

A Yemen study found a dominant instrumental motivation. Al-Tamimi and Shuib

(2009) conducted a study to identify petroleum engineering students’ attitudes and

motivation toward learning EFL. The majority reported instrumental motives to learn

English. The students also reported positive attitudes toward both the educational and

social aspects of English.

Some studies have investigated the interaction between attitudes and motivation in

relation to EFL achievement. According to Gardner (2001), a learner who shows

motivated learning behaviour is likely to have the following attributes: (1) the desire

to learn the foreign language, (2) intensity or effort, and (3) attitudes toward learning

the foreign language. However, others have not directly linked motivation to attitudes.

For example, Dörnyei et al. (2006) assert that motivated learning behaviour is related

to: (1) the intended choice of learning the given language, and (2) effort. In Qatar, Al-

Dosari (2016) investigated the interaction between attitudes and motivation in relation

to EFL achievement by secondary school students in a context where English is not

the language of instruction but a curriculum subject only. The findings revealed

students’ positive attitudes toward British people which related to their motivation to

learn English.
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Differences between the motivation of male and female students can also be found in

Arab contexts. Al-Dosari’s (2016) results showed that female students displayed a

significantly higher motivation than male students for all items in their measurement

scale. As Gökçe (2008) explained “female learners not only have more positive

attitudes toward learning English and toward its culture, but they devote more

attention and effort to learning English than their male peers” (p. 56). Gökçe (2008)

suggests that females were far more interested in cultural elements such as movies,

music, and published materials with cultural information. However, the majority of

females in their study showed that in addition to their desire to visit English speaking

countries and be able to communicate with native speakers they simultaneously

showed strong loyalty to their first language and culture.

This finding is not unique to Arab countries as several researchers from various

regions of the world have found similar results. For example, Pritchard and Loulidi

(1994) noted how researchers were anxious to test for differences in experiences

between Roman Catholic and Protestant groups in Northern Ireland and the reflection

or encouragement of particular cultural allegiance. It was found that substantial

variation in the importance given to language learning in both systems exists with

Catholic schools biased toward arts and languages and Protestant schools focusing

more on mathematical and science subjects (Jackson, 2018). A further breakdown of

the data led to Pritchard and Loulidi (1994) to state that “girls, we are repeatedly told,

tend to show significantly more positive attitudes than boys” (p. 393) and they report

that boys especially those from rural areas prefer disciplines which equip them with a

practical skill rather than a modern language in Northern Ireland.

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Al-Daher and Al-Haq (2020) also found out that Arab immigrant female students in

Canada had more positive attitudes toward learning a second language and integrating

into Canadian society compared to their male counterparts. The basis of gender

differences in motivation and attitudes has also been highly controversial by being

attributed to biological differences. Costello (1991) argues there are many innate

differences in information processing, listening, and learning styles between males

and females. Therefore, the design of instructional materials and approaches that may

be effective to female learners may not necessarily be meaningful for male learners.

This possibility could not be explored further in the current study, which involved

only male participants.

Some studies have combined variations between male and female students and

differences between graduate and undergraduate students toward motivation. In

Jordan, Alfawzan (2012) explored the attitudes of 200 graduate and undergraduate

students at Yarmouk University. The results showed that most Jordanian learners had

positive attitudes toward EFL. However, although gender was considered the results

did not reveal any significant difference between the motivations of male and female

students. Their academic levels did however reveal different results, showing that

graduates tended to have more positive attitudes toward EFL than undergraduate

students.

Attitudes of students in relation to knowledge of English and their Arab beliefs and

traditions has also been investigated. Denman (2014) investigated Omani students’

attitudes toward EFL, their attitudes toward the place of English in Oman, and their

attitudes toward native speakers of English. Findings suggested that participants held

positive attitudes toward the English language and its place in Omani society.
 77

Participants emphasised that access to the English language can be a source of

empowerment. In addition, participants believed that English allowed them to express

their own individual values and concerns. Students felt their knowledge of English

was compatible with their Arab beliefs and traditions. However, students’ attitudes

toward native speakers of English were mixed with many participants reporting

neutral attitudes on the questionnaire responses. Al Rifai (2010) also explored

students’ motivation, attitudes, and difficulties involved in EFL learning and the

factors affecting their motivation in Kuwait. This study found that learners whose

English proficiency levels were above average were significantly more motivated to

learn English than those with average proficiency.

Another Kuwait study explored students’ motivation and attitudes toward English and

toward native English speakers. Malallah (2000) conducted a study to investigate

undergraduate students toward EFL attitude and motivation. The results suggested

that students valued English and had positive attitudes toward learning it including

having a positive attitude toward native English speakers. Malallah (2000) also

examined the relation between students’ attitudes and motivation toward EFL and

language attainment. Consistent with other Kuwait studies, students’ attitude and

motivation toward English was also found to be positively correlated with language

attainment (Al othman & Shuqair, 2013).

Not all studies in the Arab world have shown positive attitudes toward EFL. In

Jordan, Abu-Melhim (2009) interviewed students in the English Department of Irbid

University College. Participants were expected to be English teachers once they

graduated. Abu-Melhim (2009) examined students’ attitudes and motivation toward

learning EFL. The results revealed that although participants’ motives for learning
 78

English ranged from a mix of extrinsic and intrinsic factors, almost half reported

negative attitudes toward learning English. When prompted why, they reported that

they considered learning English a waste of time and were only learning it to either

please their parents or because they were not good at maths and science and had no

choice other than studying English.

Several motivational factors influence writing in EFL classes in Arab countries

including cultural differences and contextual knowledge. The approach to learning

English may differ between urban and rural settings. In rural areas, access to formal

English language education may be limited, and individuals may rely more on self-

study, informal learning, or community-based language exchanges. In contrast, urban

areas may offer more formal language learning opportunities, such as language

schools, private tutors, and online courses. Hall (2011) suggests that Arabic culture is

generally an oral tradition-based culture. Therefore, Arabic speaking students

frequently find it difficult to understand the requirements of assessment tasks

presented in written form. Al-Issa and Dahan (2008) suggest that in some cases a lack

of understanding of English writings might be explained by the fact that EFL students

are given to read texts written for Western audiences which assume a prior contextual

knowledge that EFL students might not have. Hence, contextual knowledge is part of

cultural differences. This contributes to their lack of understanding of such written

texts but also reduces EFL students’ motivation of reading in English. Studies of

motivation of students in Arab countries reveal that overall they had positive attitudes

toward EFL learning and had practical reasons such as the prospect of remuneration

as motivating factors (Al-Dosari, 2016; Al-Issa & Dahan, 2008; Al Rifai, 2010).
 79

Findings from other countries suggest that students were often demotivated by

difficulties with grammar and vocabulary, the methods teachers use for teaching

writing, tasks based on western contexts, and lack of interesting materials. This

finding is of particular importance to the study presented in this thesis, as one of its

objectives is to clarify the influence of various factors on learners’ motivation. While

the current study is not looking at the motivation of female learners of English, a

comparison of results in the current all-male study and results that have examined

female students in previous studies may still inform future research.

Religion emphasizes the importance of seeking knowledge and education, and many

Muslims view English as a language that can help them better understand and engage

with the world around them (Marghalani, 2018). However, the link between Islamic

religion and motivation to learn English in Saudi Arabia is complex and multifaceted,

with a variety of social, economic, and cultural factors at play.

2.5 Motivation to Learn EFL in SA

The following section outlines studies on motivation of EFL learners in SA, the focus

of this study. Research into motivation to learn English in SA higher education is

scant. Empirical studies of higher education English language classes are discussed

below, offering insights into what may motivate students in SA. The focus of these

studies is on examining the type of motivation displayed by students in SA. In

particular, studies which explored parental motivation, differences between male and

female participants, instrumental and integrative motivation, relationships between

anxiety and motivational levels, and motivation for reading are discussed.
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The importance of learning EFL and motivation has been explored in very few studies

focusing on females in SA without focussing on rural English language learners.

Elsheikh (2014) conducted a study with female students from SA in Taif University,

an urban university. The study revealed that students are aware of the importance of

learning EFL including associated benefits, such as an improvement in the quality of

their lives and increased chances in finding work. Participants showed a high level of

motivation as they recognised that the future workforce of the country and

international work-market require English language skills.

Anxiety while learning English Language has some effect on motivation. Mohammed

(2015) investigated anxiety while learning the English language and motivation as

well as its effects on Saudi students’ EFL achievement. Seventy five male students

were randomly selected from the Community College and Faculty of Education at the

rural based campus of Shaqra University. The results indicated moderate anxiety level

about EFL learning and a moderately high motivation level among students.

Mohammed (2015) referred to anxiety while learning English language and being

with a group of English-speaking people which also involved feelings of stress and

nervousness. The findings also suggested that participants were more motivated by

the role English played in their career and academic advancement rather than impeded

by the anxieties about being part of the English-speaking community.

Despite the absence of combined male and female students in SA, some studies have

explored the relationship between motivation and gender. Makrami (2010) examined

the motivation of male and female students toward English for Specific Purposes

(ESP) or General Purposes (EGP). The study aimed to find which of the two groups

were more motivated. In addition, it investigated the relation of motivation to

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language learning achievements. Sub-domains investigated included: anxiety,

motivation, integrativeness, attitude towards, and instrumentality. Six hundred and

fifty students from Jazan University, an urban based university in SA, took part in the

study. Analysis of data demonstrated a significant positive correlation between

students’ motivation and achievement in a general English course more than the ESP

(Makrami, 2010). In addition, the study showed that the EGP group were more

instrumentally oriented than the ESP group. Instrumental motivation refers to

functional reasons for learning English such as getting a better job or passing an

examination (Gardner, 1985).

A higher level of motivation for female students compared to male students has been

reported. Al-Shamy (2012) investigated motivation of the Preparatory Year Program

(PYP) of Saudi male and female students at Taibah University toward English as a

foreign language. The results showed that this cohort of SA students had a very high

level of EFL learning motivation. Al-Shamy (2012) demonstrated that Saudi learners’

driving force for learning English was instrumentality (100%) followed by integrative

orientation (desire to be like and part of the target language community) (86.1%). Al-

Shamy (2012) found a high level of integrative motivation reported by students who

live in an EFL context. Additionally, they found female students to be more highly

motivated than male students, and suggest that parents seem to realise the importance

of the English language in their daughters’ and sons’ lives hence they encourage their

children to learn English. However, to a larger extent females receive more parental

encouragement than their male counterparts although it is not clear why this is the

case. On the other hand, Nazari (2015) found no differences in motivation between

male and female students. They investigated two important social-psychological

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variables: attitudes and motivation toward learning English using the

Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (Gardner, 1985). The results showed relationships

between motivation, attitude, and language learning but no difference in motivation

between male and female participants.

Sources of motivation have been both instrumental and integrative. Alhuqbani’s

(2014) investigation of Saudi police cadets showed that both instrumental and

integrative motivation were essential sources of motivation during EFL classes.

Significant correlations were found between almost all the instrumental and

integrative variables providing evidence to the interdependence and integration of

these two types of motivation. Saudi police cadets felt English language skills were

needed to efficiently perform their future security jobs in SA and thus were

instrumentally motivated, and for integrative purposes had positive attitudes toward

both English learning and its culture. Al Asmari (2013) explored the motives and

attitudes of Saudi undergraduate learners toward several areas of English language,

including English and the culture of English-speaking countries. The results showed

that participants had strong positive attitude toward English and its culture, with the

majority of students showing a mixture of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for EFL.

The influence of parents and teachers has had a positive influence on student’s

motivation. Holbah (2015) explored motivational factors that affect EFL learning in

Saudi students. Students perceived themselves, their parents, and their teachers as

having a positive influence on motivation. However, they saw the impact of Saudi

Arabian schools as negative in terms of encouraging English language learning.

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Besides teachers and parents, socio-historical and socio-cultural contexts impact

motivation. Recently, Ullah (2017) adopted a qualitative research method in SA and

noted that EFL motivation is influenced by various situational, socio-historical, and

socio-cultural contexts. This is particularly related to recent changes and broader

global concerns, such as globalisation and the global status of English (Salih & Holi,

2018). Ullah (2017) argues we should probe the learner’s cultural conflicts, ethnic

thinking modes, psychological traits, cognitive modes, and their learning motivation.

In another study, Al-Nafisah and Al-Shorman (2011) investigated the SA EFL

teacher-college students’ reading interests in English, their difficulties in reading, the

persons, and factors that affect their reading behaviours. They found that learners

were interested in reading stories, novels, and plays covering topics on adventures,

religion, technology, current events, computers, and sports. However, the students had

problems accessing library content and other reading materials, as well as time

constraints, they had negative beliefs and attitudes toward reading, and there was a

lack of support for reading from the family.

Most studies reviewed have investigated attitudes and motivation under EFL without

comparing urban and rural students. Some have focused on police officers, or science

students, or only females. Elsheikh (2014) conducted a study with female students

from SA in Taif University, an urban university, while Mohammed (2015)

investigated anxiety level about EFL learning by randomly selecting students from the

Community College and Faculty of Education at the rural based campus of Shaqra

University. Makrami (2010) examined the motivation of both male and female

students in SA toward English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Similarly, Al-Shamy

(2012) investigated Saudi male and female students but in a Preparatory Year
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Program (PYP) at Taibah University toward English as a foreign language. Another

study by Alhuqbani (2014) investigated Saudi police cadets on their instrumental and

integrative motivation during EFL classes. Some studies targeted science students

only (Aljafen, 2013), while others focused on bankers (Al-khatib, 2005). Younes and

Albalawi (2016) investigated factors that lead to English speaking difficulties only,

without examining other aspects such as writing or reading. Finally, Ulla (2017)

examined socio-cultural aspects of students randomly selected at Jazan University as

a hindrance to learning English. Despite the huge variation in studies investigating

various aspects of EFL, none examined the differences of urban and rural students

using a mixed method research design such as proposed in this study.

A common observation across all Saudi Arabian studies is that learners who study

English as a foreign language continue to face many obstacles and difficulties in

attaining proficiency. Several reasons have been cited in the studies above and others

(Al-Hassaani & Mahboob, 2016; Alhuqbani, 2014; Makrami, 2010). Many Saudi

Arabian EFL learners struggle to comprehend basic English grammar including

improper use of grammar rules when forming a range of sentences (Al-Hassaani&

Mahboob, 2016) and cannot properly differentiate between many grammatical

features (Aljumah, 2011). Some notable barriers include the dominant use of Arabic

while learning English in class (Younes & Albalawi, 2016). This is a major concern;

the use of Arabic alongside and in some cases replacing English is a mixing of

instruction and a phenomenon labelled code-switching by Alhawsawi (2013) and

Alrashidi and Phan (2015). It has been found that 60% of SA EFL educators claimed

that using Arabic in an EFL class is necessary to reduce the time needed for

instruction. Almost 69% of these educators indicated that they use Arabic in EFL
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classrooms to clarify or explain very difficult concepts, grammatical points, or new

vocabulary to their learners (Alshammari, 2011). However, Alhawsawi (2013)

attributed the use of Arabic in SA EFL classes to educators’ low confidence or

competence in using English or to try and make their jobs easier.

Other common observations besides the dominant use of Arabic while teaching EFL

include the lack of verbal and written practice (Alrabai, 2016) and too much time

being devoted to listening skills rather than writing or speaking skills. Some have

attributed all the difficulties to the intense use of Arabic interference (Al-Hassaani &

Mahboob, 2016). Despite the huge range of studies, none have systematically

contrasted urban and rural students’ learning difficulties from the perspectives of

students and academics which the current study explored.

To summarise the relevant Saudi Arabian studies, Elsheikh (2014) and Mohammed

(2015) revealed that students who are motivated are those who are aware of the

importance of learning EFL in their chances of finding work (instrumental

orientation). All studies showed that females are more motivated than males (Al-

Shamy, 2012; Makrami, 2010), with just one showing no difference (Nazari, 2015).

Some studies explain that females receive more parental encouragement in EFL

learning (Al-Shamy, 2012) which may account for their higher motivation in learning

English. However, Nazari (2015) showed relationships between motivation, attitude,

and language learning. The relationship between EFL learning and motivation is

particularly relevant to the current research as it aims to discover the important factors

that affect EFL learning from urban and rural students in SA.
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2.6 Differences Among Urban and Rural Students

As highlighted in the introduction, the main purpose of this thesis is to investigate the

motivations of SA students taking into consideration not only their reading and

writing motivational profiles but also differences in terms of regions of residence and

study. Prior studies seem to suggest that rural students are disadvantaged (e.g.,

Almalki, 2011; Alothman, 2016). This section reviews the literature on EFL student

learning motivation in urban and rural regions of SA and other countries.

In other countries, various studies have identified location as a key dimension in the

provision of EFL. In a study involving first year students at university, Çakıcı (2007)

found that half of the participants, selected from various university departments, had

negative attitudes toward English. These attitudes changed depending on students’

departments that they came from as well as the high schools they graduated from. For

example, students from the Language Department approached English lessons more

positively than students from the Vocational Institution of Higher Education. Further

analysis revealed that graduates of vocational high schools have low scores and are

from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Therefore, vocational high school graduates

may transfer negative attitudes to their university education. Education disadvantage

is also experienced in schools located in remote areas. Some studies attribute this to

the learning environment with parents whose occupations do not require English

(Chohan & Rana, 2016), while some highlight limited access to learning materials and

lower confidence levels because of less exposure to situations that require them to

speak in English (Azher et al., 2010).

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Location in terms of urban and rural differences is pronounced in EFL learning.

Chohan and Rana (2016) obtained students’ responses from urban and rural schools in

Pakistan toward usefulness and their attitudes toward learning English. They claim

that students in rural areas showed little interest in learning English, and found that

the learning environment in rural areas was perceived by students as ineffective and

not interesting. There are several possible reasons for this. Socioeconomic factors

undeniably affect students’ learning and success in school, including their desire to

persist with further education.

As explained in Section 3.1 on SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000), two

types of motivation affect attention and effort that learners dedicate to their

schoolwork. These are extrinsic and intrinsic, where extrinsic motivation arises from

external contingencies (outside the self) and may facilitate compliance with deadlines

and rules but may reduce motivation to achieve or persist (Reeve, 1996). On the other

hand, intrinsic motivation arises from an individual’s desires to be proficient,

autonomous (self-directed), and interpersonally related to others, and it fosters

positive effort, attention, and achievement apart from external rewards or pressure

(Sansone & Morgan, 1992).

In the long term, external pressures undoubtedly lead to lack of motivation, with

learners simply going through the motions of academic tasks but without personal

investment (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Students affected by these external pressures may

skip school or be frequently ‘sick’, hence performing below their ability. Such

behaviours are more likely to be associated with rural or remote areas than urban

areas leading students to have low motivation and adoption of strong negative

attitudes toward EFL.

 88

Other factors include the influence of family occupations and anxiety levels. Chohan

and Rana (2016) found that the contributing factor in students’ lower motivation to

study English was that students took their grandparents and parents’ occupations,

therefore once the students completed their secondary education they would take up

those professions such as starting their own business. Under such circumstances, there

is little motivation for students to study English. They preferred not to study English

because they felt there was little benefit from it in their lives. However, for their

counterparts studying in urban areas their environment was enabling.

A Pakistani study by Azher et al (2010) used a questionnaire with 149 undergraduates

enrolled in second and sixth semester of different departments of University of

Sargodha. The results showed no significant difference regarding the type of

situations from an inventory of items that provoke anxiety between students with a

rural compared to urban background areas. However, the rural students were more

anxious about learning English when required to speak in front of others than those

with an urban background.

The SA MoE is responsible for managing the education system uniformly across

urban and rural areas. However, there are reports of differences in the level of

interaction among students and their faculty (Almalki, 2011). Steer et al. (2014) report

that the proportion of youth in the Arab world not making progress in English is at

least 10% higher in rural than in urban areas. Steer et al. (2014) explain that

geographical disadvantages affect learning levels in Arab countries because of

differences in economic conditions. Disparities are particularly pronounced at the

secondary level of schooling (Almalki, 2011). The current study examines differences

between urban and rural areas at the university level.

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Migration from rural to urban areas has resulted in differences among urban and rural

students. Alothman (2016) states many people in SA have migrated from rural to

urban areas in recent years because big cities offer more employment opportunities,

higher wages, and increased access to medical centres, modern educational

institutions, social services, and entertainment. The most significant factor of

migrating from rural to urban areas is access to education (Alothman, 2016).

Estimates are that a quarter of the country’s rural population fail to complete any kind

of formal education, and half cannot write or read (Alothman et al., 2017). This

illiteracy rate of 12.5% of the population in rural SA is higher than the 9% illiteracy

rate found in urban areas (Alothman et al., 2017).

Additionally, a major challenge of living in a rural area is having fewer opportunities

to access technology which facilitates teaching and learning (Alothman et al., 2017).

Alothman et al. (2017) argue that there is a rural-urban divide in SA because of socio-

economic, cultural, and educational reasons. Studies show that 82.1% of the Saudi

population live in urban areas and 17.9% in rural areas where there are fewer

employment opportunities (Alothman et al., 2017). Almunajjed (2009) gives the

example of the rural Hael region in the north of SA which has 35% unemployment;

the highest rate in comparison to SAs total unemployment rate of 5.7%. Alothman et

al. (2017) state that differences in unemployment between urban and rural areas lead

to the likelihood of low technology adoption in rural areas due to economic barriers.

Al-Silami (2010) adds that illiteracy results from fewer resources in rural settings.

Further, Alothman (2016) reports that rural students’ performance in school tends to

be lower than students in urban areas.

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The advantage of urban schools is a result of several factors. Al-Silami (2010)

contends that urban schools have more advantages than rural schools because of

several factors such as better teacher training, teacher experience, resources, and more

interactions with students. Trahar et al. (2020) noted that communities’ involvement

and opportunities are what differentiate urban and rural school education. Rural

communities tend to be united by community values, school values, and students

making them quite strong.

Although rural schools have this sense of community, urban areas have the advantage

of opportunities that result from accessibility to a variety of learning resources,

universities, and colleges (Schlakman & Unrau, 2006). For example, libraries and

museums are easily accessible to urban learners. Visits by academics, authors, and

access to newspapers and technology centres are limited in rural areas due to distance.

Further, Al-Silami (2010) argues that parents of urban students tend to be better-

educated. Albedaiwi (2014) investigated the ways teachers engage in EFL materials

or textbooks in order to design learning experiences to meet the needs of students in

SA. They found that the probability of exposure to the use of English in an urban area

was larger than in rural areas because of the huge population of foreign employees

who can only communicate in English. With the geographical disadvantages of rural

schools and high illiteracy, the present study is seeking to establish the differences in

level of motivation toward EFL learning between urban and rural students in SA.

The article presents a literature review on the motivation of urban and rural students

in learning EFL. The research aims to identify the motivation levels of urban and rural

students, the types of motivation that influence them, the factors that affect their

motivation, and the effective ways to foster their motivation. The study employs a
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descriptive qualitative research design and involves 20 ninth-grade students from two

different schools.

It is crucial to examine literature and statistics on the motivation to learn English

among urban and rural students. Rahmat and Akbar (2019) found that all participants

from both urban and rural schools are motivated in learning EFL, although the level

of motivation varied between the two groups. The dominant types of motivation in

rural students were both integrative and instrumental, while the urban students were

motivated primarily by instrumental factors. The study found that the expectancy, the

teachers, and the activities and materials were factors that influenced the motivation

of both urban and rural students, whereas the relevance, goal-setting, and school

environment were factors that differed between the two groups. Rahmat and Akbar

(2019) suggested that effective ways to foster motivation in urban and rural students

including training pronunciation of vocabulary for rural students and incorporating

more practice activities for urban students.

A study by Lamb (2012) investigated the motivation of Indonesian junior high school

students, aged 13-14, to learn English in different settings: a metropolitan city, a

provincial town, and a rural district. The study utilized Dornyei's second language

(L2) Motivational Self System as a theoretical framework, and data were collected

using a 50-item questionnaire and a C-test to measure current proficiency in English.

The study found that motivation was similar in strength and character in the two urban

settings but significantly different in the rural setting. A positive attitude towards

learning English was found to be the strongest predictor of both motivated learning

behaviours and L2 proficiency, whereas the Ideal L2 self was only a significant factor

among the metropolitan group. The study highlights the importance of considering
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cultural and contextual factors in understanding motivation to learn a second

language.

The literature and statistics from the studies reviewed suggest that there are

differences in the motivation to learn English between urban and rural students as the

populations may have different experiences, needs, and access to resources that

influence their attitudes towards language learning. Urban students may have more

exposure to English language media and opportunities to interact with English

speakers, which could increase their motivation to learn the language while rural

students may have a greater need to learn English for specific purposes, such as

accessing education or employment opportunities in urban areas, which could also

impact their motivation. Differences could also be caused by socio-economic status,

educational background, and cultural values between urban and rural populations

which may affect in motivation to learn English. Despite these differences, the

literature review suggests that motivation is a crucial factor in learning EFL, and that

there are both similarities and differences in the motivational factors that influence

urban and rural students.

Studies show that there are differences in motivation to learn EFL between students in

urban and rural areas in SA. Students in rural areas have fewer opportunities to access

technology which facilitates teaching and learning (Alothman et al., 2017). Travelling

long distances to school also affects learning of English. Urban and rural communities

differ in terms of quality of education, educational support, norms, customs, and use

of information and technology services. Based on the literature and similarity in

customs and religion between SA and other Arab countries, it is anticipated that the

issues identified in rural areas in Arab countries might also be significant in the SA
 93

context. Also, the low literacy levels in rural areas in SA can, and most likely, do have

a significant impact on EFL learning motivation. This study reported on in this thesis

investigated differences in EFL learning motivation between urban and rural

university students in SA. There are, at the time of writing, no known studies in SA

that have undertaken a comparative study on students’ motivation and ability to learn

EFL from urban and rural areas.

2.7 Summary of Factors Influencing English Language Learning

Prior research can be categorised into five key issues that have been raised (see Table

5). These issues relate to the lack of engagement and motivation, differences between

urban and rural students, a prescriptive curriculum, lack of opportunity to employ

English skills taught, and opportunities for approximation and feedback is limited.

There are several themes emerging from the literature; for example, the lack of

relevant teaching resources and limited opportunity to speak and listen to English in

authentic situations. Learners in SA are not immersed in a wide variety of relevant

speaking, listening, reading, and writing experiences which demonstrate how the

English language is used in various contexts.

With regard to engagement and motivation, studies in non-Arab countries revealed

diverse views from participants such as that speaking is a higher priority skill among

older students and that students are motivated to learn a second language to obtain

pragmatic gains such as jobs. Also, males reported significantly lower levels of

motivation than females (Ngo et al., 2017; Tokar, 2017). These studies raise issues

relevant to the current study. First, that there is a need to examine the extent to which

specific types of motivation are predominant among the male students who
participated in this study.
Table 5: Key Issues Raised in the Reviewed Literature
Key issues raised in the
reviewed literature
Lack of engagement and
motivation (e.g., Bonyadi,
2014; Lo & Hyland, 2007)
Differences between urban
and rural students (e.g.,
Albedaiwi, 2014; Alothman
et al., 2017; Al-Silami,
2010; Steer et al., 2014)
A prescriptive curriculum
(Abidin et al., 2012; Al-
Dosari, 2016; Alejo &
Piquer-Píriz, 2016)
Lack of opportunity to
employ English skills taught
(e.g., Kumaravadivelu,
2006; Motlhaka, 2012)
Opportunity for
approximation and feedback
is limited (Lee, 2008; Lee et
al., 2018)
Reported reasons
• Lack of relevant teaching
resources.
• Limited opportunity to speak
and listen to English in
authentic situations.
• The literature to be read is
often not culturally
appropriate for the context.
• Overemphasis on grammar
and accuracy in written work,
rather than the progressive
development of drafts.
• Lower expectations of rural
students.
• Lack of resources and quality
teachers in rural areas.
Responsibility for what is taught
and learnt lies with the
educational authority.
Emphasis is upon teacher led
instruction rather than
employment of knowledge and
skills.
Specified tasks designed for
assessment purpose limit
opportunities to approximate,
make errors, and receive feedback
in a supportive environment.
94
Summative comment
Learners are not immersed in a
wide variety of relevant
speaking, listening, reading,
and writing experiences which
demonstrate how the English
language is used in various
contexts.
Learners need to believe that
learning English will be useful
to them in the future and that
they are capable of making
good progress.
Learners and teachers are likely
to be more motivated and
accountable when they have
some responsibility.
Can lead to a lack of
engagement.
Likely to increase self-
confidence, motivation, and
engagement.
 95

Studies into the different experiences of urban and rural students learning English

have also been explored. In SA, Al-Silami (2010) contends that urban schools have

more advantages than rural schools because of several factors such as better teacher

training, teacher experience, resources, and more interactions with students. Estimates

are that a quarter of the country’s rural population fail to complete any kind of formal

education, and half of that number cannot write or read. This study investigates

whether this urban-rural divide has a significant effect on students’ motivation to

learn English.

2.8 Chapter Summary

The review of available studies reveals several potential gaps in the literature about

the motivation of students. While motivation to learn English and their reasons have

extensively been investigated in countries such as Libya, Qatar, Portugal, Canada,

Kuwait, Pakistan, Nepal, Hong Kong, Vietnam, and other countries including

differences in motivation between urban and rural students, motivation to learn

English for urban and rural students in SA has not been examined using a mixed

method approach to date. A significant number of studies have used quantitative

methods (e.g., Abidin et al., 2012; Alharbi, 2021) while others have used qualitative

methods (e.g., Gan et al., 2004; Zheng, 2010). This study investigates university

students’ motivation to learn English in order to address this gap using a mixed

method. Mixed method research combines both qualitative and quantitative data

collection and analysis methods, and facilitates an improvement in the quality of the

final results (Creswell, 2009). Data are more powerful using mixed methods because

the researcher is able to access both personal points of view and more objective

measures of the research phenomenon from both small and large numbers of people.
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The second gap being addressed is related to the dearth of literature that compares

EFL learning in urban and rural areas of SA. Few studies compare the motivation of

EFL learners in urban and rural areas, and those studies are based in other countries

such as Pakistan (e.g., Chohan & Rana, 2016; Azher et al., 2010) while no studies, as

far as we know, are yet available in the Saudi Arabian context. Some studies by Ali

(2016) in Pakistan may represent an encouraging start into the investigation of EFL

learner’s motivations in the region but may also not be the case since the contexts are

different from SA since Pakistan has a much more diverse ethnic and linguistic

background.

Thirdly, most studies to date have adopted the questionnaires of earlier studies in the

field of EFL learners’ motivation. While this approach compromises sensitivity to

local nuance, it is also useful for building a knowledge base in which comparisons

over time and across geographies can be made. Thus, the use of a standardised

measure is adopted in this study. The instrument used has also been validated in a

range of contexts and is considered seminal in the field. That is, this study was keen to

retain the benefits of using a well-tested questionnaire and then applying it in a novel

context to be able to contribute innovative data and expand the current knowledge

base. To address the limitations associated with standardised questionnaires and help

investigate the complex nature of EFL learners’ attitudes and motivational

orientations toward English in urban and rural SA, this study used a mixed method

analysis in the same way only a few other studies in the area have done. Clarity from

the voices of participants will be obtained rather than relying on quantitative analysis

alone. Some studies, such as those by Islam (2013), adopted the mixed methods

research design in Pakistan and in undertaking this approach they considered

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teachers’ perspectives to elicit in-depth information since teachers are involved in all

instructional activities and may have information regarding what motivates students

while the current thesis involves teachers and students.

Given the plethora of empirical studies investigating students’ EFL motivation in the

literature review section above, and in the light of the objectives of the study, it is

evident that students’ motivation has a significant effect on their level of English

proficiency. The studies reviewed in this chapter aimed to assess the levels of

motivation presented by EFL learners in different parts of the world. Factors that

influence language learning and possible effects on language learning were also

examined. As pointed out previously, some students are motivated to learn English in

order to earn good scores, go overseas, pass the course, and watch English films. As

Ali et al. (2017) found the teaching methods, learning environment, and instructional

materials were found to be demotivating for students in a non-Arab country in an

urban-rural context. These findings are pertinent to the current study as it seeks to

assess the influence of the classroom environment on learners’ motivation. The focus

of this thesis is on investigating motivational factors that affect language learning in

urban and rural SA contexts. This is important because proficiency in English is one

of the essential elements given Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030.

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Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Setting the Scene

The purpose of this study is to investigate students’ motivation to learn English as a

foreign language in SA. In particular, it explored differences in motivation to learn

English as a foreign language in urban and rural areas in the first year of university at

Shaqra University. The approach to motivation that underpins this study is Deci and

Ryan’s (1985) Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Gardner’s (2001) Motivation

Theory. This chapter begins with a review of the pertinent literature and a detailed

description of SDT, particularly the components of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

This is followed by an examination of Motivation Theory and related integrative and

instrumental orientation (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). These two theories provide the

framework with which to study student motivation in the Saudi Arabian context. They

were also chosen because of their well-documented utility when applied to several

educational settings. The final sections provide a summary of the two theories and

shows how they were used to design the research questions in the current study as

well as the interpretations of its findings.

SDT has been one of the most popular frameworks utilised to examine the motivation

of students and engagement in class in several studies exploring the learning of EFL,

however SDT has not frequently been used to determine motivation among students

in urban and rural settings in the Saudi Arabian context. The robustness of the SDT,

particularly its capability to explain the impact of instructor’s behaviours on students’

outcomes in class, suggests it may provide a powerful framework on which to base

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the current investigation. In the Saudi Arabian context, it will also be interesting to

investigate students’ motivation by considering effort, affect, desire, and attitude

factors identified in Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Motivation Theory.

Previous empirical studies on the impact of motivation on English language learning

were reviewed, and their relevance to the present research highlighted. Most studies

used SDT and/or Gardner’s Motivation Theory as their conceptual framework. In

many cases, there were conflicting findings across studies whether using qualitative or

quantitative methods. For example, Al-Shamy (2012) reported females to be more

motivated than males while Nazari (2015) found no differences in motivation between

male and female students. This study attempts to fill this gap by studying specific

characteristics of motivation among male students, using SDT and Motivation Theory

to explore the role of motivation.

3.1.2 Overview of Self-Determination Theory and Motivation Theory

The theoretical framework for this research utilises Deci and Ryan’s (1985) SDT and

Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Motivation Theory which assist in explaining students’

motivation in EFL. SDT is a theory of human motivation and personality that

examines individual’s innate psychological needs and inherent growth tendencies in

learning a language (Deci & Ryan, 2012). In terms of language learning motivation,

Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Motivation Theory focuses on three variables of

attitudes toward the learning situation: motivation, integrativeness, and how these

interact together to produce integrative motivation. Specifically, the present study

examines intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as described within SDT (Deci & Ryan,
 100

1985). Other aspects that complement SDT are integrative and instrumental

orientations as explained by Gardner and Lambert (1972).

3.2 Self-Determination Theory

3.2.1 Summative Schema

SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985) initially grew from the discipline of educational

psychology and was then used in the field of language learning (Dörnyei, 2003).

Figure 2 shows the schema of this theory. There are three main types of human

motivation identified as intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation.

On the far-left side is amotivation, which refers to a lack of any intention to act and is

not triggered by external or internal factors but shows an individual’s lack of

competency when undertaking an activity. It occurs when there is a lack of

motivation. This arises when a student sees no relationship between the results and

associated actions.

In the middle of the continuum is extrinsic motivation; concerned with doing an

activity for its instrumental value and not because of enjoyment or pleasure. It is also

referred to as ‘outward motivation’. For example, a student would engage in learning

because of some aspiration toward employment or avoiding punishment or low

grades. Extrinsic motivation is classified into four different subtypes: external

regulation, introjected regulation (introjection), identified regulation (identification),

and integrated regulation (integration). All these subtypes reveal varying degrees of

self-determination and autonomy through the processes of internalisation (which

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refers to the taking in of regulation or value) and integration (referring to transforming

regulation or the value to the individual’s own goals).

In the analysis of motivation, students’ learning situation level and the EFL learning

experience components of the EFL motivation self-system need to be considered.

Dörnyei (2009) asserts that the ‘ideal L2 self’ to a certain extent is in association with

more internalised instrumental motivation and that the ‘ought-to L2 self’ leans more

toward the external end of extrinsic motivation. In contrast to extrinsic motivation,

intrinsic motivation refers to undertaking an activity for its inherent pleasure and

enjoyment rather than because of external consequences. Since it is inward

motivation, it is exemplified when a student starts learning without regard for any

external reward.

The three different types of motivation can be seen as a continuum showing how self-

determined each of the types are. Self-determined behaviour increases if it is decided

upon and regulated by an individual’s own needs or desires. For example, when a

learner decides to learn a language purely for their interest and enjoyment of studying

that language they would be showing highly self-determined behaviour and hence

would reflect high intrinsic motivation. Conversely, behaviour is regarded as less self-

determined if there is an outside force regulating it which demonstrates extrinsic

motivation. Amotivation is the least self-determined and intrinsic motivation is the

most on the continuum of the motivation scale.

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Figure 2: Schema of Self Determination Theory (Deci et al., 2000)

Behaviour Non Self-Determined Self-Determined

Intrinsic
Motivation Amotivation Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation

Identified Integrated Intrinsic

Non- External Introjected
Regulatory
Regulation Regulation Regulation
Styles Regulation Regulation Regulation

Perceived Impersonal External Somewhat Somewhat Internal Internal

Locus of External Internal

Causality

Relevant Non-intentional Compliance Self-Control Personal Congruence Interest

Regulatory Non-valuing External Ego- Importance Awareness Enjoyment

Processes Incompetence Rewards and Involvement Conscious Synthesis Inherent

Lack of Control Punishments Internal Rewards Valuing With Self Satisfaction and

Punishments
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SDT has been adopted for this study. This perspective allows us to take into account

the unique factors of the study participants in an analysis of their motivation in

language learning. The theory has been previously used to guide a wide range of

studies including but not limited to the fields of education (Krijgsman et al., 2017;

Taylor et al., 2014), health, sports science & coaching (Carroll & Allen, 2021; Halvari

et al., 2013), and employment (Gagné & Deci, 2005). Using SDT, Krijgsman et al.

(2017) examined the explanatory role of students’ perceived need satisfaction and

need frustration in the relationship between performance grading (versus non-grading)

and students’ motivation and fear in a real-life physical education setting. Less need

satisfaction accounted for (i.e., mediated) the relationship between performance

grading and self-determined motivational outcomes.

In a study in a health context, Halvari et al. (2013) tested the SDT process model of

oral health and subjective dental well-being. Their results showed that patients’

perceptions of autonomy-supportive dental professionals were significantly positively

predictive of patients’ psychological needs satisfaction in treatment. Halvari et al.

(2013) also noted that autonomous motivation for dental treatment was significantly

positively associated with valuing continued dental treatment. Their study shows the

relationships between the key concepts of SDT, autonomy support, autonomous

motivation, and perceived competence to improvements in health behaviour and

outcomes.

Gagné and Deci (2005) articulated the basis on which SDT was developed. Within an

employment context they explained how the effects of extrinsic motivators on

intrinsic motivation received some initial attention in the organisational literature.

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However, they assert that the simple dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation made the theory difficult to apply to work settings. Hence, differentiating

extrinsic motivation into types that differ in their degree of autonomy led to SDT

which has received widespread attention in the healthcare, sport, and education

domains. SDT has provided a comprehensive theoretical framework through which

people can understand motivational behaviour by addressing the needs for relatedness

and autonomy as well as the need for competence (Carroll & Allen, 2021; Deci &

Ryan, 1985; Halvari et al., 2013; Krijgsman et al., 2017; Taylor et al., 2014).

The basic assertion underlying SDT is that human behaviour is directed by the

primary psychological needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Deci &

Ryan, 1985, 2000, 2002). Autonomy refers to the need to engage in behaviours with a

sense of personal endorsement or choice. On the other hand, according to

Vansteenkiste et al. (2020)., competence denotes the requirement to feel optimally

challenged and capable of achieving goals and desired outcomes and is satisfied when

one becomes capable of engaging in experiences and activities for using and

extending skills and expertise. Finally, relatedness reflects the degree to which an

individual feels connected to and understood by others. According to SDT, the extent

to which competence, relatedness, and autonomy are correlated determines the

individual’s quality of efforts in any given domain.

SDT also emphasises the distinction between controlled regulation and autonomous

behaviours which reflect the degree to which behaviours are a matter of choice and

self-action in contrast to behaviours that are the result of coercion, demand, or

pressure (Patrick & Canevello, 2011). Ryan and Connell (1989) argue that the

distinction drawn between controlled self-regulation and autonomous behaviours

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represents a continuum (linked) rather than a dichotomy (two separate concepts). SDT

proposes that partly, social context determines whether behaviours are regulated in

relatively autonomous or controlled ways (Deci & Ryan, 2002). When the social

context supports individuals’ needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness they

are more likely to autonomously self-regulate their behaviour and thus more likely to

engage in prescribed behaviour change.

An important consideration is how different types of motivation are going to manifest

in an SDT context. According to SDT, depending on whether a task is perceived to be

more judgmental, informational, helpful, and evaluative, different types of motivation

are likely to be stimulated. Within SDT, a refined taxonomy of motives is discernible

with some of it being more autonomous while others are more controlled in nature

(Deci & Ryan, 2000, Vansteenkiste et al., 2006). Learners are thought to be

displaying autonomous regulation during a task in class when they enjoy their

activities in class and find value in terms of personal benefits (i.e., identified

regulation) as well as being interesting (i.e., intrinsic motivation). In contrast, learners

are control-motivated when they exert effort in their class tasks to obtain good grades,

avoid criticism, or please their teacher (i.e., external regulation).

It is interesting to note that learners may not only be externally pressured, but may

also pressure themselves to perform exceptionally well (i.e., introjected regulation);

for example, by reinforcing their task activity engagement process with feelings of

guilt and contingent self-worth. Although learners may be reported to be motivated

whenever they display controlled or autonomous motivation, amotivation within SDT

indicates a lack of motivation. In particular, amotivated learners normally invest a

minimum amount of effort in class tasks because they do not experience a personal
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value or because they experience incapability to perform activities (Deci & Ryan,

2000).

3.2.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

An SDT approach to motivation recognises two distinct types: intrinsic and extrinsic,

which are widely accepted in studies of motivation in education. While these types of

motivation are fundamentally different, they lie along a continuum of self-

determination (Deci & Ryan, 2002).

Intrinsic motivation (IM) generally refers to motivation to engage in an activity

because it is enjoyable and satisfying to do (Noels et al., 2000). Deci and Ryan (1985)

state that IM is founded on inherent needs for competence and self-determination.

They suggest that when people are free to choose to perform an activity, they seek

interesting situations which allow them to rise to the challenges the activity presents.

By endeavouring to meet these challenges, they obtain a sense of competence in their

abilities. The common basis of IM is the “pleasurable sensations experienced during

the self-initiated challenging activity” (Noels et al., 2000, p. 38).

In contrast, extrinsic motivation (EM) refers to activities carried out to achieve an

instrumental end such as earning a reward or avoiding a punishment. EM does not

imply an absence of self-determination in the behaviours performed. According to

Vallerand (1997), EM involves activities determined by sources external to the person

such as tangible benefits or costs. EM pertains to performing an activity due to some

type of pressure that individuals may feel, which compels them to carry out an

activity. Even though the source of the pressure may be internal, it is not self-

determined because people are reacting to a pressure, not acting on the basis of
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personal choice (Vallerand, 1997). In language learning, this type of regulation occurs

when students practice EFL because they would feel ashamed if they could not speak

EFL (Heatherton, 2016). Learning would continue to take place as long as students

feel the need to reduce guilt. When individuals invest energy in an activity because

they feel it is an important aspect of their educational development, they endure

English language lessons in the interest of attaining a high level of competence

(Fielding, 2016).

Vallerand and Bissonnette (1992) describe three subtypes of intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation, summarised in They further describe three subtypes of extrinsic

motivation. The first is ‘identified regulation’, whereby an individual believes the

activity they are undertaking is important and valuable and occurs when students learn

English because they want to get a better job or earn more money because English

proficiency would enable them to do so. Hence, it describes learners engaging in an

activity because of its usefulness and high value such as learning English to pursue

interests or hobbies. The second is ‘introjected regulation’, which occurs when an

individual has to some extent internalised the causes for doing an activity. Individuals

understand that the task is important, and internalise that idea. This includes acting to

“obtain contingent self-worth” or acting “to avoid feeling guilty” (Gillison et al.,

2009, p. 309). For example, a learner would be eager to learn English to avoid guilt or

shame (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The third is ‘external regulation’, which involves a

person engaging in a behaviour owing to some external reasons such as the threat of

punishment or rewards. Deci and Ryan (1985) argue that this form of extrinsic

motivation focused on tangible outcomes are totally different from the task itself; for
 108

example, learning English because of fear of being punished because it is part of

curriculum.

Table 6. The first is intrinsic motivation ‘to know’, which refers to being involved in

an activity for the purpose of enjoying the experience so they can learn something

new. The second is intrinsic motivation ‘toward accomplishments’, which is engaging

in an activity for the enjoyment gained from trying to achieve something. The third is

intrinsic motivation to ‘experience stimulation’, which results from being involved in

an activity to experience a variety of stimulation such as aesthetic or sensory.

They further describe three subtypes of extrinsic motivation. The first is ‘identified

regulation’, whereby an individual believes the activity they are undertaking is

important and valuable and occurs when students learn English because they want to

get a better job or earn more money because English proficiency would enable them

to do so. Hence, it describes learners engaging in an activity because of its usefulness

and high value such as learning English to pursue interests or hobbies. The second is

‘introjected regulation’, which occurs when an individual has to some extent

internalised the causes for doing an activity. Individuals understand that the task is

important, and internalise that idea. This includes acting to “obtain contingent self-

worth” or acting “to avoid feeling guilty” (Gillison et al., 2009, p. 309). For example,

a learner would be eager to learn English to avoid guilt or shame (Ryan & Deci,

2000). The third is ‘external regulation’, which involves a person engaging in a

behaviour owing to some external reasons such as the threat of punishment or

rewards. Deci and Ryan (1985) argue that this form of extrinsic motivation focused on

tangible outcomes are totally different from the task itself; for example, learning

English because of fear of being punished because it is part of curriculum.

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Table 6: Seven Subtypes of Intrinsic and Extrinic Motivation (Vallerand &

Bissonnette, 1992)

Motivation Type Subtype Behaviour

Intrinsic IM to know Learning a language for the pleasure and
satisfaction of learning it, because of the
enjoyment that is derived from learning it.
Intrinsic IM toward accomplishments Learning a language for the enjoyment that
comes in acquiring or mastering that language.
Intrinsic IM to experience stimulation Learning a language for the excitement and fun
of gaining new ability in that language.
Extrinsic Identified regulation Learning a language because the person
believes it is personally important for them.
Extrinsic Introjected regulation Learning a language because formerly external
reasons have been internalised.
Extrinsic External regulation Learning a language to accomplish a specific
goal, such as fulfilling the requirements of a
degree or doing well on a test.
None Amotivation Motivation to learn the language has been lost
– individual perceives no relation between their
actions and the outcomes.

3.3 SDT and its relationship to the urban and rural cohorts

When comparing urban and rural cohorts, it is important to consider the contextual

factors that may influence motivation. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) suggests that

individuals are more likely to be motivated when they feel a sense of autonomy,

competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers to the ability to make choices and

control one's environment, while competence refers to the ability to master new skills

and challenges. Relatedness refers to the sense of connection and belonging with

others (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

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In rural areas, individuals may have more opportunities for autonomy and relatedness,

which could impact their motivation. For example, individuals in rural areas may have

more control over their environment, such as through farming, which could increase

their sense of autonomy. Additionally, rural communities tend to be close-knit, with

stronger social connections and support networks. This sense of relatedness could

motivate individuals to engage in activities that benefit their community.

Individuals in urban areas may feel more constrained by social norms and have

weaker social connections (Islam et al., 2022). The fast-paced nature of urban life

may limit opportunities for autonomy and relatedness, which could impact

motivation. For example, individuals in urban areas may be more likely to work long

hours or have lengthy commutes, which could limit their sense of control over their

environment. Additionally, urban communities tend to be more diverse, which could

make it harder to form strong social connections.

These differences in autonomy and relatedness could impact the types of motivations

that are most effective in different contexts. In rural areas, individuals may be more

motivated by intrinsic factors such as personal growth and contribution to their

community, while in urban areas, individuals may be more motivated by extrinsic

factors such as financial gain or status. Understanding these contextual differences

can help practitioners in Saudi Arabia to develop more effective strategies for

promoting motivation in learning English and engagement among diverse

populations.
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3.4 Gardner’s (1985) Motivation Theory

One of the most influential models of language learning motivation from the early

sixties through to the late eighties was Motivation Theory developed by Gardner

(1985, 2001, 2005). It is one of the most researched and widely respected theories of

motivation in the field of second language acquisition. Gardner (1985, 2001, 2005)

provides the classic dichotomy of instrumental and integrative motivation. The focus

on the motivation variable, one important cause of failure or success in EFL, makes

Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Motivation Theory widely respected. The model is also

sometimes referred to as the Socio-Educational Model (Gardner, 1985). It is a leading

theory of motivation in the area of language learning, as it has evidently served as the

foundation and starting point to inspire other researchers to better understand

motivation in the EFL setting and other related areas (Woodrow, 2017).

The conceptualisation of integrative and instrumental orientation is key to

understanding Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) theory. Within it, motivation and

orientation are two distinct concepts. Motivation is a combination of attitudes and

motivational intensity toward learning the second language and the desire to learn it

(Pae, 2008). Gardner (1985) referred to motivation as a combination of effort and

desire to realise the goal of learning the language as well as a favourable attitude

toward learning the language.

According to Gardner’s (1985) theory, orientation refers to ‘a class of reasons’ for

why a person chooses to learn a language. Within this theory, there are two types of

orientation central to students’ behaviour: instrumental and integrative. Instrumental

orientation refers to the desire to learn a language to achieve a practical goal, such as
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using the target language for employment purposes and not for interpersonal benefits

that may be derived from integration. It refers to more functional reasons for learning

the language such as getting a better job, higher salary, or passing an examination.

Integrative orientation represents a desire by the learner to be like members of the

target language community, and be immersed into that community to the fullest extent

possible (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Integrative motivation indicates the learners’

wish to assimilate or communicate with members of the target language. The central

concept of Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) theory is a socio-educational model of

second language learning that suggests learning a second language involves both

ability and a motivational component (Dewaele, 2009; Gardner, 2000). According to

Gardner (2000), as shown in Figure 3, integrativeness and attitudes toward the

learning situation are two connected factors which influence motivation to learn a

second language. Gardner (1985) defines integrativeness as the desire to learn a L2 of

a valued community so that one can communicate with members of the community

and sometimes even want to become like them.

Attitudes, on the other hand, refer to learners’ feelings toward the language. If this

feeling is positive, the learner will be motivated to learn the language, and if the

learner has a negative attitude toward the language, this will have a negative impact

on their motivation to learn. Gardner (1985) demonstrates that a learner who has a

positive attitude toward the language and shows strong integrativeness will be more

motivated to learn. The two theories are powerful in explaining the impact of

motivation on language learning and can therefore be drawn on productively in the

context of the present study.

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Figure 3: Gardner’s (2000) Socio-Psychological Model

Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Motivation Theory has three well established parts, and

these are the socio-educational model of second language acquisition, the

conceptualisation of the integrative motive, and a questionnaire with items on each

scale presented in the IAMTB item key document (Dörnyei, 1998; Gardner, 2005;

Gardner & Lambert, 1972). As illustrated earlier, the socio-educational model shows

that the motivation of people to learn a foreign language is linked to the learning

situation. Gardner’s (1985) notion of integrative motive emphasises willingness to

learn the language of a culture liked by the learner, and embraces the concept that
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individuals wish to communicate with speakers in the foreign language in order to

become a part of that community.

With regards to the IAMTB, the instrument was developed to measure different

components of the socio-educational model of foreign language acquisition (Gardner,

2005). It has 13 subtests, 11 of which have 10 items each and two with four items

each. The IAMTB consists of five main conceptual variables and each in turn contains

subtests that assess the major ones. These are: attitudes toward the learning situation,

integrativeness, motivation, language anxiety, and instrumentality (Dörnyei, 2001;

Gardner, 2005). The IAMTB is generally considered to be the standardised test of

motivation in foreign language learning motivation (Dörnyei, 2009). Various studies

have subsequently affirmed and confirmed this claim (e.g., Castro, 2007; Dioniso,

2013). Most of these studies have adapted the IAMTB to conduct their research.

The extensive research conducted by Gardner and his associates has proved that the

model is sound and applicable to a wide range of contexts. The adoption of the full

IAMTB in other cultural environments, other than Canada where it was first tested,

has provided support for the validity of the socio-educational model (MacIntyre et al.,

2009). For example, in a study of Israeli students studying Arabic conducted by

Kraemer (1993) it showed that Gardner’s (1985) socio-educational model also works

in settings significantly different from the Canadian context where it was originally

developed and tested (Dörnyei, 1998). Kraemer (1993) suggests that the socio-

educational model was indeed generalisable to the context of her study in Israel. In

addition, Atay and Kurt (2010) conducted an EFL study with native speakers of

Turkey to check if Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) socio-educational model could be

applied there. The results revealed significant correlations between students’ grades
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and major parts of the model, which revealed that it was appropriate to the teaching

and learning of EFL in the Turkish context.

Therefore, Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) model was adopted in this study as a number

of variables within it are important for the current study. The variable

‘integrativeness’ is important for exploring whether participants studying English in

SA desire to integrate with native English speakers is a significant motivational

factor. Also, Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) model investigates learners’ ‘attitudes

toward the learning situation’. In this study, attitudes refer to reactions toward the

subject, teacher, and course. The extent to which students’ use of instructional

materials provided by the teacher in the classroom and its influence on motivation are

one of the aims of this study. In addition, learners’ ‘motivational intensity’ is a key

part in Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) model. It refers to participants’ desire, effort,

and positive affect toward learning the language, which is also an aim in the current

study.

3.5 Gardner’s (1985) Motivation Theory and its relationship to the urban and

rural cohorts

As discussed, Gardner's Motivation Theory, also known as the socio-educational

model, was developed by Howard Gardner in 1985 to explain second language

learning in a social context. According to this theory, the motivation to learn a second

language is influenced by three factors: attitudes towards the second language and its

speakers, perceptions of the integrative value of the second language, and levels of

motivation and self-confidence.

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In terms of its relationship to urban and rural cohorts, it is important to consider the

socio-cultural context in which language learning takes place. Urban and rural

communities often differ in terms of their cultural practices, values, and attitudes

towards language learning (Bonyadi, 2014; Lo & Hyland, 2007). For example, urban

areas may have a higher concentration of ethnic and linguistic minorities, which may

lead to greater exposure to and acceptance of diverse languages and cultures. In

contrast, rural areas may be more homogeneous in terms of language and culture,

which may limit exposure to and interest in other languages.

However, it is important to note that Gardner's theory emphasizes the role of

individual attitudes and perceptions in language learning, rather than simply relying

on demographic factors such as urban or rural location (Gardner 1985). Therefore,

while the urban and rural context may have some influence on language learning

motivation, it is ultimately the individual's attitudes and beliefs that drive their

motivation to learn a second language.

However, there are other factors such as learner’s self-determination not found in

Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) model and of interest in the current study. To

complement this, SDT is utilised. A combination of the two theories is most relevant

to the Saudi Arabian context since self-determination emphasises the need to control

one’s own actions and outcomes (Deci et al., 1989). As discussed in the previous

section, SDT states that a learner’s level of self-determination has the most influence

on their success in learning the language. The current study investigated whether

autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985) affect students from

urban and rural areas and contexts differently.

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3.6 Researcher’s Model of Motivational Factors

3.6.1 Summarising Links Between the Literature and Models

In the literature review, various studies were examined that utilised different

theoretical perspectives. Deci and Ryan’s (1985) SDT and Gardner’s (1985, 2001,

2005) Motivation Theory were two that were commonly used in several of them;

these theories have been profoundly influential in the L2 motivation field for decades.

Therefore, these theories were overviewed in this chapter. In addition to them being

used to create the framework for this study, they set the basis for the design of its

research questions, research methodology, interprtetaion of findings, and discussion.

Table 7 shows the link between key themes identified in the literature review and

Gardner’s (2001) model as shown in

Figure 3. Its purpose is to illustrate the key variables of integrative orientation,

positive attitudes toward the target language group, willingness to integrate into the

target language community, and lack of engagement and motivation. These themes

were selected because they appeared regularly in several of the studies reviewed

(Bonyadi, 2014; Kumaravadivelu, 2006; Lo & Hyland, 2007; Motlhaka, 2012).

When English was initially introduced in SA, it was only taught at secondary school

and at intermediate levels. This meant Saudi students did not learn English until they

were 13 years or older. However, since the introduction of English in the 4th grade

other educational changes have occurred such as an increase in the number of English

classes. Still, students still have few opportunities to practice speaking English outside

their classrooms due to the monolingual community in SA (Elyas & Picard, 2018). It
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is important to examine the relevance of integrative orientation, positive attitudes

toward the target language group, willingness to integrate into the target language

community, and lack of engagement and motivation in such a context. These variables

represent a desire by the learner to be like members of the target language community

and be fully immersed into that community. Table 7 and

Figure 3 also consider that there are two factors – integrativeness and attitudes toward

the learning situation – which contribute to integrative motivation. Further, there is

acknowledgement that there may be other contributing factors besides integrative

motivation, which are instrumental factors.

The second column of Table 7 shows the support needed for a learner to at least

assimilate or communicate with members of the target language. Within the context

of limited teaching resources, during the past four years in SA, there have been

significant changes in the English textbooks used (Alkaabi, 2016). Previously, the

English textbooks in SA focused on very simple expressions with an emphasis of

themes oriented toward Saudi culture. The predominant objective was to present

Saudi culture through students to the rest of the world. The textbooks also sought to

teach students basic English that could be related to everyday life. This included

simple texts on ordering from a restaurant, greetings, and conversations when visiting

a doctor.

However, during the last four years, there has been a realisation that the missing

element is the cultural component of the target language (Aslam, 2014). Indeed, the

culture of the target language cannot be separated as “without the study of the culture,

foreign language instruction is inaccurate and incomplete” (Peck, 1998, p. 1).


Table 7: Links Between Key Themes in the Literature and Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Socio-Educational Model
Integrative Motivation
Lack of engagement and motivation (e.g.,
Bonyadi, 2014; Lo & Hyland, 2007)
Lack of positive attitudes toward the target
language group (e.g., Albedaiwi, 2014;
Alothman et al., 2017; Al-Silami, 2010;
Steer et al., 2014)
Lack of willingness to integrate into the
target language community (e.g.,
Kumaravadivelu, 2006; Motlhaka, 2012)
Evaluation of the English teacher (e.g.,
Albedaiwi, 2014; Alothman et al., 2017)
Evaluation of the English course (e.g.,
Alothman et al., 2017; Steer et al., 2014)
Support
• Limited teaching resources.
• Limited exposure to individuals in the
English speaking community.
• Limited access to speaking with English-
speaking people or foreigners.
• Limited teacher presence.
• Lack of explanations with ‘more fun’.
• Lack of teachers talking like native speakers.
• Lack of useful activities related to their
context.
119
Other Factors
• Differences between urban and rural students language aptitude and
language achievement.
• Prescriptive curriculum.
• Limited opportunity to speak English in everyday contexts.
• Limited interactions with foreigners in hotels, restaurants, and on
social media.
• Limited immersion in a wide variety of relevant speaking, listening,
reading, and writing experiences which demonstrate how the
English language is used in various contexts.
• Limited opportunities of getting a job where English is spoken.
• Limited interactions with foreigners in hotels, restaurants and on
social media.
• Limited socialisation with people from different societies.
• Limited exposure and access to websites that use English.
• Teachers’ knowledge of teaching context.
• Limited opportunity to speak English in class.
• Prescriptive curriculum.
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There has also been concerns that the simple language used in textbooks may be

detrimental as it does not challenge students to improve their language abilities. The

change of textbooks has become crucial in the past few years. The new textbooks that

have been introduced are seen as more challenging compared to previous ones and

incorporate English cultural themes. This is aimed at assisting learners to understand

the language and culture associated with English-speaking communities.

The teaching system has also evolved with changes that are meant to keep up with

changes in the SA education system. English teachers are being encouraged and

trained to participate in workshops introducing contemporary teaching methods and

strategies. In addition, both teachers and students are being urged to think of English

as a means of communication rather than a subject matter (Alqarni, 2020).

Traditionally in SA, there has been fear that the introduction of English at elementary

level during the past four decades would threaten Arabic and Islamic education.

Resistance has been more pronounced in rural communities (Mahboob & Elyas, 2014,

p. 128). The current study is concerned with comparing the motivation of students to

learn English in urban and rural settings at a Saudi Arabian university.

3.6.2 Building on Previous Knowledge: Other Supports

Other factors, as shown in the third column of Table 7, also influence the extent to

which support factors enhance integrative motivation. Like Gardner’s (1985, 2001,

2005) Motivation Theory, the model proposed in the current study has the same three

main components: motivation; integrativeness; and attitudes toward the learning

situation. Gardner (2001) also includes ‘other factors’ that influence foreign language

learning, and ‘other supports’ that may influence motivation. The current model
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proposed in this study expands these concepts by including ‘parental encouragement’

within the category of ‘other support’.

Parental encouragement may play a key role in the motivation of learners. Gardner’s

(1985, 2001, 2005) Motivation Theory reveals the important role of motivation in

educational settings showing how students can be engaged in their learning process. It

considers motivation to be one of the main factors for achieving higher foreign

language learning competency. While motivational strategies such as a pleasant

classroom environment and a variety of tasks are key motivational factors, parental

encouragement in the Saudi Arabian society may also play a crucial role in motivating

students. Parental encouragement may have either a negative or positive effect on

student’s motivation.

Parental encouragement is not the only ‘other support’ factor that may influence

language achievement of students. ‘Other support’ factors may also include the

‘learner’ and ‘teacher’ motivation, ‘university’, and ‘Saudi Arabian society’. The

motivation of the teacher or learner provided by Saudi Arabian society and the

university may also have a negative or positive effect. What learners think in relation

to factors that decrease or increase their motivation to learn a foreign language can

play a crucial role for developing strategies to increase the motivation of students

(AlMaiman, 2005). Equally important are teachers; they play a critical role in raising

a student’s interest and developing strategies which enhance their teaching

techniques. There is usually a direct relationship between a teacher’s genuine interest

in a subject and a student’s motivation (AlMaiman, 2005).

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The influence of the Saudi Arabian university can play a significant role in the

motivation of its students (Alabbad, 2009). A university has the ability to urge

students to learn a foreign language, encourage speaking the language with native

speakers, and facilitate awareness of foreign traditions, cultures, and customs related

to that language. Universities can have a negative or positive effect on students’

learning and motivation. For example, Alabbad (2009) found that a didactic teacher-

centred approach and limited teaching aids contributed to students’ negative attitudes

toward learning EFL. In phase two of their study, the implementation of a computer-

assisted language learning (CALL) course using a new constructivist and technology-

based approach had a strong impact on participants’ attitudes and motivation toward

learning EFL. The strategies adopted by universities can have a significant effect on

motivating students either negatively by utilising didactic teacher-centred teaching or

departing from passive learning approaches to a more learner-centred approach

incorporating computer and modern digital technologies.

Another important factor is the impact of Saudi Arabian society. Various factors

influence society in the process of learning English. For example, the government of

SA made learning English compulsory and this may motivate students to gain English

language skills. Saudi Arabian society also views speaking English as fashionable

(Abugohar et al., 2019). However, older Saudis prefer Arabic and speak it even if they

can speak English because they fear they may lose their Arabic and Islamic identities

(Abugohar et al., 2019). World events such as the actions of the United States may

also have a huge impact. For example, any hostile action on Arab people or to the

Islamic religion can have a negative impact on learning English in SA (AlMaiman,

2005). The current study seeks to identify both negative and positive influences of
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Saudi Arabian society on the learning and teaching of English. The researcher of the

current study argues that a suitable model for the Saudi Arabian context is one which

includes other supports such as teachers, students, parents, and the university. In the

current study, the researcher’s adaptation of both Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005)

Motivation Theory and SDT (Deci & Ryan 1985) are referred throughout the thesis as

the ‘researcher’s model’.

3.7 Chapter Summary

This chapter provided an overview of both Deci and Ryan’s (1985) SDT and

Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) Motivation Theory. The literature based on SDT

evidently identifies that a student’s feeling of being in control of their own actions and

outcomes has a strong influence on student motivation and engagement when learning

a foreign language. This supports the need to use it as an appropriate framework in

which to study the effects of teachers’ influence on student motivation. Most prior

studies have conducted SDT-related research using either qualitative or quantitative

approaches in SA. However, none took a mixed methods approach to their

investigation. The present study addresses this gap in the literature by conducting a

mixed methods study of student’s motivation with university students.

The researcher’s model was developed through adaptation and integration of the

models of Gardner (1985, 2001, 2005) and SDT (Deci & Ryan 1985). The

researcher’s model specifically aims to expand the model of Gardner (1985, 2001) by

adding ‘other support’ factors of ‘parental encouragement’, ‘the learner’, ‘the

teacher’, ‘the university’, and ‘Saudi Arabian society’. In the context of this model,

the researcher investigated what influences Saudi Arabian students to learn English.
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Chapter 4: Methodology

4.1 Introduction

4.1.1 Overview

This study investigates students’ motivation to learn English and aims to identify the

challenges and limitations of learning English, focusing on students at a Saudi

Arabian University. This section presents the context to the study, the methodology,

which includes the following components: the research design along with the research

questions, participants, data collection methods (questionnaire and interviews), and

finally a plan for data analysis. This study used a mixed methods approach. The

reason for undertaking research into the experiences of EFL students in first year at

university in the context of urban and rural settings is not only the lack of sufficient

EFL learning research addressing the needs the needs and experiences of this target

audience but also to obtain insights on psychological, socioeconomic, and educational

disadvantage in relation to motivation.

Consequently, in order to form a more comprehensive view of participants, the study

consisted of a questionnaire focusing on motivation, interviews with teachers and

students, as well as a performance test. These instruments provided quantitative and

qualitative data. The data collected required an examination of relationships among

variables while an exploration of individual and groups were needed to understand the

problems related to learners’ motivation. Under these circumstances, Creswell (2013,

2014) suggests the use of quantitative and qualitative research to answer the research

questions. A quantitative approach examines the relationship among variables such as

attitudes and motivation using statistical procedures. Creswell (2014) states that a
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quantitative research approach employs a strategy of inquiry such as questionnaires

and experiments collecting data based on predetermined instruments that yield

statistical data. The current study was conducted to see whether there were

statistically significant differences in motivation between urban and rural students in

SA.

The study also sought to find the relationship between students’ motivational factors

and their English achievement by analysing their performance. This endeavour was

quantitative in nature because of the need to find the motivational factors influencing

students and differences in motivation and academic achievement between urban and

rural students. The quantitative data come from the participating students’ responses

to statements on 5 Likert-scale items, and the qualitative data are obtained from

responses to open-ended questions referring to the components of the study and from

the interviews. The quantitative data were analysed statistically, and the qualitative

data were exposed to content analysis.

A qualitative approach offers a means for exploring and understanding the meaning

individuals or groups assign to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2014), which in

this study involves learning English. The approach provides an in-depth

understanding of the context and issue under investigation. Creswell (2009) states that

an important feature in a qualitative study is that the researcher learns about the

problem under investigation from different participants and makes effort to

comprehend it in-depth by obtaining information about an issue. In this study, it was

important to gather insights into the motivation SA students have and look at potential

differences by location (urban versus rural) from different perspectives such as

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students and university staff. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, t-tests,

factor analysis, and content analysis (see Chapter 6).

4.1.2 Study Context

The current study was conducted in SA in a Foreign Language (EFL) course at Shaqra

University. Shaqra University is in the Central Region of SA where contact with

English-speaking foreigners is minimal. Except for colleges in urban areas,

inhabitants of this region have not been exposed to extensive interaction with non-

native speakers. The participants in this study were university students at the

beginning of their compulsory preparatory year programme, in which they study 15-

18 hours of English language per week as part of their degree to complete a major in

English. It is run by the University’s English department.

The English preparatory year programme aims to equip students with the required

proficiency level to continue their college education with success. All new students

must successfully complete a two-semester intensive course in English language.

There are generally two primary traditional teaching methods used at Shaqra

University: the Grammar Translation method, and the Audio-Lingual method. The

grammar-translation method requires students to learn grammatical rules and

subsequently apply them through translation of sentences between English and the

Saudi language. Learners may be required to translate long texts word-for-word (Hall,

2017). The Audio-Lingual method emphasises reinforcement, whereby a teacher

would present the correct model of an English sentence and learners would have to

repeat it several times (Rivers, 2018).

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Access to the university and participants in the study was possible as the researcher

has been a lecturer at the English department there (and on leave during the study).

The head of the English department and colleagues in the department were helpful in

providing access to the selected students at the university.

4.2 Research Design

4.2.1 The Need for a Mixed Methods Approach

Research into EFL motivation has been dominated by quantitative approaches for

over four decades since its inception until the 1900s (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011).

Researchers believed they could ‘measure’ foreign language learners’ motivation and

establish the relationship between motivational variables to test their research

hypotheses and enhance the aggregation of knowledge (Dörnyei, 2001). Currently, the

quantitative paradigm is still popular in second language motivational research (e.g.,

Loewen, 2018; Taguchi et al., 2009). Even though quantitative measures have enabled

second language motivational researchers to measure motivational variables such as

types of motivation and assisted in identifying causal relationships between these, a

number of limitations relating to collecting quantitative data only have been

highlighted. Noels (2009), for example, stated that one limitation of quantitative

research is its inability to provide detailed descriptions of a particular individual’s

second language motivation.

To address some of its limitations, quantitative research methodology has been

complemented by qualitative approaches to investigate second language motivation

(Dörnyei, 2001). Over the years, qualitative researchers in second language

motivational research have made extensive use of interpretive techniques such as case
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studies and in-depth interviews to collect sensitive and rich explanations and

interpretations of the identified patterns (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). However,

qualitative approaches also have their downside which pertains to the reliability of the

data and generalisability of the results (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). As a result, in this

study, a mixed methods approach was adopted.

A mixed methods approach enabled the researcher to obtain a better understanding of

the nature of motivation in the SA context. In addition, it enabled the researcher to

suggest explanations to the research problems and investigate a broader number of

factors affecting motivation. The researcher was also able to examine motivation

among students in urban or rural locations. Therefore, this fully mixed methods

approach of combining quantitative and qualitative data at all levels of the research is

a unique addition to literature in the SA context.

Mixed methods represents research that involves collecting, analysing, and

interpreting quantitative and qualitative data in a single study that investigates the

same underlying phenomenon (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2009). Dörnyei (2007) and

Creswell (2003) also argue that mixed methods research can help substantially

increase the validity of the results of a study. Mixed methods research falls on a

continuum from fully to not mixed (i.e., monomethod designs) (Edmonds & Kennedy,

2016). This study adopts a fully mixed methods design, which represents the highest

degree of integrating research methods and research paradigm characteristics

(McDonough & McDonough, 2014). The quantitative and qualitative aspects are used

in one or more of the following four components in the current study: (a) the research

objective, (b) type of data and operations, (c) type of analysis, and (d) type of

inference (McDonough & McDonough, 2014; Mertens, 2014).

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In this study, research objectives both quantitative and qualitative are exploratory and

predictive in nature. By seeking to establish whether current teaching methods in the

classroom influence motivation to learn English as a foreign language in the first year

of university studies in SA, a qualitative ‘exploratory’ approach is used. In comparing

and determining whether the use of materials in the classroom influences motivation

to learn English as a foreign language, a quantitative ‘predictive’ approach is used.

4.2.2 Addressing the Research Questions

To address each of the research questions, the review of literature informed the design

of the current thesis. Several researchers have utilised a qualitative lens to study

motivation (e.g., Al-Dosari, 2016; Dörnyei & Clement, 2001; Kissau, 2006; Mori &

Gobel, 2006). Some have suggested that questionnaires alone do not adequately

address the complex nature of motivation because of numerous variables (Dörnyei,

2007). On the other hand, a semi-structured interview gives the opportunity for the

interviewer to explore widely each interviewee’s experiences (Dörnyei, 2014). They

are valuable because they allow the interviewee to provide detailed responses and

allow the researcher to explore developing themes while still having the freedom to

deviate and inquire for more information (Dörnyei, 2014). Interviews also allow the

investigation of phenomena that may not be observed directly, such as attitudes,

beliefs, and perceptions. They are also interactive in nature and enable the creation of

an environment whereby researchers can elicit additional information if the answers

provided initially are off-topic, incomplete, or vague (Mackey et al., 2005).

During the past few decades of motivation research, new methodological approaches

have emerged with traditional quantitative research methodologies increasingly being

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complemented by qualitative approaches. Dörnyei (2001) asserts that this is a

significant shift in research techniques adopted in motivation research. It is argued

that interpretive techniques such as case studies or semi-structured interviews are in

most instances better suited to explore the internal dynamics of the intricate and

multilevel construct of learner motivation than quantitative methods, while the

richness of qualitative data complements this. Ushioda (2013) further argues that

qualitative and quantitative research should not be mutually exclusive but seen as two

connected pieces. Therefore, a mixed methods approach was deemed appropriate for

the current study. Quantitative research measures motivation with other factors such

as academic achievement, while qualitative research enables eliciting participants’

ideas about motivation.

This study consisted of individual semi-structured interviews with six teachers, five

focus group discussions with students, and a student questionnaire which was

analysed quantitatively. Qualitative analysis in the form of thematic description was

also employed. Choosing a fully mixed methods design in a single study was chosen

to fully integrate the strengths of both approaches. This study identifies the level of

students’ motivation including the roles of instrumental and integrative orientations in

motivating learners. As defined in the previous chapter, integrative orientation refers

to the willingness to be like valued members of the language community (Gardner,

1985). It indicates the desire to learn a language to achieve a practical goal such as

using the target language for employment purposes and not for interpersonal benefits

that may be derived from integration (Garner & Lambert, 1972).

As mentioned earlier, participants were drawn from Shaqra University. The study was

conducted in three phases. To address the research questions, a questionnaire was

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used to collect data from the students. This provided data on the level of motivation of

urban and rural students. Secondly, five focus group discussions with students were

conducted. Thirdly, six semi-structured interviews were designed and conducted to

generate teachers’ opinions and experiences.

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Table 8 summarises the research design, indicating the research questions and

relevant data collection methods as well as how the combination of quantitative and

qualitative methods were used in the study to answer the questions that could not be

adequately answered by one paradigm alone.

The following information outlines how each research question can be answered.

Research question (RQ) 1 sought to establish differences in motivation between two

student cohorts (urban and rural) during their first year of university studies using

Gardner’s (1985) IAMTB. Students rated each statement on a Likert-type scale

(Kuhlmann et al., 2017) on the importance of each motivational-related statement.

Data for RQ1 was analysed using independent-samples t-test, content analysis,

descriptive statistics, and factor analysis to compare responses from urban and rural

students. RQ2 focuses on the extent to which teaching methods in the classroom can

influence motivation to learn English in the first year of university studies in SA. Data

from the teacher interviews and student focus groups were compared and triangulated

using qualitative analysis of emergent themes that were coded. RQ3 explored the

ways lecturers and peers influence SA students’ motivation to learn English. This data

is addressed through triangulation of data obtained from the questionnaires, student

focus groups, and teacher interviews.


Table 8: Research Questions, Method of Data Collection, and Data Collected
Research Questions (RQs)
1. Are there differences in motivation
between urban and rural Saudi
Arabian university students in their
first year of studying English?
2. Which aspects of student
motivation predict their English
results?
3. How do lecturers and peers
influence Saudi Arabian students’
motivation to learn English?
133
Data Collection Method Data Collected Data Analysis
• Questionnaire (n=233) • Indication of motivation among urban • Content analysis
• Semi-structured interviews with six teachers and rural students • Descriptive statistics,
• Five focus group discussions with 16 • Nature of motivation – integrative or t-tests, factor analysis
students instrumental
• Differences in motivation between
urban and rural student cohorts
• Questionnaire (n=233) • In-depth data on the impact of teaching • Content analysis
• Semi-structured interviews with six teachers method on motivation from the • Descriptive statistics,
• Five focus group discussions with 16 perspective of teachers and students t-tests, factor analysis
students
• Questionnaire (n=233) • Data on the effect of teachers and peers • Content analysis
• Semi-structured interviews with six teachers on motivation from the perspective of
• Five focus group discussions with 16 teachers and students
students
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According to Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2009), questionnaires, focus group

discussions, and semi-structured interviews need to be integrated in quantitative and

qualitative approaches to adequately address the research goal(s), objective(s),

purpose(s), and question(s). Quantitative data can be collected using questionnaires.

These are carefully constructed questions, often scoring or ranking options (Ary et al.,

2018). In this study, closed-ended questions were used which required participants to

provide responses on a Likert scale ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly

disagree (5), limiting respondents to selecting any one of five specified numbers.

Questionnaires that focused on the factors that may cause motivation when students

from urban and rural areas are learning English were captured in the quantitative

phase of the study.

Carey and Asbury (2016) state that a focus group discussion is an organised

discussion between three to eight people. They provide participants with space to

discuss a topic, in a context where people can agree or disagree with each other. In

this study, five focus group discussions were held with students (a minimum of three

per group) to allow an exploration of how the group thought about motivation in their

English studies recording their range of opinions and ideas. The composition of the

focus groups with 16 students and procedures are discussed in Section 4.4.3.

An individual interview is a conversation between two people with a set structure and

purpose, and is designed to elicit the interviewee’s knowledge on a topic (Bryman,

2017). Individual interviews with teachers explored their understandings, feelings,

experiences, and perspectives of issues regarding motivation on students’ learning. To

compare students’ responses to the questionnaire, an open-ended interview with

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teachers was administered. The use of both quantitative and qualitative data allowed

the researcher to gain a greater depth of understanding while offsetting the

weaknesses inherent to using questionnaires, interviews, or focus group discussions

by themselves.

To conclude, the use of several means (data collection sources) to examine motivation

allowed for triangulation. According to Gibbs (2018), triangulation of data allows one

to identify aspects of a phenomenon more accurately by approaching it from different

vantage points using different techniques and methods. Detailed explanation of the

participants and data collection methods are presented below.

4.3 Participants

4.3.1 Students

To enable data collection, the researcher obtained ethical clearance from the

University of Wollongong (see Appendix 1). Approval to conduct the research was

also obtained from Shaqra University (see Appendix 2). The researcher then travelled

to Shaqra University.

Initial contact was made with the Head of English Department, and then students were

recruited. The Head of English Department facilitated meetings with university staff

members teaching in the English department. The selected participants were all

English Major students in 2018. All first-year students taught by all teachers in the

English department were selected with the help of teachers. The total number of

students approached was 233, and all volunteered to participate, although not all

agreed to have their marks accessed.

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Based on the identified students, three steps were then followed. The first involved

completing the questionnaires by the students. All 233, studying across the six

faculties of the English department, completed the questionnaire, only 216 agreed to

have their performance marks accessed for this study.

The second step involved students volunteering to participate in focus group

discussions. All 233 students were invited to volunteer, and of the 216 who did

volunteer 16 were selected who had either high, medium, or low performance scores.

The students were equally distributed in each group in terms of performance and

allocated randomly to a group by the researcher. However, since there were five

groups, the allocation of 16 students resulted in Group 1 having one more (four

students) than the others.

Allocating students according to varying academic performance in English language

was done to increase the effectiveness of the focus group discussions. Prior research

has demonstrated that maximising the diversity of group members results in better

decision making (Hubscher, 2010). The English teachers assisted the researcher,

assuring the researcher there was an equal distribution of high, average, and low

performing students in each group. The third step involved ensuring that the same

proportion of students from each achievement level were maintained in each focus

group. There was one with a high achievement level, one with a low achievement

level, and one with an average achievement in English in each of the five groups.

From this process, three students were nominated in each group with the exception of

Group 1 which had one additional volunteer.

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Figure 4 represents the data collected from students through both techniques, the

questionnaires administered in class and focus group discussions. The main purpose

of using the two techniques was to allow for the elicitation of sufficient information

concerning learner perceptions about their motivational factors that could potentially

influence students learning English as a foreign language. It also shows the steps in

the sampling process used in the current study to obtain data from the students

through the questionnaire and focus group discussions.

Figure 4: Sampling Procedures and Data Collection

Total of 233 students from six Faculties within the English Department of Shaqra University

For the main study – all 233 students voluntarily agreed to participate

The first step: Questionnaires were administered to 233 students.

233 questionnaires were completed, 216 accepted access to their marks

The second step: Purposive selection of 16 students by the researcher with the assistance of
English teachers

The researcher and English teachers nominated 16 students, one from each of high, average, and
low achievement groups

The third step: 16 students from each achievement level were randomly placed in each group.
Group 1 had 4 students, and Groups 2-5 had 3 students each.
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Table 9 shows the breakdown of the 233 students by each of the six colleges/faculties

within the English Department that participated in the study. All students who

attended the lecture on the day of the study agreed to participate. Six teachers, one

from each college were interviewed, and the five focus groups consisted of three

students from each college (further details in Section 4.3.2). The age of the students

who participated ranged from 19 to 28 years (M=22.52, SD=2.33). The number of

students in each college ranged from 33 to 45.

Table 9: Number Of Participants By Faculty/College

Questionnaire Interviews Focus Groups

Faculty/College
N students N teachers N students
Faculty of Science and Arts (Sajir) 45 1 3
Community College (Shaqra) 35 1 3
Faculty of Science and Arts (Shaqra) 42 1 3
Faculty of Science and Humanities (Horaimla) 33 1 3
Community College (Horaimla) 35 1 0
Faculty of Science and Humanities (Thadiq) 43 1 4
Total 233 6 16

All participants were male as Shaqra University only caters for male students. All

participants had completed high school and were in their first year. All were citizens

of SA and had attended Saudi Arabian public and private schools. Following the

Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) approval, a visit to Shaqra University

was undertaken from November 2018 until February 2019 to collect data from the

participants, since they were attending classes at that time. The researcher approached

Shaqra University with the proposal to undertake data collection. An application letter
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to undertake the research was submitted to Shaqra University in November 2017, and

the researcher later received approval (see Appendix 2).

A week prior to administering the questionnaire, an invitation with participants’

information sheets (Appendix 5, 6, and 7) and relevant consent forms (Appendixes 8

and 9) were provided by the researcher to the participants. The participation

information sheet explained the purpose of the study and risks involved. Clear

instructions were provided on the information sheets pertaining to the researcher and

nature of the study, and students were informed about how confidentiality and

anonymity of the data provided were ensured, as emphasised by Cohen et al. (2011).

Communication with students, both verbally and in writing, assured them that only

the researcher had access to the data, that it would not be disclosed to anyone, and that

their teachers and other university staff members would not know their responses.

Participants were told about the purpose of the study, and that it involved completing

a questionnaire. The students were also advised that the results could inform a

potential modification of curriculum in SA universities, which would facilitate

learning English language and further develop urban and rural students’ English

language skills.

A week after the presentation by the researcher, the questionnaires were given to

students after the lecture. Students then gave their consent by signing the forms and

completing the questionnaire. Students were told to return blank questionnaires if they

chose not to participate, however no blank questionnaires were returned. To guarantee

the representativeness of the sample, Creswell (2014) suggests a minimum random

sample of 30%. However, in this study fortunately all students in their respective

classes participated.
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4.3.2 Teachers

As indicated in Table 9, the participating teachers each represented one of six colleges

or faculties within the English Department at Shaqra University. The consent process

was as follows: the six teachers who were teaching English classes were invited to

participate in an interview. This was done by sending them an email. The researcher

distributed information sheets and consent forms electronically to the teachers

together with the email. Upon receiving the information, all the teachers showed

interest in the study. They were all contacted and a mutually agreed suitable time for

the interview was determined. The researcher then interviewed the teachers in their

individual offices. Prior to the interviews, an explanation of the content of the

information sheets and consent forms were made. All six teachers signed the consent

forms and returned them directly to the researcher.

4.4 Data Collection Methods

4.4.1 Questionnaire for Students

The questionnaire administered to all students who volunteered to participate was

based on the initial IAMTB created by Gardner (2001), and used to investigate

students’ attitudes and motivation toward English. The IAMTB is popular for several

reasons. It was developed specifically to address the needs of researchers who wanted

to investigate the motivational processes that determine the will power and enjoyment

of learning EFL (Cocca et al., 2017). The authors who created the IAMTB developed

a specific instrument for measuring motivational processes and examined how these

influence learning and teaching in EFL. The way studies have been able to analyse

linguistic and non-linguistic aspirations which individuals want to accomplish by

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learning EFL make the tool popular. For example, the instrument focuses on leaners’

eagerness to understand a different society or the individuals’ interest in obtaining a

skill in a different language from their own.

The questionnaire used in the current study was the modified Arabic version

developed by Makrami (2010), an international version of the questionnaire of

Gardner (2001), translated and adapted into Arabic language and used in research on

motivation in the Saudi Arabian context. The IAMTB Arabic questionnaire has 96

items (compared to the original instrument which is comprised of 104 items). The

validity and reliability of the IAMTB has received a lot of attention in prior literature.

Gardner’s (1985) technical report provides psychometric details for each of its sub-

scales. Gardner (1985) reported satisfactory reliability data based on a sample of over

5,000 Anglophone students of French as a second language across seven Canadian

school districts. Cronbach’s alpha (α) was reported to be 0.85, while test-retest

reliability obtained after a period of more than a year between administrations was

0.64 (Denman, 2014). The IAMTB instrument is designed to gather data on five

major areas: (a) motivation, (b) attitudes toward the learning environment, (c)

integrative motives, (d) instrumental motives, and (e) language anxiety.

The questionnaire was structured as follows: in the first part of the questionnaire,

participants provide demographic information including age, future goals, and where

they live. For the second part, the questionnaire employed statements accompanied by

a 5-point Likert scale and participants were asked to circle or check one of the five

given points (1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=neutral, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree).

According to Bryman (2015), using the 5-point Likert scale to generate categorical

data is appropriate for conducting tests for establishing frequency distributions and
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levels of agreement or disagreement. Students rated questions such as: ‘I wish I could

speak many foreign languages perfectly’, ‘I look forward to going to class because my

English teacher is so good’, ‘I don’t pay much attention to the feedback I receive in

my English class’, and ‘My English class is really a waste of time’ (see Appendix 10

for the full instrument). The questionnaire took the students 30 minutes to complete.

Instructions when collecting the data was in their native language – Arabic (also the

native language of the researcher). The researcher is also a qualified EFL teacher and

translator. The Arabic version of the questionnaire was used because the level of

competence of participants in English was seen to be inadequate to respond to the

original questionnaire.

The English performance test was a written test consisting of two tasks with 30 short

answer items for the academic reading part contributing 25 points. The second was an

academic writing part also contributing 25 points. This means the total had 50 points,

which was converted to 100% for a full score.

4.4.2 Focus Groups with Students

Focus group discussions were utilised to allow students to respond to questions

related to their shared and non-shared EFL experiences (Schoonenboom & Johnson,

2017). As stated previously, five focus groups with 16 students aided the triangulation

of students’ perspectives (Gibbs, 2018). The focus group questions were designed to

gather data based on students’ motivational factors identified in the theoretical

framework and review of literature. A digital voice recorder was used to record the

discussions as recommended by qualitative research methodologies (Creswell, 2013;

Stewart et al., 2007). Some of the questions asked included: ‘What do you like most
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when you learn English at the university?’ and ‘How do your peers feel about you

learning English? Are they supportive?’ (see Appendix 4 for the full schedule).

4.4.2.1 Open-ended Questions, Probes and Prompts used in the Student

Focus Groups

In conducting focus groups to gather insights from students on their experience

learning English, a useful tool that was used were probes and prompts to encourage

more detailed and nuanced responses. For the question "Why are you studying

English?", probes and prompts included asking for elaboration on their reasons for

studying, specific goals they hope to achieve, or their overall experience with English

so far. Similarly, for the question "Do you think learning English will earn you a

better job in the future?", probes and prompts explored the reasoning behind their

beliefs, any potential drawbacks, or examples of people who have improved job

prospects through English proficiency.

For the question "What do you like most when you learn English in the university?",

probes and prompts asked for specific examples of engaging or enjoyable learning

experiences, favourite teachers or classes, or interesting aspects of English language

and culture. Conversely, for the question "What don’t you like about learning English

in the university?", probes and prompts explored areas of frustration, challenges, or

unhelpfulness, as well as negative experiences with teachers or classmates.

The question "Think about a time when you have felt really motivated to learn

English? Describe that experience for me?" students were prompted to recall a

specific moment or period of motivation, factors that contributed to it, and strategies

they used to maintain motivation. For the question "Do you think learning English
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will enable you to participate freely in academic, social, and professional activities

among other cultural groups? Why?", probes and prompts explored specific situations

where English proficiency is useful, potential barriers to participation, and other

important attributes beyond English proficiency.

The role of teachers in motivating students to learn English was explored in the

question "How do you think your teacher might influence your motivation to learn

English?", with probes and prompts including specific teacher behaviours or qualities

that impact motivation, experiences with motivating teachers, and ways teachers

could improve support for students' motivation. Finally, for the questions "How do

your peers feel about you learning English? Are they supportive?" probes and

prompts included exploring reactions from peers, potential sources of support or lack

thereof, and ways that peer relationships could impact English learning.

4.4.3 Interviews with Teachers

Interview questions were developed after a review of the literature and analysis of the

two relevant theories: SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005)

Motivation Theory. Interviews with the teachers (see Appendix 3) were built on the

results of the quantitative questionnaire with students.

The purpose of interviewing teachers was to investigate relationships between

teaching methods and the motivation of students. One English language teacher was

selected from each college/faculty (total six). Each interview lasted approximately 45

minutes. Interviews with teachers were conducted in English because they were

English language teachers who easily understood the language. All interviews were
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conducted during a one-month period midway through the academic year. Interviews

were audio recorded and then transcribed later for analysis.

Interviews were conducted after administering the questionnaire (sequentially) in

order to give the researcher opportunity to raise additional interview questions which

arose from analyses of the questionnaires (Flick, 2018). The interviews conducted

with six teachers were semi-structured in nature. Teachers were asked to describe the

teaching strategies they employ and range of tasks they utilised in their teaching (see

Appendix 2 for the prompt questions). Creswell (2013) also suggests probing

responses after a participant has answered a specific question. This was done in the

current study. Teachers’ responses were checked with other responses to questions by

students in the questionnaire and focus group discussions. This approach assisted in

elaborating teachers’ ideas and clarifying their English language teaching practices.

The aim was to identify barriers in teaching English and explore if and how these

barriers were overcome. Some of the questions asked included: ‘What are your

preferred methods of teaching and assessment in your EFL classroom?’, ‘What types

of feedback do you offer your students?’, and ‘How do you accommodate for

individual needs of your students?’ The interviews were transcribed and then sent

back to the participants for verification.

4.4.3.1 Open-ended Questions, Probes and Prompts used in the Interviews

with Teachers

When conducting interviews with teachers in the field of English as a foreign

language (EFL), using probes and prompts can be an effective way to gather detailed

and insightful responses. In the current study, the probes and prompts were used as
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follows. For the question "What are your preferred methods of teaching and

assessment in your EFL classroom? What types of feedback do you offer your

students?", probes and prompts included asking for examples of specific teaching

strategies or assessment methods, the reasoning behind their preferences, and the

effectiveness of different types of feedback for different students.

For the question "How constrained or independent are you as an English teacher in

choosing how to perform your classroom duties? For example, what material and or

strategies to implement?", probes and prompts explored the factors that impact

teacher autonomy, any challenges or limitations faced, and potential strategies for

maximizing autonomy. Similarly, for the question "In a few words, how would your

students describe your teaching strategies?", probes and prompts asked for specific

student feedback, areas where students have provided positive or negative feedback,

and ways to improve teaching effectiveness.

The question "How do you accommodate for individual needs of your students?"

teachers were prompted to state strategies for meeting the diverse needs of students,

the importance of differentiation, and specific examples of successful

accommodations. For the question "If I were to enter your classroom on an average

day, what should I expect to see with regard to student behaviours?", probes and

prompts explored the factors that impact classroom behaviours, any challenges or

successes in managing student behaviours, and strategies for promoting positive

behaviours.
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The question "What do you consider to be a major issue in EFL teaching in SA

today?" teachers were prompted to explain challenges in the field, such as limited

resources, inadequate training or support, or difficulties in student motivation. For the

question "As a teacher, how do you think EFL teaching can be enhanced?", probes

and prompts explored potential solutions, such as greater teacher training or

professional development, more resources for students, or new teaching methods.

The question "Are you aware of any new teaching methods like CLT or other? If yes,

are you able to implement them? Why?" teachers were prompted to present their

knowledge of new approaches in EFL teaching, their ability to implement them, and

any challenges or limitations to their use. For the question "Do you usually participate

in any English teaching professional development activities, either formal or

informal? If yes - tell me a little bit about these experiences", probes and prompts

explored specific professional development opportunities, any benefits or drawbacks

to participation, and the impact on teaching effectiveness.

Finally, for the question "Are there any additional thoughts or comments that you

would like to provide?", probes and prompts encouraged teachers to provide

additional insights or perspectives on their experiences as EFL teachers, including

areas of success or challenge, strategies for improving teaching effectiveness, or

recommendations for enhancing the field of EFL teaching in Saudi Arabia.

4.4.4 Pilot Study

Pilot testing for suitability and reliability was conducted with 5 students at Shaqra

University not included in the sample. These five research participants were chosen

from a similar pool of undergraduate students who participated in the study and not
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included in the main study. Piloting of both the questionnaire and focus group

discussion questions occurred. The pilot study of the questionnaire confirmed that

students understood and interpreted all the questions as intended. However, it also

revealed that more detailed results would be obtained if questions relating to peers

and parents were added. As a result, two questions were added to the interview

schedule (see Appendix 4): ‘How do your peers feel about you learning English? Are

they supportive?’ (Question 8) ‘How do your parents feel about you learning English?

Are they supportive? What do they do to show their support or lack of support?’

(Question 9).

4.5 Methodology for Data Analysis

In this section, the approaches to quantitative and qualitative data analysis are

outlined. As indicated in Table 8, particular approaches were undertaken including

descriptive statistics, t-tests, and factor analysis for quantitative data, and content

analysis for qualitative data.

4.5.1 Principles and Procedures for Quantitative Data Analysis

Responses to the 233 completed paper-based questionnaires were entered into SPSS

(Babbie et al., 2018). Only two participants did not respond to one question and

therefore entered as missing data. The questionnaire responses were assigned values

as captured by the Likert scale; for example, 5 for ‘strongly agree’. As all the

responses were quantified, they could be captured for statistical analysis. The

datasheet was checked by another colleague to ensure there was accuracy and no

mistakes were made.

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4.5.1.1 Reverse Coding Questionnaire Items

The questionnaire consisted of items where students had to rate themselves on a 5-

point Likert scale from ‘Strongly Disagree’ to ‘Strongly Agree’. Items marked as ‘*’

were reverse-coded (see Appendix 10). These negatively worded items and their

ratings had to be reversed before an individual’s score could be computed. For

example, if a participant circled ‘1’ for that item, they now received a score of ‘5’ and

so on. Accordingly, a 1 becomes a 5, a 2 becomes a 4, a 3 remains a 3, a 4 becomes a

2, and a 5 becomes a 1. Thus, the statistics reported in this thesis all represent the

positively worded versions of the items to meet the assumption of linearity preceding

statistical analysis.

4.5.1.2 Procedures for Analysis of the Results

Initial analysis of the answers involved descriptive statistics. These results included

means, standard deviations, and any significant differences (Ross & Willson, 2017).

Analysis focused on the motivational orientation of students based on the

questionnaire. It aimed to identify any significant differences between different types

of motivation (i.e., integrative, instrumental) between urban and rural students. An

independent samples t-test was used to investigate differences in motivation according

to location.

The internal consistency estimates of reliability for each of the five sub-scales were

further computed (i.e., anxiety, integrativeness, attitude, instrumentality, and

motivation). The values for Cronbach’s α were high, above 0.70 across all subscales.

These values indicated a high satisfactory level in the questionnaire items. A Pearson
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product-moment correlation coefficient was also computed on the test scores to assess

relationship between motivation, attitude, and anxiety.

On the basis of the correlational results between all items, a SPSS factorial statistical

test to examine the factors was run. In addition, a one-way multivariate analysis of

covariance was conducted to examine the effect of location (urban and rural) on the

dependent variables (motivation, attitude, and anxiety) with test scores as the

covariate. To determine the difference between the two groups (urban and rural), a

two-way within-subject, and between-subjects, analysis of variance were conducted to

evaluate the effect of location on motivational factors. Factor analysis generated 10

factors. The final analysis involved calculation of a Pearson product-moment

correlation coefficient to assess the relationship between attitude, anxiety, motivation,

and English performance scores.

4.5.2 Procedures for Qualitative Data Transcription and Analysis

There are several ways to organise and analyse qualitative data, as highlighted by

Merriam (2009) and Dörnyei (2007). In this thesis, a thematic analysis method which

is concerned with determining themes such as those related to participants’

motivations, attitudes, orientations, and any other key factors that may enhance

students’ motivation in the classroom learning process were utilised. This involved

manually and carefully transcribing the large amount of data from the six teacher

interviewees and 16 student focus group discussants with the purpose of organising

and preparing the transcripts for analysis.

The interviews with teachers were conducted in English, while the translation of focus

group discussions in Arabic into English were checked with the help of a colleague
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who is a lecturer in English at Shaqra University and another colleague completing

his PhD at a university in Australia. This essential process of transcribing, as

recommended by Denzin and Lincoln (2000), enabled the reading and re-reading of

data closely and carefully which was undertaken several times. As suggested by

Creswell (2013), notes about the initial ideas were taken along the margins of

transcribed data which facilitated the coding process.

When transcribing data, each participant was assigned a unique ID (for example, #1).

The coding process involved labelling key pieces of data in the study including key

words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs that represented the students’ views about

different features of English learning attitudes, motivations, orientations, and other

factors important in enhancing their motivation in the classroom. Key points were

selected to code specific chunks of data from the dataset, as recommended by

Creswell (2014). This process of coding chunks facilitated the reduction and

organisation of data. Initially, the researcher identified a couple of themes and then

searched the data related to them. The researcher then proceeded to fine-tune these

themes.

4.5.3 Strategies for Merging The Quantitative and Qualitative Data Sets

The current study design used a mixed methods approach, where both quantitative

and qualitative analysis were utilised. This approach is referred to as a convergent

parallel mixed method design (Creswell, 2014). Quantitative and qualitative data were

used to relate or compare results and make appropriate interpretations. The

convergent analytic process ensures validity, reliability, and consistency in analysis of

data. Relating quantitative and qualitative data assist to establish the extent to which
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the data collected differ or converge. In this study, findings that complement one

another or are in agreement with one another were identified first. Second, results that

were different were highlighted. Finally, findings identified in qualitative analysis but

not in quantitative analysis were identified (O’Cathain et al., 2010). Sequential

explanatory design is used in this study (Creswell, 2022). Sequential explanatory

design is a research methodology that combines both qualitative and quantitative data

collection methods in a sequential manner to gain a more comprehensive

understanding of a research problem or question. This design involves two stages: the

first stage involves collecting qualitative data, which is analysed. The second stage

involves collecting quantitative data to test the hypothesis or research questions

(Hirose & Creswell, 2023). In this design, the qualitative data is collected first and

quantitative data is collected in the second stage. The results of the quantitative data

analysis are then used to either confirm or reject the hypothesis or research questions.

This approach allows researchers to gather rich qualitative data and then use this data

to develop a more focused and targeted quantitative study. It also allows researchers

to gain a deeper understanding of the research problem and to refine their research

questions as they progress through the study. Sequential explanatory design is

particularly useful in the current study as the understanding the motivation to learn

English in by urban and rural students is complex and requires multiple perspectives

to fully understand.
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4.6 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, an explanation of the methodology was given including the research

design and its justification. The overall method for collecting the data was discussed,

followed by discussion of the research instruments used. Ethical considerations to

protect participants’ rights were also discussed. Finally, a description of the

techniques utilised to analyse the quantitative and qualitative data were presented. In

the next chapter, the results of the data analysis and how they answer the research

questions posed in this study are discussed.

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Chapter 5: Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Opening Context

This chapter presents the results of analysis of the qualitative data. A particular focus

of analysis was the opinions of students about factors which motivated them to learn

English. This chapter reports on analysis of data derived from individual interviews

with English teachers and focus group discussions with students. The researcher

examined in more detail the views of teachers and students concerning factors that

motivated students to learn English as a foreign language in the first year of a

university in SA. There were several set interview questions (see Appendix 3) to

guide the discussion with English teachers and focus group discussants (see Appendix

4).

The findings present students’ motivation toward learning English, their perceptions

about factors they believe influence their motivation, and their attitudes toward EFL

in classroom settings. The qualitative analysis and interpretation of data are organised

into two sections. The first is based on the results of the interview data with six

teachers, and the second on data from the focus group discussions with 16 students.

5.1.2 Overview of the Research Questions and Research Procedures

The themes which emerged from the focus group discussions and individual teacher

interviews were ranked by frequency of occurrence. The main themes that emerged

from the students’ interviews were: importance of the English language, specific
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benefits from learning English, classroom learning strategies that motivate students,

the value of the role of teachers, influence of peers, and the important role of parents.

The following sub research questions were posed: ‘What are the perceptions of

students and teachers of the motivational factors that influence EFL learners in SA

SA?’ and ‘What are the differences in motivation to learn English between students in

urban and rural areas?’ Their purpose was to further inform the main research

question: ‘What are the motivational factors for students who learn English in Saudi

Arabia?’

Gardner (1985, 2001, 2005) and others (e.g., Brown, 2021) believe that the

perceptions of students and EFL teachers are crucial in the motivation of learners (see

Chapter 2). To obtain an understanding of these perceptions, responses from students

and teachers were transcribed and coded.

In this study, the researcher followed the thematic analytic approach suggested by

Braun and Clark (2006) and Dörnyei (2007). In accordance with both of their

approaches, the researcher initially familiarised himself with the data on motivational

factors. This was important for the generation of theme descriptions for all data. The

second step involved searching for themes from the transcripts where students

responded to a question. The responses were reviewed to determine whether they

were answering the question asked. All themes identified from the transcripts of focus

group discussions with students were based on their frequency of responses. While

establishing the themes of the study, well-known themes that currently exist in the

EFL motivation literature and those that have been recommended by Dörnyei (2007)
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and their relationship to the present study were carefully considered. The same

analysis was used for both the student and teacher transcripts.

Information was then gathered from the data. The main categories, referred to as

themes, emerged. For example, the theme ‘Value of the role of teachers and

classroom learning strategies that motivate students’ was identified from the research

question ‘To what extent can teaching methods in the classroom influence motivation

to learn English as a foreign language in the first year of university studies in SA?’

The related interview question was ‘How do you think your teacher might influence

your motivation to learn English?’ Students’ responses to this question, such as

explanations about ‘teacher presence’, ‘explanation with more fun’, ‘talking like

native speakers’, and ‘useful activities’, were grouped together under one theme.

The information presented next is divided into sections that cover students’ opinions

about motivational factors in the classrooms, their teachers, the school context, and

motivation factors outside the school environment. Teachers’ perceptions about what

influences learner motivation are also discussed in a later section.

5.2 Main Themes that Emerged from the Data

They were five focus groups. Students were equally distributed across them to

represent differing ability; an allocation made to increase the effectiveness of

discussions. In each group, there was one student with a high achievement level, one

with a low achievement level, and one with an average achievement in English.

The researcher divided the information from the focus group discussions into separate

sections. These sections cover student perceptions about the motivating factors of
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English in general, in classrooms, of English teachers, and their perceptions about the

influence of peers and parents on motivating them to learn. Table 10 summarises the

themes derived from the focus group discussions with learners, in the words of the

participants. They commented on a wide range of motivational factors related to

learning experiences while learning English. The main themes that emerged are

discussed using the following subsections: importance of English, specific benefits

from learning English, value of the role of teachers and classroom learning strategies

that motivate students, the impact of peers, and the important role of parents.

5.2.1 Importance of English

The focus group participants were asked why they were studying English and

provided varying reasons. However, most stated that English is an important language

now used around the world (see Table 10). All 16 students expressed the view that

English is a very good ‘subject’ because it is a common language in the world and

they would want to continue learning it.

While discussing the question ‘Why are you studying English?’ in Group 1,

participant #2 said “English is an important language as it helps me to communicate

with other people from different parts of the world”. Also in Group 1, the same

sentiment was voiced by participant #3 who said “English language is the common

language, we need to be honest, it is the most widely used language among all people

in the world”.

Table 10: Summary of Key Themes that Emerged from the Focus Groups
Theme
5.1.1 Importance of English
5.1.2 Specific benefits from
learning English
5.1.3 Value of the role of
teachers and classroom learning
strategies that motivate students
5.1.4 Impact of peers
5.1.5 Important role of parents
158
Students (focus groups)
• English is the common language in the world
• Because of the future dominance of English
• Hobby
• More knowledge by acquiring another language
• Earning a better job in the future
• Enable going abroad to find a good job
• Help a person to be an academic
• Open the door of a professional life
• Socialise with people
• Movies and drama in English
• Benefits of speaking two languages
• To speak English with people in airports and hotels
• Participate freely in academic, social, and professional
activities
• Social life like restaurants hotels and social media
• Have more opportunities
• To discover other cultures and people
• Download games surfing the internet
• Teacher presence, explanation with more fun
• Talking like native speakers
• Useful activities
• Encouraging the student
• Making the topic simple and more easy and enjoyable
• Psychological support and removing the fear from students
• Taking into account students’ personalities and their different
English levels
• Using more than one method for teaching
• Varied, some come for fun and some are serious
• Classmates always supportive
• Financial support
• Encourage their kids to learn English
• Proud of student learning English
• Moral support
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While discussing the same question in Group 5, participant #14 said:

I study English because it is a good way if you want to travel to anywhere in

the world and when you learn English there are lots of advantages, you know

the culture of other people, on top of all of this, it is a common language in the

world, it is an easy way to communicate with people, not like the books where

you have to read, when you know English you know about people’s culture

and religions.

Besides participants #2, #3, and #14, all other students also provided similar answers

that they were eager to learn English. For example, participant #4 (Group 1) said he

was studying English because “it is the common language in the Western societies

and even in the Eastern societies”, while participant #5 (Group 2) said “it helps me to

communicate with different people from different countries and within SA. It also

helps me if l go abroad and when l want to check things on the internet”.

5.2.2 Specific Benefits from Learning English

Focus group participants were asked ‘Think about a time when you have felt really

motivated to learn English, describe that experience for me? Are there any reasons or

situations that motivated you to learn?’ Participants responded by mentioning various

reasons, summarised in Table 11.

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Table 11: Summary of Specific Factors that Motivate Students to Learn English

Cluster Factors that motivate students Participants (#)

A Earning a better job in the future 1, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14
B Enable discovering other cultures, going abroad to find a 10, 12
good job
C Help a person to participate in academic activities and also 1, 5, 14
become an academic
D Open the door to a professional life 1, 5
E Participate easily in social activities including at restaurants, 2, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14
hotels, and when using social media
F Movies and drama in English 2, 5, 6
G To speak English with people in airports and hotels 5
H To discover other cultures and people 10, 14, 15, 16
I Download games surfing the internet 11, 12

The instrumental motivation to secure better jobs, and travel abroad and experience

other cultures, were seen as critical by some participants. Four said they were

motivated by the prospects of finding a better job in the future. In Group 5, participant

#14 responded by saying “it [English] gives me the opportunity to have a job whether

inside or outside my country”. In the same group, participant #15 immediately agreed

by adding:

Let us suppose that you are applying to have a job in a company and they are

going to do an interview with you in English, of course you will be on top of

all the other applicants because of the ability to speak English.

In a different group (Group 1), participant #1 had similar views as he said “there is no

doubt that speaking English language will enable you to get a better job, we do our

best but English definitely will help us to get a better job”. However, in Group 4,

besides the prospects of improving job opportunities, two participants also strongly
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felt that English will enable them to discover other cultures and going abroad to find a

good job; participant #10 said “what motivated me to learn English is to discover

other cultures and people”, and participant #12 added “yes even if you go abroad you

will find a good job”. Out of all the participants, two students felt that English would

allow them to travel abroad for potential jobs or discover different cultures.

Some participants also felt motivated to learn English because it would enable them

not only to learn and speak the language inside the classroom but teach other students

by becoming a professional teacher. Participant #14 (Group 5) said, “the academic

language [English] is the official language in the major, yes when we learn English

we should use it academically, if I get an academic job whether it is a lecturer or a

teacher”. In a different group (Group 1), participant #1 commented “English

language might help a person to be an academic and might open the door of a

professional life”. It appears that knowledge of English expands career choices for

some.

Another benefit that encourages students to learn English is the need to participate

easily in social activities including communicating in restaurants, hotels, and when

using social media. Students valued communicating with English-speaking people or

foreigners, both non-native and native speakers, whether outside SA or within. In

Group 5, focus group participant #14 said:

The first thing is that sometimes we put ourselves in situations where we ask

ourselves why didn’t I speak English? Why do I have to call someone to

translate something for me? For example, when l go abroad, l need to speak in
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English and now, more than 60% of people in SA realise how important it is to

speak English language.

Also in Group 5, participant #16 immediately added “almost the same as my peers

said, I would like to add that when you learn English it improves your ambition and

you get to watch movies and drama from other countries”.

Three participants in the focus group discussions indicated that they were motivated

to learn English by movies and drama they saw on television which were in English.

One participant said “what motivated me most is when I watch movies and series and

drama in English” (participant #12, Group 4). What was clear from the discussion

was that if students were interested in watching movies and English media such as

Aljazeera, BBC, Fox News, and CNN they had to learn English. Many TV

programmes around the world are in English, and students are motivated to learn

English for this reason.

Interestingly, while discussing the question ‘Are there any reasons or situations that

motivated you to learn English?’, Group 2 participants could not find any. The

researcher then rephrased the question to ‘Think about a time when you have felt

really motivated to learn English, describe that experience for me? Are there any

reasons or situations that motivated you to learn?’, which then elicited more

discussion.

There was one participant who said he wanted to speak English with people in

airports and hotels:

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I have travelled before and I found it difficult to speak English with people in

airports and hotels, so it was difficult to speak with people [in] English

because in most of the airports and hotels people speak English you have to

know English in order to speak with them, that motivated me to learn English.

In the same group, focus group participants #6 and #7 could not think of any

experiences. This could be because of lack of exposure to English. Indeed, the

participants also revealed the need for them to discover other cultures and people

around the world. Participant #14 (Group 5) said:

I study English because it is a good way if you want to travel to anywhere in

the world and when you learn English there are lots of advantages, you know

the culture of other people, on top of all of this, it is a common language in the

world it is an easy way to communicate with people, when you know English

you know about people’s culture and religions.

Participant #15 (Group 5) quickly joined the discussion and said, “I learn English

because it improves me and my knowledge, and it gives me the opportunity to know

lots of things and lots of opportunities and lots of people, and it is the dominant

language in the world”. They also went on to say, “everyone has his own opinion …

you know two different people and different cultures, it is also good when you want to

help people when you translate to them from one language to another”. Focus group

participant #10 in Group 3 similarly and simply said, “what motivated me to learn

English is to discover other cultures and people”.

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Participants also expressed their desire to learn English to read printed media and

online materials such as magazines, newspapers, and gaining access to games. This is

observed in the following statement by participant #11:

When I go online and when I try to download games or something from the

internet, I feel that I really want to learn English in order to know these words

and vocabularies, that is what really motivated me to learn English.

Downloading games and surfing the internet seems to be a strong motivational factor

for students. They do not only want to communicate with people from different

nationalities in SA but also able to access various sites through the internet. Reasons

cited for the need to access internet sites were varied. For example, participant #1 said

“English will assist me when l want to be admitted at another university abroad. It

will be easy for me to search for different programs offered overseas”. Another

student indicated that “English would allow me to access various internet sites and l

will be able to listen to Western songs” (participant #5). Some were interested in day-

to-day activities. For example, participant #6 said that “English will enable me to

listen to conversations by many English speakers from real life on the internet”. This

meant that the participant will not only be able to listen but also respond through

individual or group chats instantly.

5.2.3 Value of the Role of Teachers and Classroom Learning Strategies

One of the main questions that focus group participants were asked was ‘From your

point of view, how do you think your teacher influences your motivation to learn

English?’ and ‘What do you think the teacher should do to increase your motivation?’

All 16 participants felt it was essential that their English teacher encourage them to
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learn English (see Table 12). Most stated that the reason for this is the fact that they

know the language and must make the content more exciting. For example, participant

#8 said “I like it when the teacher makes us have conversations in English which

focus on real social life, and events that are happening around us which will make

English more exciting”. Participant number #5, while referring to the teacher said:

The way he explains the lesson will motivate me, it has a major impact on me

and the teacher has to make the explanation more fun and he has to speak

about something outside the classroom and lecture, making his explanation

more interactive and fun.

Also, focus group participant #14 said:

The teacher has a major role because the student gets the first impression,

there are some things that I like when he explains the lesson, so sometimes I

like to do like him just like when you see how native speakers speak I like to

use that style.

Integratively motivated participants are distinguished by their desire to speak like a

native speaker. Participant #9 added:

l like it when the teacher asks us to first write simple words on the board and

then letting us write them down because it enables us to develop English

writing skills and creates competition among us on who is the best in writing

and explaining words in class.

Overall, students argued that teachers are a valuable resource and have an important

role to play to encourage them to learn English.

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Table 12: Summary Of Teacher-Related Factors That Increase Students’ Motivation

To Learn English

Cluster Factors that increase learner motivation Participants (#)

A The presence of the teacher, the way the teacher explains and 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10,
encourages students 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
B Relevant, meaningful activities that use examples of what is 1, 5, 11
happening both inside and outside of school
C The teacher inspiring and encouraging the student 8, 15, 16
D Teacher simplifying and explaining in a way which was clear 12, 15, 16
and helped students to understand
E Talking like native speakers 14
F Psychological support and removing the fear from students of 1, 8, 14
losing their Arabic identities
G Taking into account students’ personalities and their different 3
English levels
H Using more than one method for teaching 3, 5, 11, 14

Table 12 summarises the factors that focus group participants said increased their

motivation in learning English due to their teachers’ influence. The list includes the

most common student experiences and perceptions based on the discussions. The

following factors for increasing their learning motivation are presented.

The focus group participants felt that when teachers were motivated they employ

various methods in exciting and different activities. These include conversations in

English which focus on real social life (participant #8) or writing down words on the

board and then asking students to write them in a competitive way (participant #9) as

discussed previously. In addition, students perceived that they will be motivated if

teachers are welcoming and encourage all learners to learn English.The teacher’s

motivation, attitude, and ways of teaching seem to be important for attracting the
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attention of students and motivating them; they are not likely to be bored by such

teachers. For example, participant #10 said “I like it when the teacher teaches with a

friendly attitude and is smiling because it is important for me to concentrate, a very

close, brotherly relationship of tolerance and love is important for me”. All students

agreed that the best types of activities for them to be motivated are those that are

interesting and fun both in and outside the classroom. Such activities are likely to

create a friendly, positive, and interesting atmosphere, according to the students.

There were two questions that students were asked in relation to the value of the role

of teachers and classroom learning strategies that motivate students. The first,

discussed above, was ‘From your point of view, how do you think your teacher

influences your motivation to learn English?’ The second, to be discussed below, was

‘What do you think the teacher should do to increase your motivation?’ When asked

‘How do you think your teacher influences your motivation to learn English?,

participant #15’s response indicates that the teacher has an important role to play

when motivating students:

The teacher is the first key for the student, he is the one who opens the world

of English language learning for the student. For example, if the teacher says

the language is difficult you will have a low motivation and you will not be

able to learn English, but if he says the learning is simple and enjoyable

students will have high motivation to learn.

A teacher also has a psychological influence on students. A higher level of sustained

interest in English learning activities can be achieved by engaging the student’s sense

of self-esteem and varying activities (Darling-Hammond, 2019); for example, making

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a student select an easy task and asking them to present in front of the class, then

progressively varying the activities builds their confidence. This psychological

influence can be seen from various student’s responses. Participant #14 said “the

teacher has a major role because the student gets the first impression”. The first

psychological impression is important on how the teacher-student relationship

develops over the year. Participant #8 went further to say “the teacher can remove the

fear from students and the hesitation, the teacher can ask the student to stand in front

of the class and do a presentation in order to remove the fear from him”. Participant

#1 was even more precise by saying “the teacher can influence a student, he can be

more enjoyable when he explains the lesson, and he can encourage a student to learn

a language, the teacher can give psychological support as well”.

Another student (participant #3) strongly emphasised that he was motivated by a

teacher who took different students’ personalities and different levels of English in

consideration:

I always liked the teacher who takes into account students’ personalities and

their different English levels and different characteristics. I like the teacher

who knows when to be tough and when to be gentle to the students, and

similar to what my friend said … we are all different, we have different

personalities and different abilities.

English teachers therefore need to know the different personalities of students in order

to be able to encourage them to learn the language and make it enjoyable for them.

Hence, students feel motivated when teaching and learning is student-centred.

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The second most mentioned teacher-related factor that increases students’ desire to

learn English was the use of diverse educational methods. Focus group participant

#11 said “the teacher can explain the topic by using more than one way of teaching,

not the same way every time, if he can mix the lesson with something from outside the

class it would be better”. Reference to outside the class is with reference to activities

outside the curriculum or activities related to real life; ‘authentic’ tasks.

However, there was one participant who strongly felt that the teacher has no role to

play in motivating students. He said, “I don’t think the motivation comes from the

teacher, I think the motivation comes from a student himself, the student can

encourage and motivate himself”. Overall, the majority of participants said that

teachers play a huge role to motivate them develop their English reading, speaking,

and writing skills. This can be seen from the participants’ views discussed above.

They were in relation to conversations in English which focus on real social life

(participant #8), asking students to write words on the board and letting them to

rewrite them in a competition way (participant #9), teaching with a friendly, brotherly

attitude (participant #10), and psychologically encouraging participation in class

(participant #10).

5.2.4 Impact of Peers

There were a variety of positive views regarding the impact of peers; most felt they

were very supportive. Table 13 shows students’ views of what their peers do to

motivate them.
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Table 13: Summary of Student Opinions on What Peers do to Motivate Them

Cluster What peers do Participants (#)

A Good supportive behaviour 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
B Share information 2
C Encourage me 12
D Correct my mistakes 15

Participant #15 said:

When I do (make) mistakes … they tell me this is wrong, so we help each other

and learn from our mistakes, we ignore bad things … Not all peers behave in

the same way. Some of my peers support me while others do not.

In Group 3, there was a general agreement from participants #9 and #10 who felt that

other students are very supportive, while participant #8 felt some peers were

supportive while others were not. Participant #8 said, “there are students who support

me and there are students who don’t”, while participant #9 responded by saying that

“most of my peers have been encouraging me to read English books and to keep a

dictionary writing down all new words I have learnt”. Participant #10 agreed and

gave further examples; “my peers always encourage me to use new words in a

sentence every time and to watch English movies with subtitles and to watch the same

movie later with no subtitles”. Participant #1 summed it all up by saying:

I think people are not all alike, not all of them come to learn English,

naturally some students are weak and some are good and some students they

just come for fun and you can expect anything in the class, but because I come

for a special reason of focusing on my studies, I pay no attention to those

people, just focus on my English class and teacher, I mean you can pick up
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good students and leave others you can choose which one is good, and in

every class there are good things and bad things as well.

5.2.5 Important Role of Parents

Focus group participants were asked, ‘How do your parents feel about you learning

English? Are they supportive and what do they do to show their support or lack of

support?’ Table 14 summarises the ways through which parents support their children

to learn English, listing the most common ways cited by students.

Table 14: Summary Of Ways Parents Encourage Students To Learn English

Cluster What parents do Participants (#)

A Financial support 1, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16
B Support because they know that when a child knows 2, 14
English he might help them in the future whether in
hospital, hotels, or travel
C Support because they are proud of their child learning 3, 5, 7, 11, 14
English
D Moral and psychological support 8, 9, 12, 13, 16

Nine participants said their parents encouraged them to learn English by providing

financial support. This enabled them to go to school as children, and enrol in English

classes at university. In addition, parents supported their children to go abroad to

countries where English is the dominant language. Some parents provided the

assistance of private tutors at examination times. To illustrate the support from

parents, participant #14 said:

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I think my parents are the second most supportive factor to learn English after

the teacher as they give me inspiration because the parents know that if their

kid speaks English they will rely on him, and they support me financially

because they see the result of my hard work.

He was immediately supported by participant #15 who said, “yes they have a major

role, sometimes when I face difficulties, I go to them and they try to help me and

support me”. Participant #16 also added, “my parents are not educated, but they still

support me financially and psychologically, my father is an old man and he stands

beside me and encourages me to continue my study”. It seems that most students feel

their parents encourage them to learn English by providing financial support,

assistance with private tutoring, and offering psychological support.

Despite the positive motivational factors, some students indicated that there were

things that did not motivate them when asked ‘What don’t you like about learning

English in the university, or what are the difficulties or problems during your

learning?’ From the focus group discussions that followed, a list of what students

disliked while learning English is presented in Table 15. They were a few participants

who said they did not like learning English, and all the reasons given were related to

classroom activities such as teachers asking difficult questions.

Table 15: Summary of Most Common Reasons for Disliking English

Cluster What they disliked Participants (#)

A Teachers ask the most difficult things 15, 16
B Don’t like poetry and English literature 1, 2
C Don’t like the pressure during the lecture, length of the lecture 5, 6
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Participant #1 said:

I think there is a difference between English literature and a person who loves

English just to communicate with people. When we learn English we learn the

grammar and how to speak, the English literature is learnt for poetry and

novels.

This participant did not see the value of learning English literature when his main

reason for learning English was “just to communicate”. Participant #5 had a different

reason, as seen by his statement:

I don’t like the pressure during the lecture, this makes me lose my

concentration, if you have pressure on you, you lose your concentration. I also

don’t like the length of the lecture, three hours is too much, you cannot

concentrate during the three hours, we should have some break to refresh so

we can recap our concentration.

In summary, focus group participants expressed the specific benefits students derive

from learning English and these include instrumental motivation factors such as going

abroad and potentially finding a job abroad, as well as interacting with foreigners in

hotels, restaurants, and on social media, getting a better job in the future, socialising

with people from different societies, and accessing websites that use English. They

also stated the motivational role of teachers and classroom learning activities. The

teacher’s presence, psychological support, and relevant teaching activities were

highlighted as positive motivational factors by students. Some also stated the

supportive attitude of peers and the motivational role of parents who provide moral
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and financial support. The next section discusses the perceptions of teachers on

factors that motivate their students in English.

5.3 Perceptions of Teachers Regarding Motivation of Students

The aim of this section is to present the teachers’ experiences and perceptions

regarding what motivates students in an EFL context. The main themes that emerged

from teachers’ individual interviews included high motivation in teaching English,

teacher perceptions on motivating students, methods of motivating students, class

activities for students, curriculum-related issues, and their perceptions on how urban

and rural students differ in motivation. The following section presents perceptions on

how teachers motivate their students, and their views on how learners are motivated to

learn English.

5.3.1 Teachers’ Years of Experience Teaching English

The six teachers interviewed had a variety of years of experiences teaching English in

SA. The average was eight years experience, with a range of four to 18 years. All

teachers showed a lot of enthusiasm and interest in teaching English.

5.3.2 Teacher Perceptions on Motivating Students

The English teacher participants were asked, ‘What do you consider to be a major

issue in EFL teaching in SA today?’ It was interesting to hear that the issue of

motivating students came out without asking about it directly. Teacher participant #1

said:
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Well there are different ways and different issues. For example, there are

students who need to learn English but they lack guidance. They want to know

what lies ahead of them, so that they can be motivated regarding learning

English language.

In response to the question, teacher participant #2 raised varied opinions saying:

I think we cannot actually say one word about this … but I think the students

in Saudi Arabia have the ability to access new technologies ... or making

teaching fun … students going online, communicating and interacting with

each other. This will be helpful to enhance their level of students’ English.

In a separate interview, English teacher participant #3 said “we are in our early

stages of using technology and we have challenges regarding the availability of

computer laboratories for the teaching of English”. These comments were similar to

those raised by participant #6 who said “I think the most important thing in Saudi

Arabian universities now is the E-learning. Most of the universities are trying to get

into the world of technology in teaching and in learning English”.

Surprisingly, teacher participant #4 attributed the issue to how students are enrolled

by saying “the main problem is the students’ prior academic achievement. They come

to the English department without any placement test”. This participant expected

students who want to enrol in English to be screened first despite meeting general

entry requirements. All English language teacher participants agreed that learners

need to be motivated to learn English.

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5.3.3 Methods of Motivating Students

English teacher participants were asked a range of questions associated with the way

they motivate students (see Appendix 3). They were asked which approaches they

used in class that encourage learners to learn English. The teachers referred to various

desirable approaches. Almost all use multiple methods when teaching English. For

example, teacher participant #6 said “I use many different language teaching

methods, like communicative language teaching”. Participant #1 said “I use multiple

methods. For example, we have a test that we use to evaluate students at different

levels, we have assignment evaluation, we have observation, we have question and

answer, we have group discussions. I use several methods”. Participant #1 also said

“actually we have specific curriculum to follow and sometimes we use quizzes and

other different methods”.

When asked the question ‘What are your preferred methods of teaching and

assessment in your EFL classroom?’, teacher participant #6 responded by saying,

“actually I don’t stick to one strategy or one method. I use different methods

according to different situations during my lecture and according to the topics I am

teaching”. Surprisingly, when the teachers were asked ‘How constrained or

dependent are you as an English teacher in choosing how to perform your classroom

duties?’ most seemed to follow a rigid structured approach. For example, participant

#2 said “actually we have [a] specific method to follow and we have constraints

actually, we are not free to implement what we want actually”. Participant #2 further

explained that besides following prescribed curriculum, they sometimes bring their

own material, illustrations, handouts, or any instructional material to show students

either as hard copies or on the projector. There is some flexibility which the teachers
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prefer. For example, participant #1 seemed to suggest some flexibility when he said

“well, it is relative. The amount of independence varies … sometimes I can bring

additional or supporting materials from outside but mainly I have to stick to what is

in the course description”. From the interview, it seems teachers have guidelines and

some flexibility in terms of the teaching strategies they employ in class.

5.3.4 Class Activities for Students

English teachers were asked what occurs on a normal class day. They were asked the

question ‘If I were to enter your classroom on an average day, what should I expect to

see?’ Most of the responses referred to students passively listening to the teacher.

English teacher participant #3 said “they will be silent, and they will be listening to

what I am saying”. Similar comments were mentioned by participant #5 when he

said, “you will find them in order, you will find them listening, cooperating, reacting

to my explanation”. Participant #6 illustrated by providing a percentage of student

participation. He said, “you will see some of them participating, and some of them

interested. Not all of them are interested in learning. Some of the students try to

participate to do something to help their leaning … about 30% participation from

students”. Only participant #4 said “for students you may see them doing activities,

like their work group activities I ask them to do”, suggesting learner involvement in

the learning process.

However, participant #1 said “I expect you to be one of them and share information.

We regard teaching as a kind of sharing information” and participant #2 said:

I think they behave well actually and they will be listening to me and

sometimes I am listening to them, we just try to exchange experience not only

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from me teaching them but we hear from them and we have normal

communication.

Together, these suggest that students are participating in the learning process. The

statements by participants #1 and #6 seem to suggest that English teachers rarely use

conversational exercises, with few references to real life conversations.

English teacher participants also felt it would be helpful to make maximum use of

technology which was not currently the case. This refers to the use of modern

technology such as computers, projectors, and PowerPoint presentations which would

make a positive contribution to students’ English learning. Teachers are likely to be

comfortable using these methods because some teachers revealed that there is a need

to use labs and other technological resources as there is a general lack of support for

learning English.

5.3.5 Teacher Perceptions on the Curriculum

The teachers were asked what aspects of EFL needed to be enhanced. Most teacher

participants stated some issues related to the curriculum. Participant #1 said:

There are many elements that should be improved, the curriculum is

something important like the use of books which are modern, new books which

may be helpful or useful for the students and their study. Also, we want to use

good technology, implementing new technological applications in the

classroom to help students to depend on E-learning.

Participant #3 even went further to suggest changes to the curriculum by saying, “I

suggest they develop and improve the curriculum. There are many ways to do this, but
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l suggest asking all the stakeholders which include teachers, students, former

students, and potential employers. This will help in updating the existing curriculum”.

Despite this, participant #1 stated that he supplements his teaching with other

information that he brings; “I have to stick to the curriculum and syllabus and

sometimes I can bring additional or supporting materials from outside but mainly I

have to stick to what is in the course description”. This participant was referring to

texts such as published articles which he would ask his students to read. From the

interview, it seems teachers have minimal flexibility in terms of the teaching

strategies they can employ in class. Most interviewees highlighted issues with the

curriculum and constraints that limit their teaching. They also emphasised that they

strictly follow the curriculum.

5.3.6 Teacher Perceptions of how Urban and Rural Students Differ in

Motivation

The English teacher participants were asked whether they found urban and rural

students to be different in terms of motivation. Almost all said that urban students

were more motivated. Participant #1 said “well, urban students tend to be more

motivated. Maybe because they are aware of the opportunities that lie ahead. Rural

students generally see a university as the only opportunity for them to improve their

life quality”. Participant #2 noted the role that parents play in motivating their

children:

I think the students from cities have high motivation because of many factors,

one of them is that their parents expect them to be educated and their parents

encourage them and give them full support … Rural students – sometimes
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their parents are not educated and sometimes they are busy in their farms …

and they do not give support and they don’t encourage them.

One of the English teacher participants felt that the students he was teaching were not

motivated by saying:

The student[s] in Shaqra (urban area) are more interested in their learning,

they are more motivated concerning their learning because they want to do

something with their study, they want to get some good jobs, but here in Sajir

(rural area) the students are less interested and less motivated in their

learning. They are interested in other things the community imposes on them,

the community is rural, so they are interested in other businesses particularly

farming, so they think that they don’t need English.

Shaqra University has presence in Sajir through its development projects. This

response from the teacher suggests that students in rural areas have limited exposure

to different non-agricultural jobs.

5.4 Government policy, religion, and other cultural factors

Although government policy, religion, and other cultural factors were not explicitly

asked in the interviews and focus group discussions, some responses related to these

factors. For example, one of the previously stated response by the teacher was

I think the students from cities have high motivation because of many factors,

one of them is that their parents expect them to be educated and their parents

encourage them and give them full support … Rural students – sometimes
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their parents are not educated and sometimes they are busy in their farms …

and they do not give support and they don’t encourage them.

Participant #2's response may be implicitly connected to government policies. In

Saudi Arabia, the government has recognized the importance of English language

proficiency as a key component of its Vision 2030 plan, which aims to improve the

country's economic and educational standards. However, there are still disparities in

English language proficiency between rural and urban students, which may be

influenced by various factors. Another related issue on government policy that can

impact English language learning is the allocation of educational resources. Rural

institutions may have fewer resources, such as qualified teachers, textbooks, and

language labs, which can hinder students' language development. Infact, participant

#1 stated that

“well, urban students tend to be more motivated. Maybe because they are aware of

the opportunities that lie ahead. Rural students generally see a university as the only

opportunity for them to improve their life quality”.

It is possible that this is a consequence of government policies with more resources

being allocated to urban areas.

Although not specifically questioned, cultural and religious factors may also be

influencing students' motivation to learn English. For example, one English teacher

stated that:

The student[s] in Shaqra (urban area) are more interested in their

learning, they are more motivated concerning their learning because

they want to do something with their study, they want to get some good

jobs, but here in Sajir (rural area) the students are less interested and
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less motivated in their learning. They are interested in other things the

community imposes on them, the community is rural…

By stating that students may be interested in other things the community imposes on

them, this reveals that parents may not see the value of learning English or may

prioritize religious activities and other community activities over language learning,

which can affect students' interest in the subject.

Overall, a complex interplay of government policy, religious and cultural factors, and

social and economic factors can influence students' motivation to learn English,

particularly in rural and urban areas with different levels of access to educational

resources and employment opportunities.

5.5 Chapter Summary

The main purpose of Chapter 5 was to present the results of the qualitative component

of the study. These results show that students attach great importance to learning

English with the benefits being a higher chance of getting a job, engaging in social

activities, and exploring the internet as drivers for them to learn English.

The students were critical of English teachers who seem to make English lessons

difficult and recommended the use of simple terms for them to understand the

information. Students felt teachers could use methods that helped them develop their

vocabulary and writing skills. Urban students seem to be more motivated than rural

students.
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The findings also reveal that the teachers interviewed were highly motivated and

experienced to teach English. Although they follow the curriculum, they felt it needed

to be improved; for example, by involving all stakeholders such as teachers, students,

former students, and potential employers in the English curriculum development. All

teachers said that urban students were more motivated than rural students.

Although teachers said they used multiple methods of teaching, follow up questions

seem to suggest limited interaction between the students and teachers. Finally, the use

of modern technology to motivate students was strongly recommended by all

teachers. These points will be discussed in the discussion chapter in Chapter 7. The

results of the quantitative analysis will be presented in the next chapter.

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Chapter 6: Analysis and Interpretation of Quantitative Data

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the results of the quantitative study. It addressed two of the

three research questions (RQs) of this study, which related to difference in motivation

between urban and rural students (RQ1) and the prediction of English scores (RQ2),

as outlined in Chapter 1:

1. Are there differences in motivation between urban and rural Saudi Arabian

university students in their first year of studying English?

2. Which aspects of student motivation predict their English results?

As discussed in Section 2.5, it was posited that there are differences in motivation

between urban and rural Saudi Arabian university students in their first year of

studying English. This study examined whether these the two groups of English

learners, urban and rural students, differ in their English learning motivation. This is

important as the role played by several motivational factors (i.e., aspirations, feelings,

instrumentality, opinions, negative perceptions of the language, and teacher

motivations), may be different depending on whether one is from an urban or rural

area. Student location may be an important factor influencing motivation to learn

English.

The current study also aimed to understand the relationships among various

motivational factors for first year students learning English at a Saudi Arabian

University and how these predict their English scores. Hence, the study sought to
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ascertain whether certain aspects of student motivation, such as academic or social

(see Section 2.3.2), predict their English results.

6.2 Participant Demographics

Table 16 illustrates the distribution of respondents according to their age, location,

and access to their marks. As it shows, a total of 233 respondents participated in the

study. The majority of students were between 20 and 24 years (74.7%; n=174). There

was almost an equal number of students from rural (41.6%; n=97) and urban areas

(58.4%; n=136), although rural students were fewer and this is likely due to the higher

population in urban areas. All 233 students who were approached participated in the

study, and 92.7% (n=216) agreed to give the researcher access to their marks.

Table 16: Participants by Age, Location, and Access to their Marks

N %
Age
<20 years 13 5.58
20-24 years 174 74.68
25-29 years 39 16.74
>29 years 7 3.00
Location
Urban 136 58.37
Rural 97 41.63
Accessing marks
Agreed access to marks 216 92.70
Disagreed access to marks 17 7.30
Year level of students
First year 233 100
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6.3 Questionnaire

The data for the quantitative part of the study was obtained from the 96-item

International Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (IAMTB; Gardner, 1985). The

instrument is designed to gather data on five major areas: (a) motivation, (b) attitudes

toward the learning environment, (c) integrative motives, (d) instrumental motives,

and (e) language anxiety. See Chapter 4 for more detail.

6.4 Analysis

Before conducting the statistical analyses, the data were screened for missing data and

outliers. There was no missing data for the questionnaire. The variables of interest,

including enjoyment/utility, feelings, instrumental motivation, opinions, and teacher

motivations were examined for multicollinearity, which refers to a situation whereby

two or more explanatory variables in a multiple regression model are highly linearly

related (r>.90) or, in the extreme case, singularity when there is perfect correlation

between explanatory variables (Seo & Taherbhai, 2019). Multicollinearity is indicated

when variance inflation factors (VIF) exceed 10. For each subscale, the VIFs were

below 5 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007) indicating the IAMTB data were not highly

multicollinear in the current dataset.

6.4.1 Factor Analysis

This study used factor analysis, a method that aims to determine the underlying

factors in a large dataset (Dörnyei, 2007) with the main purpose of identifying the

factor structure of an instrument. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to

reduce a large number of items into well-synthesised variables, called factors. EFA is
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a statistical technique that converts a set of data observations of conceivably

correlated variables into a set of values of linearly uncorrelated variables (Jolliffe &

Cadima, 2016). The transformation of data is executed in such a way that the first

variable has the largest possible variance, accounting for most of the variability of the

data, and every succeeding component will have the highest possible variance

possible. EFA was used with Direct Oblimin Rotation (e.g., Dörnyei, 2007; Field,

2013, Osborne, 2015; Pallant, 2007; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013).

A factor analysis was conducted with results from the 233 participants who completed

the 96-item IAMTB. The results revealed 10 factors with a total variance of 49.49%

(see Table 17). However, to determine the number of factors to be retained, further

analysis was required involving the scree plot (see Figure 5). Eigenvalues measure the

amount of variation in the total sample accounted for by each factor, and are also

reported in Table 17.

Component 1 was robust, with the largest possible eigenvalue of 9.2 and it accounted

for 9.59% of the variance within the data. This was followed by component 2 with an

eigenvalue of 6.001 explaining 6.25% of the variance. Factors 3 to 10 together

accounted for 27.82% of the total variance. The statistical computation of the EFA is

presented in Table 17 in terms of component scores, and based on the largest possible

variance also referred to as factor scores and loadings.

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Table 17: Eigenvalues and Variance for Each of the 10 Retained Factors

Total variance explained

Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Component Total % of variance Cumulative % Total % of variance Cumulative %
1 9.2 9.59 9.59 9.2 9.59 9.59
2 6 6.25 15.84 6 6.25 15.84
3 5.6 5.84 21.67 5.6 5.84 21.67
4 5.16 5.39 27.05 5.16 5.38 27.05
5 4.77 4.97 32.02 4.77 4.97 32.02
6 4.41 4.59 36.62 4.41 4.59 36.62
7 3.49 3.63 40.25 3.49 3.63 40.25
8 3.13 3.26 43.51 3.13 3.26 43.51
9 2.97 3.09 46.6 2.97 3.09 46.6
10 2.77 2.89 49.49 2.77 2.89 49.49

To determine the number of common factors required, the data was checked by

employing the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure (Cohen et al., 2011). KMO

measures how suitable data is for factor analysis, and looks at sampling adequacy for

each variable in the model as well as for the complete model. KMO returns values

between 0 and 1, and values less than 0.5 show that the sampling is not adequate and

that remedial action should be taken (Ferguson & Cox, 1993). A value closer to 1

(above 0.5) is thought to be providing a highly reliable information indicator when

undertaking factor analysis (Cohen et al., 2011).

Correspondingly, Bartlett’s test of sphericity is a p-value, and is acceptable if below

.001. If p<.001, it indicates that there is a good probability that correlations could be

found among the selected motivational orientation items; an essential underlying

rationale of factor analysis (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). As shown in Table 18, the

KMO and Bartlett’s test of sphericity values were .615 and .000, respectively,

showing that the data were appropriate for factor analysis.

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Table 18: KMO and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Values

Description Value
KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy .615
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity – Approx. Chi Square (χ2) 19470.03
df 4560
Significance .000

The next stage involved identifying meaningful factors to be retained. Two tests were

conducted, consistent with motivational orientation studies (Dörnyei, 2007). A scree

plot and Kaiser’s criterion were generated during the extraction process of the factor

analysis. First, Kaiser’s criterion was used, which is based on a recommended

eigenvalue of 1.0. This value shows the total amount of variance accounted for by

each factor (see Table 17).

EFA using maximum likelihood estimation and an oblique (direct oblimin) factor

rotation was conducted on responses to the 96 items of the IAMTB. The KMO

statistic indicated sufficient sampling, with the KMO statistic .615, well above the

recommended value of .50 according to common rules of thumb (Field, 2009), and

KMO values for all individual variables were at acceptable levels (all >.5) (Field,

2009). This indicates that the data were sufficient for factor analysis. Bartlett’s test of

sphericity was significant, χ2(4560)=19470.03, p<.001, indicating that inter-item

correlations were sufficiently large to justify EFA analysis.

The results of the EFA identified 10 eigenvalues greater than one (explaining 49.49%

of the variance), however factor loadings and the scree plot suggest a six-factor

solution is optimal (explaining 36.62% of the variance). A five-factor structure was

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explored but no discernible differences were identified, therefore six factors were

maintained. The six-factor solution can be interpreted as: factor 1 (enjoyment/utility)

with seven items (13, 19, 23, 31, 39, 42, 73 ); factor 2 (English class experiences)

with eight items (21, 22, 33, 34, 36, 47, 60, 90); factor 3 (effort and willingness to

learn English) with 14 items (53, 57, 68, 69, 70, 74, 77, 79, 83, 84, 85, 86, 91, 94);

factor 4 (attitudes toward English and native speakers) with 12 items (6, 24, 23, 41,

48, 49, 52, 56, 66, 80, 81, 82); factor 5 (purpose and strategies of learning English)

with eight items (38, 44, 50, 51, 64, 89, 92, 95); and factor 6 (importance of studying

English) with seven items (7, 10, 11, 15, 25, 37, 62). All other items failed to load

significantly (standardised factor loadings <.30) on any of these six factors (see Table

19).

Before conducting the comparison for variables, the internal consistency of items

included in the questionnaire were analysed. The internal consistency of items is

important because it measures the level of reliability among such items, hence it

determine the level of reliability of the results and to which level the chosen items of

variables are selected adequately. This is statistically measured by calculating the

value of Cronbach’s α for any variable, with more than one item where the acceptable

value is ≥ 0.70.

In this study, alpha coefficients across all subscales were above 0.74 suggesting good

internal consistency and reliability for the items in this sample. Guidance on internal

consistency in the EFL context has been provided:

Second language motivation researchers typically want to measure many

different motivational areas in one questionnaire … Even with short scales of

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three or four items we should aim at reliability coefficients in excess of 0.70,

and if the Cronbach alpha of a scale does not reach 0.60, this should sound

warning bells (Dörnyei, 2001, p. 204).

In the current study, Cronbach’s α suggested good reliability for all subscales. The

results of the analysis were: factor 1=0.86; factor 2=0.91; factor 3=0.83; factor

4=0.89; factor 5=0.83; factor 6=0.82).

The scree plot in factor analysis is used to plot the eigenvalue against the factor

number (see Figure 5). On the scree plot, each eigenvalue on the y-axis is plotted

against the factor with which it is associated on the x-axis. The factor is represented

by a component number. In this study, scree plots were drawn upon during the

extraction process of the factor analysis. On the graph, one can see the visual

representation of the values and pick up the factors before the line becomes almost

flat. Where the line is flat, it means that each successive factor is accounting for

smaller and smaller amounts of the total variance. On the scree plot, the factors that

are normally selected are the ones before the breaking point or elbow (Pallant, 2007).

Figure 5 below depicts an elbow shaped drawing. Pallant (2007) states that there are

no hard rules to determine the number of factors since the inflection is not uniform.

Before the bend is where there is the potential to explain many orientations. The

number of factors before the elbow are six. Thus, in total, six factors were retained in

the current study as shown in Table 19.

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Figure 5: Scree Plot of English Motivational Factors

The coefficients specifying the linear functions of each of the observed variables for

every component was computed before and after rotation. The results showing the

coefficients after rotation are in Table 19. There were cross-loadings on some of the

factors but these were not within the categories selected. For example, item 83 loaded

on factors 3 and 13; item 85 loaded on factors 3 and 12; and item 64 loaded on factors

5 and 11. Due to the number of loadings, only those above .3 are presented.
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Table 19: Varimax Rotation Component Matrix for Questionnaire Variables

No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 6
Factor 1: Enjoyment/utility
42 Studying English is important because it will enable me to better understand and appreciate the English way of life .95
18 I feel very much at ease when I have to speak English .94
23 I really enjoy learning English .93
96 You can always trust native English speakers .93
13 Studying English is important because I will need it for my career .89
71 I get nervous when I am speaking in my English class .88
73 I think that learning English is dull* .87
39 I put off my English homework as much as possible* .87
31 Studying English is important because it will make me more educated .86
19 I wish I could read newspapers and magazines in many foreign languages .83
Factor 2: English class experiences
21 I feel confident when asked to speak in my English class .87
22 I would rather spend more time in my English class and less in other classes* .83
34 I would rather spend my time on subjects other than English* .82
36 I think my English class is boring* .82
47 It is not important for us to learn foreign languages* .81
33 I sometimes daydream about dropping English* .78
90 I am sometimes anxious that the other students in class will laugh at me when I speak English* .42
60 I don’t understand why other students feel nervous about speaking English in class .31
Factor 3: Effort and willingness to learn English
68 I really work hard to learn English .64
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No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 6
84 I wish I were fluent in English .61
77 My English teacher is one of the least pleasant people I know* .56
69 Studying English is important because other people will respect me more if I know English .55
70 To be honest, I really have little interest in my English class* .53
83 I like my English class so much, I look forward to studying more English in the future .48
85 I feel anxious if someone asks me something in English* .44
53 I’m losing any desire I ever had to know English* .43
74 I have a hard time thinking of anything positive about my English class* .43
93 When I leave school, I will give up the study of English because I am not interested in it* .42
86 My English teacher is a great source of inspiration to me .39
91 I would prefer to have a different English teacher* .34
57 If I planned to stay in another country, I would try to learn their language .34
79 Students who claim they get nervous in English classes are just making excuses .31
Factor 4 Attitudes toward English and native speakers
82 The more I get to know native English speakers, the more I like them .52
48 I am calm whenever I have to speak in my English class .49
6 If SA had no contact with English-speaking countries, it would be a great loss .49
24 Most native English speakers are so friendly and easy to get along with, we are fortunate to have them as friends .48
52 It worries me that other students in my class seem to speak English better than I do .45
32 It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in our English class .54
49 When I have a problem understanding something in my English class, I always ask my teacher for help .45
80 I really like my English teacher .43
41 Native English speakers are very sociable and kind .43
56 I would feel quite relaxed if I had to give street directions in English .41
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No. Item 1 2 3 4 5 6
81 I love learning English .37
66 I would feel uncomfortable speaking English anywhere outside the classroom* .35
Factor 5 Purpose and strategies of learning English
51 I enjoy the activities of our English class much more than those of my other classes .57
50 Studying English is important because it will be useful in getting a good job .53
44 I want to learn English so well that it will become natural to me .52
38 I would really like to learn many foreign languages .42
89 When I am studying English, I ignore distractions and pay attention to my task .35
64 My English teacher doesn’t present materials in an interesting way* .35
92 I haven’t any great wish to learn more than the basics of English* .35
95 I would feel calm and sure of myself if I had to order a meal in English .34
Factor 6 Importance of studying English
25 Studying English is important because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people .59
10 My English class is really a waste of time* .49
7 Studying English is important because it will allow me to be more at ease with people who speak English .45
15 Knowing English isn’t really an important goal in my life* .37
11 Studying foreign languages is not enjoyable* .37
37 I wish I could have many native English-speaking friends .33
62 I would like to know more native English speakers .3

* Denotes reverse-coded item.

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6.4.2 Labelling and Analysis of Factors

Initially, there were 10 factors explaining a total variance of 49.49% and these were reduced

to six after using the scree plot. As shown in Table 19, items on the first factor are related to

enjoyment/utility and represent distinct but related EFL orientations. The items had high

loadings between .83 and .95. These items relate to students’ enjoyment or utility to learn

English hence were labelled ‘Enjoyment/utility – Intrinsic motivation’.

The second factor relates to English class experiences, which is an external motivation. Items

that loaded included ‘I feel confident when asked to speak in my English class (21), ‘I would

rather spend more time in my English class and less in other classes’ (22), and ‘I am

sometimes anxious that the other students in class will laugh at me when I speak English’

(90).

The third factor relates to the effort and willingness to learn English. Items such as ‘I really

work hard to learn English (68)’, ‘I wish I were fluent in English’ (84), and ‘I like my English

class so much, I look forward to studying more English in the future’ (83) are shown under

the ‘effort and willingness to learn English’ category.

The fourth factor had 12 items categorised as ‘attitudes toward English and native speakers’.

This category had items such as ‘The more I get to know native English speakers, the more I

like them (82)’, ‘Most native English speakers are so friendly and easy to get along with, we

are fortunate to have them as friends (24)’, ‘When I have a problem understanding something

in my English class, I always ask my teacher for help’ (49), and ‘Native English speakers are

very sociable and kind (41)’.

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Another set of items loaded onto factor 5, and were related to feelings toward English

language learning and strategies of learning English. This category included items such as ‘I

would feel calm and sure of myself if I had to order a meal in English (95)’, ‘When I am

studying English, I ignore distractions and pay attention to my task’ (89), and ‘I enjoy the

activities of our English class much more than those of my other classes’.

The final factor, factor 6, related to the importance of studying English. Items included

‘Studying English is important because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and

varied people’ (25), ‘Studying English is important because it will allow me to be more at

ease with people who speak English’ (10), and ‘I wish I could have many native English-

speaking friends’ (37).

6.5 Motivation and Performance Measures of Urban and Rural Learners

A t-test was conducted for the motivation of urban and rural learners using the six factors

identified. It is based on comparison of the dependent variable (e.g., aspirations, experiences)

with respect to the independent variable (location; i.e., urban or rural) (Cohen et al., 2011).

The results are presented in Table 20, and show that there were significant differences

between leaners in urban and rural areas on four factors at (p<0.05): Factor 1 –

enjoyment/utility, Factor 2 – English class experiences, Factor 4 – attitudes toward English

and native speakers, and Factor 6 – the importance of studying English.

In addition, a t-test on English test performance scores to explore differences between the

urban and rural groups revealed significant differences (this test did not include the factors,

only performance scores and location). As explained in Chapter 4, this was a written test

assessing students’ academic reading and writing skills. A statistically significant main effect

for the English test items (t(215)=92.64, p<0.01) was found, indicating that participants who
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came from urban areas, on average, had higher English scores than participants from rural

areas. The rural participants had a mean of 60.19 (SD=10.04), while urban participants had a

mean of 73.56 (SD=10.81). The range of scores for rural students was from 35% to 95%,

while urban students had scores from 49% to 99%. These were the lowest and highest scores

obtained by students in each group. These results confirm the study proposed prediction of

differences in motivation and performance scores between urban and rural Saudi Arabian

university students in their first year of studying English.

Table 20: Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples T-Tests for Motivation of

Urban and Rural Learners

Rural Urban

M SD M SD p

Factor 1: Enjoyment/utility 2.38 .65 2.95 .21 .000

Factor 2: English class experiences 2.75 .71 3.05 .32 .038

Factor 3: Effort and willingness to learn English 2.96 .39 3.20 .61 .141

Factor 4: Attitudes toward English and native speakers 2.40 .65 3.32 .36 .000

Factor 5: Purpose and strategies of learning English 2.37 .48 3.30 .79 .451

Factor 6: Importance of studying English 2.74 .57 3.06 1.08 .032

Performance scores 60.19 10.04 73.56 10.81 .000

M = Mean; SD = Standard devation.

6.6 Multiple Regression Analyses

In order to evaluate whether EFL motivational orientations (independent variable) predict

variance in students’ English academic performance (dependent variable), a multiple

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regression analysis was performed. There are fundamental assumptions for performing a

regression analysis which were considered, as suggested by Field (2013). These include that

the data must meet the assumptions of independent errors. In the current study, the Durbin

Watson value=1.722, which is close to two as suggested by Field (2013), and indicates

relatively normal and positive autocorrelation.

Inspection of the regression standardised residual histogram (see Figure 6) revealed that the

data is normally distributed. In addition, the normal P-P plot of regression standardised

residuals (see Figure 7) revealed that the data in this study contains almost normally

distributed errors. The observed and expected values are along the line.

Figure 6: Regression Standardised Residual Histogram

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Figure 7: Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardised Residual

The second approach that can be used to test normal distribution is examining kurtosis and

skewness values. Kurtosis is used to measure the flatness or peakness of data distribution,

while skewness is used to measure the symmetry of data distribution (Tabachnick & Fidell,

2007). The results showed that the data are normally distributed, with kurtosis values ranging

from 1.087 to -0.741 and ranging from -1.327 to 0.290 for skewness. Both skewness and

kurtosis values are well below the threshold of +/-2 (George & Mallery, 2016). They are also

below Mayers’ (2013) suggested cutoff of ±1.96.

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A regression model was run. In the model, English performance score was entered as the

dependent variable and responses to the independent variables were the six motivational

factors (see Table 21). The regression analysis was run to test whether students’

enjoyment/utility (Factor 1), English class experiences (Factor 2), effort and willingness to

learn English (Factor 3), attitudes toward English and native speakers (Factor 4), purpose and

strategies of learning English (Factor 5), and importance of studying English (Factor 6)

predict students’ academic performance in English.

It was found that Factors 1 and 2 were significant predictors. That is, these motivational

orientations predict variances in students’ English performance. The adjusted R square value

is a measure that indicates overall EFL motivational orientations, and explains 69% of

variance in students’ English performance. It was also found that urban or rural location

predicted students’ academic performance in an English test.

Table 21: Regression on how Motivational Factors Predict English Performance Scores

Predictors Performance scores

R R2 F β t p
Factor 1: Enjoyment/utility .58 5.17 .000
Factor 2: English class experiences .51 4.48 .000
Factor 3: Effort and willingness to learn English .14 .84 .419
Factor 4: Attitudes toward English and native speakers - .03 .2 .844
Factor 5: Purpose and strategies of learning English .21 1.3 .207
Factor 6: Importance of studying English - .06 .33 .751
Urban/Rural .29 3.701 .004
Age .66 3.97 .699
2
Model F, R and R values .83* .69 26.72
p<.05, β = Standardised β coefficient
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6.7 Chapter Summary

The aim of this chapter was to present the results related to the quantitative data of this study.

Analysis focused on two out of three research questions. The first sought to establish any

differences in motivation between urban and rural Saudi Arabian university students in their

first year of studying English. The second was to determine aspects of student motivation that

predict their English results. Cronbach’s α test was run to check the internal consistency of

the questionnaire across items, and for all subscales were above 0.74 suggesting good internal

consistency and reliability for the items in this sample.

The KMO statistic indicated that the data were sufficient for factor analysis. Bartlett’s test of

sphericity statistic was significant, further indicating that the data were appropriate for factor

analysis. EFA using maximum likelihood estimation and an oblique (direct oblimin) factor

rotation was conducted on the 96 items of the IAMTB. Six factors were retained and a

regression analysis revealed that two factors significantly predict students’ performance on an

English test. These were enjoyment/utility to learn English and English class experiences.

Regarding English language test performance, the data revealed that students who came from

urban areas had higher English scores than participants from rural areas and there were

significant differences in motivation, thus confirming the first prediction. A more detailed

discussion of the findings of both the quantitative and qualitative parts of the study are

considered in Chapter 7.
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Chapter 7: Discussion

7.1 Introduction

The purpose of this study was to identify what motivates students to learn English as a

foreign language in SA. This chapter includes a discussion of the major findings from the

quantitative and qualitative results as related to the literature on motivation and English as

foreign language (EFL) learning. In the sections that follow, comparisons and contrasts of the

study’s data are presented with findings from other studies. Also included is a discussion of

the most important issues that emerged from the qualitative and quantitative data, especially

focusing on the role of students themselves, their teachers, the EFL context, and impact of

Saudi Arabian society. This discussion chapter will be guided by the study’s three research

questions (RQs):

1. What are the differences in motivation between urban and rural Saudi Arabian university

students in their first year of studying English?

2. Which aspects of student motivation predict their English results?

3. How do lecturers and peers influence SA students’ motivation to learn English?

7.2 Summary of Key Findings

This study found that instrumental purpose, motivation in class, and feelings about English

language learning were the strongest predictors of students’ intrinsic motivation in learning a

foreign language. The qualitative results showed that students attach great importance to

learning English with the benefits of having a higher chance of getting a job, engaging in

social activities, and exploring the internet as values that drive them to learn English. This
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instrumental orientation is consistent with the individuals’ desires to learn English to achieve

external goals. Although students were critical of English teachers who seem to make English

lessons difficult, students liked when teachers engage them in EFL learning activities such as

interactive activities involving their participation because they realised that such activities

enable them to acquire English language skills. Urban students seemed to be more motivated

than rural students. Each of these themes is described in detail in the following sections.

7.3 Specific Findings to the Three Research Questions

7.3.1 RQ1: Do Urban and Rural Students Differ in Motivation?

This study investigated whether the two groups of English learners, urban and rural students,

differ in their English learning motivation. The role played by several motivational factors

such as aspirational, feelings, instrumental motivation, opinions, and teacher motivations may

be different depending on whether one is from a rural or urban area. The results of the

quantitative analysis showed that urban participants had a higher English performance mean

score than rural participants, thus confirming the prediction that they do differ and that rural

students have access to less facilitators of success in the EFL classroom. That is, students in

urban areas had better English skills than their rural counterparts and could in part be because

urban and rural communities differ in the extent to which they have access to and interaction

with people from other countries.

These results are consistent with other studies. English learners from urban communities have

been found to be more likely to speak to English speakers. An examination of Indonesian

students found higher English proficiency in two urban settings which differed significantly

with students from rural settings (Lamb, 2012). This was attributed to the fact that the

benefits of English in urban centres are more self-evident, such as the advantages of
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interactions in various occupations. Lamb (2012) added that it was common for urban

learners to access additional English tuition outside of class which is not common in rural

areas. This may also have contributed to the high motivation of students in urban settings.

These observations are likely to relate to the current Saudi Arabian study as Indonesia has

several similarities with SA. For example, the urban-rural divide is similar with urban

communities in both countries enjoying a higher socio-economic status (Al-Qurtuby, 2019).

Further tests were conducted to explore the motivational factors of instrumental purpose,

desire, and motivational interest and the association they have with English performance

scores for urban and rural students. There was one significant relationship between

instrumental purpose and English performance score for urban and rural students. A t-test

conducted for the motivation of urban and rural learners using the six factors identified from

the EFA showed significant difference with urban students reporting higher enjoyment/utility

for studying English as it was perceived to be important for careers and reading newspapers

and magazines. Hence, the findings further confirmed the first hypothesis that differences

between urban and rural students would be observed.

In addition, the qualitative data revealed specific details and other interesting dimensions of

the differences between urban and rural students. The qualitative component revealed that

most English teacher participants felt urban students were more motivated, with some

remarking that students from cities have high motivation because of many factors such as

parents expecting them to be educated and giving their children full support. The parents of

some rural students’ are not educated and at times will be busy in their farms providing little

support to their children. One English teacher gave specific illustrations, saying students in

urban areas are motivated because they want “to do something with their study” and “they

want to get some good jobs”. This has been found in other previous studies too. For example,
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students see specific role models in a range of occupations, and it motivates them to perform

well (Lamb, 2012). Some studies conclude that students want to learn English to secure good

jobs (instrumental) and have a good profession (Getie, 2020). For rural students, common

phrases used by teachers to describe them were “the students are less interested”, “less

motivated in their learning”, and “interested in other things the community imposes on

them”. Most people living in rural communities in SA are interested in other businesses such

as farming, and do not think they need English. The teachers’ responses suggest that students

in rural areas have limited exposure to different non-agricultural jobs.

This urban-rural divide is supported by a recent report by the Organisation for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD), stating that students from urban schools scored on

average 415 points on reading, while students from rural schools had an average score of 356

points. In addition, the bottom quarter of students in terms of socio-economic background

scored 74 points lower than the top quarter in terms of socio-economic background; a

difference equivalent to roughly three years of schooling. In SA, 12% of the variance in

reading performance is explained by socio-economic status (Schleicher, 2019). Although the

population of people including students in urban areas has increased from 21% in 1950 to

84% in 2020 there is still a 16% rural population, and even among the other 84% there are

differences in the thresholds used to derive urban areas hence some regions still have lower

socio-economic levels than others (Schleicher, 2019). In short, low socio-economic levels are

predominantly in rural areas.

The results from this study are partially in accordance with Phan’s (2011) findings. Her study

respondents (Vietnamese English majors) were not greatly instrumentally motivated to learn

English because the participants had positive attitudes toward Western ways of thinking and

behaving and toward English speakers, but this attitude was not limited to the English-
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speaking community only. Some participants had desires to emigrate to English-speaking

countries. Consequently, they had favourable attitudes toward learning English. Other studies

have shown that even cultural interest toward English-speaking groups contributes in a

significant way to the positive motivation of students’ learning efforts (Alshahrani, 2016).

Such interest in other cultures shows the students’ open-mindedness about diverse cultures

from around the world which enhances a learners’ will to learn English (Csizér & Lukács,

2010; Kormos et al., 2011). While it is normal for EFL students to be motivated in an

integrative way and aspire to become valued members of English-speaking countries

(Alshahrani, 2016), it seems that in the SA context participants’ desires were to get a better

job or place to live which may have accounted for their instrumental orientation.

Studies within the Arab world have consistently reported students being more instrumentally

motivated than integrative. In Kuwait, Malallah (2000) conducted research to examine

undergraduate students’ motivation and the results suggested that participants valued English

and had positive attitudes toward learning the language. Qashoa (2006) in a UAE study

revealed similar results but also that Arab students were more instrumentally motivated to

learn English than integratively. In Yemen, Al-Tamimi and Shuib (2009) conducted a study

to identify petroleum engineering students’ motivation and the findings were similar to the

previous study with the majority of students reporting instrumental motives to learn English.

In SA, Al Asmari’s (2013) study indicated that students had strong positive attitudes toward

English and a mixture of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for learning English. Overall,

consistent with most research carried out to investigate Arab learners’ motivation, the current

study revealed that students possess instrumental compared to integrative motivation.

Exposure to English is greater in Saudi Arabian urban than rural areas because of the huge

population of English-speaking foreign employees. The SA economy has changed

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significantly because of the abundance of oil reserves resulting in a very high GDP per capita

(Sweidan & Elbargathi, 2022). Consequently, global companies’ exploitation of the huge

natural oil resources has resulted in SA people living in urban centres interacting more often

with English-speaking people for trading and political purposes (Alrabai, 2016). There are

hundreds of foreign companies operating in SA, employing thousands of workers from

various parts of the world (Garavan et al., 2016). Most foreign employees speak English, and

consequently there is greater need to communicate in English. This emerged in the current

study as teacher participants frequently commented that rural students had less exposure to

English and the associated benefits of employment due to easy interactions with English-

speaking people. As a result, students migrate from rural to urban areas with big cities with

the most significant factor of migrating being access to education (Alothman, 2016).

Disparities between urban and rural students were seen in previous studies to be more

pronounced at higher levels of schooling (Almalki, 2011). The influx of foreign employees in

urban areas may be motivating students to learn English which may not be the case in rural

areas. Some studies have noted that the orientation of urban learners is the high level of

instrumental motivation (Lamb, 2012). As Ryan (2008) points out, there has seldom been

studies in marginalised EFL areas such as rural learners and it is not surprising that

differences may be the result of limited access to resources that are available. This may need

further investigation in future studies but current studies reveal that urban schools have more

advantages than rural schools because of several factors (Al-Silami (2010). These include

better teacher training, teacher experience, resources, and more interactions with students.

Trahar et al. (2020) noted that rural communities tend to be united by community values,

school values, and students making them quite strong but have the greatest disadvantage of

lacking opportunities due to accessibility to a variety of learning resources, universities, and

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colleges. For example, libraries and museums are easily accessible to urban learners. Visits

by academics, authors, and access to newspapers and technology centres is also limited in

rural areas due to the distance. Additionally, Al-Silami (2010) contends that parents of urban

areas tend to be better-educated and hence able to help learners more in learning English.

Some studies have highlighted that students’ lower motivation to study English was that they

took their grandparents’ and parents’ occupations (Chohan & Rana 2016). Occupations in

rural areas of SA such as farming rarely require English language proficiency, thus students

have little motivation to study English as it would be seen as of little impact on their life.

However, this is rapidly changing. For example, since the 1950s SA has experienced rapid

urbanisation; recently, there has been a three-fold urban expansion in the last decade

(Alahmadi & Atkinson, 2019). The percentage of the population living in urban areas in SA

has increased from 21% in the 1950s, through to 58% in 1975, to 83% in 2015, is estimated

to reach 86% by 2030, and peak at 90% by 2050 (Alahmadi & Atkinson, 2019). These

massive changes are likely to have a large impact on the occupations of rural communities.

This study also revealed that parent involvement was strong in urban areas. Although support

in rural areas from parents was available, it was generally weak in the sense that there was no

continuous encouragement from parents. The current study suggests that there is more

support for urban children to go abroad and payment available for additional support for

students to learn English compared to children and youth from rural areas. For example, in

rural settings most parents do not help their children in their lessons (Lamb, 2012). These

results suggest that the approach to teach students in urban and rural settings in SA is

potentially different and is supported by the contrasting motivation levels of urban and rural

students found also in the current study.

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Urban students may have relatively positive attitudes toward English, and their actual

learning effort may be different from rural-based students, and teachers may need to work

with parents to increase the motivation level of students while encouraging English learning.

However, it is not only parental involvement that counts. There is potential satisfaction to be

achieved as a result of activities that occur outside the school environment (Lamb, 2012). For

example, exposure to watching, reading, and listening various English media also contributes

to motivation (Albedaiwi, 2014). In this respect, urban students have access to various media

or interact with foreigners while rural students do not have these opportunities.

As highlighted by Ratnawati and Ismail (2003), rural students can benefit from extensive

support programmes. They have limited contact with English resources and media, which has

been noted in other studies (Almurtadha & Feryok, 2017). Almurtadha (2019) argued that

rural students are likely not to have met a native speaker of English or any other foreign

language when compared to their urban counterparts. Not surprisingly, Lamb (2012) suggests

that students in more remote areas do not have international exposure. As an example, rural

students would not easily imagine a future of them speaking English while urban students

would have positive attitudes toward learning English even outside school, mainly because of

more resources and opportunities. In the current study, it is likely that the majority of rural

students, if adequately supported, may shift from lack of motivation to developing positive

attitudes toward English and enhancing their language proficiency.

During the focus group discussions, the impact of English-language media such as the

internet and television was also highlighted as a significant factor. One recurring theme was

that learning English would enable students to easily participate in social activities, such as

dining at restaurants, staying in hotels, and using social media platforms. These areas

predominantly have internet and televisions. In Saudi Arabia, such media is predominantly in
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urban areas hence the impact on rural and urban students when learning English is

significant. The media affects both the motivation to learn English and the quality of English

language instruction that students receive.

In urban areas, students are more likely to have access to a variety of media outlets such as

television, the internet, and social media platforms (Jaya et al., 2022). This exposure leads to

greater motivation to learn English, as students are more likely to be aware of the importance

of English in global communication and economic success. In contrast, rural students have

limited exposure to media and may not be as aware of the importance of English language

skills. They also have limited access to high-quality English language instruction, as there are

fewer qualified teachers available in rural areas. However, the availability of online learning

resources and distance education programs has helped to bridge this gap, as rural students can

access English language instruction through the internet.

Overall, the impact of media on English language learning in Saudi Arabia is complex and

multifaceted. While media can provide motivation and access to resources, it can also

perpetuate stereotypes and reinforce cultural and linguistic biases. To ensure that all students

have access to high-quality English language instruction, it is important for the Saudi

government to invest in the development of rural education infrastructure and to promote

English language learning as a key component of the country's Vision 2030 plan.

7.3.2 RQ2: Can Teaching Methods Influence Motivation?

As argued in the qualitative and quantitative chapters, the students were eager to see changes

in the teaching methods of English such as employing interactive activities involving learner
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participation. This finding also supports the arguments made by Shahzad (2012), Zein (2017),

and Sharifian (2014) that teachers follow the grammar translation methods and do not employ

more contemporary ways of teaching.

Passive learning and teaching styles emerged as common themes with preference expressed

for active and ‘fun’ learning. As described in Chapter 4, there are generally two primary

traditional teaching methods used at Shaqra University, the Grammar Translation method and

Audio-Lingual method and no other contemporary approaches such as communicative

language teaching methods are used (Islam, 2013). The research results in the current study

show that learners expect much more interactive ways of teaching where they answer

questions and complete activities in class. Pairing students or group activities are rare. One

contributing factor could be the large class size found at most universities (Samad, 2015). In

addition, there seems to be a lack of resources related to teaching materials as well as the

physical infrastructure in classrooms (Allen, 2000). The ‘excitement’ and ‘fun’ constantly

referred to by students is not accommodated for due to the use of traditional methods of

teaching. Yet, enjoyment/utility and English class experiences were the strong predictors of

academic performance in line with expectations embedded in the second research question.

Students interpret ‘excitement’ and ‘fun’ as learning involving content or case studies in

contexts that interest students such as contemporary themes rather than textbook based

situations as well as the teacher asking questions on recent events for them to answer in

English.

Interestingly, teachers were also not happy with classes that were not ‘fun’. For example,

when teachers were asked what normally occurs in class, they responded by stating that

students would mostly be silent and listen to what the teacher is saying. Such passive learning

is not something new. Prior research has revealed that a passive learning style is dominant in
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Saudi culture (e.g., Alkubaidi, 2014; Fakieh, 2014; Farah, 2010). Although passive learning

is not completely absent in other countries’ educational system, it is more apparent than a

multiplicity of pedagogical methods available in countries such Australia. These active

approaches foster the engagement of students with curricula through critical thinking,

development of analysis and opinions, experiential learning, and conducting in-depth pursuit

of topics of personal interest (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Sarason & Banbury, 2004). This

seems to be what teachers and students in SA are expecting. Teachers seemed to be

constrained by requirement to follow prescribed curriculum, but some have been innovative

attempting to make the class interactive by bringing their own material, illustrations, and

handouts. There are limited opportunities to apply this flexibility which the teachers prefer.

Largely, EFL instruction in SA is taught by employing a passive pedagogical approach

through lectures which aids memorisation. Students are unlikely to benefit from the EFL

instruction in SA, hence are unprepared to interact in English on completion of studies.

Textbooks and teaching materials that have remained the same for several years in the

teaching of English will continue to pose difficulties for students and result in lack of

motivation. In most instances, it is the instructional material that they cannot relate to

providing foreign contexts which cannot be motivating for English students in SA. Moreover,

the use of limited resources in the learning of English is universally perceived to result in a

negative impact on learner motivation. Educational resources such as books, computer

laboratories, and the availability of equipped libraries have been shown to increase level of

learner motivation (Alameri, 2009). If these educational resources are appropriate, relevant,

and available for EFL learners this would encourage them to use English when

communicating and thinking about English sentences and words (Alabbad, 2009). Positive

attitudes toward English learning resources are perceived to be crucial.

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Some studies have explored the relationship between communicative activities and their

impact on students’ motivation to learn EFL. For example, Cheng and Dörnyei (2007)

evaluated the extent to which a comprehensive list of motivational strategies derived from

Western educational contexts was perceived as educationally relevant by Taiwanese teachers

of English. They found that the way the teacher presents the learning tasks bears a strong

effect on how the students perceive the assigned activity, suggesting that communicating an

appropriate rationale and strategic advice concerning how to approach a particular activity is

endorsed by Taiwanese teachers of English as an essential ingredient of a motivating teaching

practice. Cheng and Dörnyei (2007) also found that certain motivational strategies are

culturally dependent. However, they noted that the promotion of communicative and game-

like activities has been hindered by a test-driven teaching culture, and the perception that

learning should be serious hard work. In the current study, while the SA Vision 2030 is

invested in ensuring good use of English language, there seems to be tension between the

teaching methodology and requirements for test-driven assessment that becomes barriers to

learning the English language. Ngoc and Iwashita (2012) in a Vietnamese study compared

learners’ and teachers’ attitudes toward factors related to communicative language teaching.

Their results showed that both groups favoured attitudes toward communicative language

teaching.

Incorporating useful resources such as technology embedded in good teaching practice was

another finding in this study. The constant factor is that teaching methods aided by the best

available instructional resources are fundamental to motivating students (Lamb, 2012). This

aspect is related to the teachers’ instructional content and their fluency in the teaching of

English. Most participants also expressed that the teacher “know the language and must make

the content more exciting”. It is expected that in the outskirts of major cities, most university
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teachers may not be well qualified in English teaching which has also been reported by other

recent studies (Hassan, 2015; Samad, 2015). Even teachers noted that they wanted to use

good technology, “implementing new technological applications in the classroom to help

students”. To address this, there is need for supports to help rural EFL teachers. First, this is

in terms of integrating technology in ways that promote engagement with their students. This

will ensure that rural students are able to have access to resources at least virtually that their

urban counterparts have access to such as books, computer laboratories, and equipped

libraries which have been shown to increase level of learner motivation.

Second, this approach can be implemented for rural Saudi EFL teachers’ proficiency to be

enhanced. There has been little coordinated effort to address Saudi EFL teachers’ proficiency

particularly those in rural areas during the past few years. EFL teachers were not required to

complete any additional tests to measuring their abilities in the teaching of English or other

subject matter. Some very low achieving EFL graduates would end up teaching EFL in public

schools, with more concentration in rural areas. This could explain why a considerable

number of participants in this study noted the low motivation of students from rural areas. A

recent response to this has been the Education and Training Evaluation Commission (ETEC,

2020) which set standardised tests covering all majors and specialised fields. Applicants are

required to pass the test to obtain a teaching licence to apply for teaching positions which

includes English graduates. Although this organisation was established at the time of writing

this thesis, it is important that participants who pass the English test are distributed equally

among urban and rural areas of SA.

In general, the results of this study supported those of Tran and Baldauf (2007), in that the

teaching methods that involve the teacher delivering content in front of the class without

interaction, is not effective and will not motivate students. This study contrasts Breach’s
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(2004) finding that teaching methods were not as essential as teachers’ knowledge, or unlike

other studies which found the importance of teaching methods and teachers knowledge to be

varied (e.g., Breach, 2004). In the SA context, perhaps it might be reasonable to investigate

other approaches, particularly the communicative language teaching approach and the

effective use of technology as discussed above, although it must be acknowledged that

attempts by teachers to use additional teaching methods despite the constraining curriculum

shows that the teachers were interested in motivating students in class.

7.3.3 RQ3: How do Lecturers and Peers Influence Students’ Motivation?

7.3.3.1 Lecturers

As shown in Chapter 6, one of the most dominant aspects that came out of this study related

to students ‘motivation in class’ and the results revealed that students’ attitudes toward the

English teacher predicted intrinsic motivation. In accordance with this, answers to the

questions that came out during the focus group discussions were analysed using themes to not

only identify key motivational-enhancing factors but also the importance of these factors to

students. The most important aspect that the learners articulated related to the value of the

role of teachers and classroom learning strategies in helping to motivate them. In the

interviews with teachers, these findings were further confirmed. Thus, both students and

teachers expressed that the teacher’s psychological support, relevant teaching activities,

teacher’s presence, and a friendly facilitative attitude toward learners can enhance students’

motivations.

These teacher-related factors have also been identified in prior studies, particularly those that

took place in Asian contexts (e.g., Lee et al., 2018; Lim & He, 2013; Rahman et al., 2010).

For example, there have been deficiencies in existing teacher developmental programmes in
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English teachers’ capacity building. In a Bangladesh study, Hamid (2010) asserts that the

knowledge imparted in English teacher training programmes is inadequate since their content

have limited focus on the practical aspects of English teaching. Hamid and Erling (2016)

further report that despite sufficient funds being allocated to in-service English teacher

training programmes, not much change has occurred. For instance, Karim et al. (2017)

revealed one example where incorporation of mobile phones as a tool for teachers failed to

enhance mobile learning and technology integration because of inadequate support for

English teachers.

In the current study, similar issues may be the reason for low motivation. These issues

include the methods teachers use and teachers’ use of materials which are frequently separate

from learner’s interests and experiences. For example, asking learners to write about LEGO

Robotics when they are not familiar with them may result in low motivation while asking the

same students to watch videos, listen to different speakers, and then asking them to make

comparisons between the content being discussed, say on religion or bullying that occur in

communities, may generate higher interest and motivation. There are various ways these

instructional materials can be prepared. A teacher may devote time to develop his/her own

resources as material that complements books. One may also rely on materials already

developed and obtained from professional development courses and many different sources

including movies and other books. In addition, this can be done concurrently with the

creation of groups, creating small groups of students for within-class learning (three to four in

size) can achieve significantly more than either students not learning in small groups or

students learning in larger groups. Right-sized small-group settings provide teachers with

flexibility to address student variance more appropriately than whole-class instruction.

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Another factor that students believed could assist to improve their EFL motivation is related

to the lecture method and making the content more exciting. Both the quantitative and

qualitative results indicated that students felt teachers should make the content more exciting,

and if this is addressed it can boost their motivation in class. For example, they expect the

teacher to speak about things outside the class and lecture such as students’ favourite sports,

food choices, or technology use in order to make their explanations more interactive and fun.

Suggesting that teachers should make ‘explanations more fun’ seems to be consistent with

Pishghadam et al. (2016) who argued there is frequent assumption that learning is boring and

unpleasant and must be endured to achieve a goal such as employment.

Illés and Akcan (2017) suggest that bringing real-life English language in EFL classrooms

can serve as an opportunity to involve students’ own realities and even make the learners use

the target language spontaneously. The current situation in SA is that teachers have little

control over their teaching materials but incorporating examples of familiar examples during

discussions does not require changing the curriculum. This would ensure that students’

learning is intrinsically motivating, making learning fun and students should be motivated to

learn in the absence of external rewards or punishments. In addition, the length of the lectures

was also a concern. Participants did not like the lectures conducted under pressure, which

made it difficult for them to understand. This was worsened by the length of the lecture, with

three hours being too much for students to maintain concentration.

The idea of having fun and interesting instructional material is associated with intrinsic

motivation. However, there are three different types of intrinsic motivation: IM-knowledge,

IM-accomplishment, and IM-stimulation (Noels et al., 2000; Vallerand et al., 1993). Students

mainly attributed their intrinsic motivation to the fun aspect (IM-stimulation), and hence did

not reveal intrinsic motivation associated with knowledge and accomplishment. This means
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that students who are intrinsically motivated would desire to learn new things and excel in

English. They would get good grades and thrive in an environment that is competitive, hence

maximising students’ internal desire to learn. The role of intrinsic motivation in stimulating

students was also confirmed in the interviews with teachers who stated that motivating

activities were interesting (IM-stimulation). This finding may need further research to

establish the extant literature on intrinsic motivation in SA’s EFL context, including

identifying whether students’ intrinsic motivation is IM-knowledge, IM-accomplishment, or

IM-stimulation.

This was not the main focus of this study, although some prior research highlights that three

strategies are essential to elicit and sustain students’ intrinsic motivation, and these are

autonomy support, positive feedback, and relevant teaching practices (Hackney, 2010).

Autonomy is the quality or state of being self-governing and self-directing, and positive

feedback is operationalised as praise or the expression of admiration or approval (Mrachko et

al., 2017). Teachers’ use of autonomy support, positive feedback, and relevant teaching

practices have been found to develop meaningful supportive relationships with learners,

minimising conflictual relationships with students (Allen et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2010). To

enhance students’ motivation in SA, it would be useful for teachers to facilitate autonomy

support, positive feedback, and relevant teaching practices. This would involve discussions

and conversations analysing texts from different settings such as airports, eating in

restaurants, shopping, and other related texts. Such types of conversation will illustrate real

life situations which are relevant to students and may motivate them.

Overall, despite the need to make the content more exciting, the fundamental change seems to

be the need for systematic updating of the curriculum. There was even a clear suggestion by

one participant who said there are numerous ways to improve and develop the curriculum and
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as a starting point proposed asking stakeholders which include teachers, students, former

students, and potential employers; this participant felt it was necessary to build upon the

existing curriculum. The curriculum in SA has generally been strongly textbook-centred.

During the past two decades, national textbooks used by schools have been updated

continuously with the aim of integrating more modern concepts including student-centred

methods. The goal of each iteration has largely been to move away from the strict

memorisation of content to the enhancement of higher-order critical thinking skills and

application of knowledge. While this process of updating the curriculum renewal has been

continuous and involved all subject areas, the problem is that there has been heavy focus on

mathematics and sciences (OECD, 2021) hence little attention has been on areas such as EFL.

Another challenge is the lack of stakeholder consultation in the systematic updating of

curriculum, as desired by participants in this study. In SA, the development of curriculum

materials and textbooks including quizzes, sample tests, teacher resources, student

workbooks, and sample tests is led by the Ministry of Education (MoE). In 2007, an

executive arm of the MoE called Tatweer for Education (Tatweer) was established with the

main responsibility for producing educational resources including textbooks (Alghamdi,

2019). Since then, Tatweer has invested significantly in the development of digital materials

and has even created a national education portal (iEN) to host materials that teachers can

have access to online. However, from 2013, the standards setting and assessment organisation

called Education and Training Evaluation Commission (ETEC) took over some of the

responsibilities for creating overarching curriculum documentation and guiding the

development of curriculum materials including the development of the first national

curriculum framework. Tatweer carry out constant revision of curriculum materials using a

‘corrective constructive approach’, such as correcting misconceptions or mistakes and

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updating information and statistics as well as reviewing existing resources to see what

adaptations and new materials will be required in accordance with the framework. However,

while all this is taking place, there seems to be a lack of consultation with supervisors,

teachers, and other interested stakeholders and neither are there plans to pilot before

introduction (Alnefaie, 2016). There is a tendency to introduce changes to instructional

materials and the curriculum rapidly and across all schooling levels simultaneously with

limited or no consultation.

There is an underlying factor which appears to suggest that students seemed to be motivated

by their teachers, and previous studies have demonstrated that students’ attitudes toward their

teachers significantly correlate with their motivation, integrativeness, instrumentality, as well

as parental encouragement (Galloway, 2013). In the current study, it seems students were not

motivated in an integrative way which involves aspirations to become valued members of

English-speaking communities but were more motivated to get a better job or place to live

which may have accounted for their instrumental orientation. Following Galloway’s (2013)

analysis, it is expected that Saudi Arabian students’ integrative motive would exhibit an

increasing trend.

7.3.3.2 Peers

The influence of peers came out strongly in the interviews. Most participants felt that peers

were influential in motivating them to learn English. Students highlighted the impact of

various peers with some conscious that some peers come to school for ‘fun’, not being

serious about studying but enjoying university life, while others like to concentrate on

gaining knowledge and are highly supportive. These peers frequently and actively shared

information in private and formal sessions, encouraged each other, and sought to correct each
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other’s mistakes. However, while some peers generally correct each other, there are some

who are very precise in their advice. For example, one participant commented that peers were

good at “encouraging me to read English books and to keep a dictionary writing down all

new words”. Furthermore, under certain circumstances some peers even suggested specific

strategies such as “encourage me to use new words in a sentence every time and to watch

English movies with subtitles and to watch the same movie later with no subtitles”.

Despite the identification of some peers who were not serious with their studies, most

participants were being motivated to work harder in their English studies and enhance their

performance through various strategies so they could achieve their desired goals. According

to the goal theories, it might be said that most of the participants had a performance approach

(Li et al., 2018). It is believed that a student who is performance-goal oriented would avoid

any learning circumstances in which they may make public mistakes (Li et al., 2018). In the

current study, there is no evidence that the participants avoided such learning environments.

However, the participants did not fit into the definition that emphasises that a performance-

goal-oriented person frequently compares his or her sense of self-worth and ability with

others. This may need further investigation in future studies.

Some studies in other contexts seem to suggest that working in groups or peer learning is

encouraged by teachers and the curriculum (Myron et al., 2018). The instructor would be

acting as a facilitator to encourage learners to find their voice and make sure that the problem

solved is acceptable to the group. This requires learners to collectively problem-solve,

drawing on their own experiences, and learning and understanding to create better outcomes.

However, in SA, a typical feature of most EFL classes is the dominance of the teacher in the

learning process (Alshahrani, 2016). SA is a rich and traditional Islamic culture with a very

high level of power distance between students and teachers (Alshahrani, 2016). In these
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classrooms, the teacher’s authority is highly respected and accepted with reverence. Hence

most teacher-student relationships are very formal with class discourse only occurring

unidirectionally; that is, from teacher to students. Alshahrani (2016) attributed this to the

teacher-centred culture which is generally devoid of independence in learning. Similarly,

Alharbi (2015) recognised the central role teachers in SA play, highlighting that they control

everything that occurs in class. The teacher-centred rather than student-centred learning

environment in SA, which has also been found in this study, has been attributed to Saudi EFL

students’ widespread lack of motivation and underachievement.

Peer motivation can be an important factor in facilitating English learning, as the current

study has shown. Whilst the motivational support that comes from teachers is derived from

the authoritative relationship, peer support is reciprocal because of equality status sharing

(Wentzel, 2016). This is crucial for students because of the large amount of time they spend

on learning the language with their peers. Besides the support for each other, a learner may

also serve as a role model which would enhance other students’ motivation toward English

language learning (Stigmar, 2016). This acquisition of knowledge and skills through acts of

helping and supporting each other is clearly demonstrated by a participant who said “when I

do (make) mistakes … they tell me this is wrong, so we help each other and learn from our

mistakes, we ignore bad things”.

Several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of peers rather than teachers to facilitate

English learning, which is occurring in the Saudi Arabian context (e.g., Stigmar, 2016;

Wentzel, 2016). Others assert that peers influence students’ motivation more than teachers or

parents (Wong, 2008). Overall, peers play a significant role in motivating other students in

SA. This appears to be a cultural feature where students in SA are more likely to work

cooperatively with each other rather than compete with each other. There is no known
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research study that has investigated this, and further studies may explore how peers compete

or work cooperatively during EFL learning.

The effects of anxiety can adversely affect the process of learning a foreign language. The

current study revealed that ‘Factor 2: English class experiences’ was a key factor retained in

the factor analysis and one of its items was about anxiety. Aida (1994) argues that the higher

the level of foreign language anxiety, the lower academic performance is in language classes

for students. Students agreed that they were ‘sometimes anxious that the other students in

class will laugh’ when they speak English. Out of the four basic language skills, oral

communication skill is where students often experience the highest level of anxiety (Koka et

al., 2019). The reason is for the fear of not sounding as good as their peers in the EFL

classroom, which then leads to ‘test anxiety’, ‘negative evaluation’, and ‘communication

apprehension’ (Zrekat et al., 2016). These three factors have been seen to be responsible for

creating an anxiety-provoking situation in an EFL class. As shown in the analysis performed

in the current study, the students exhibited a higher level of anxiety. For students to cope and

reduce anxiety, techniques can be used by teachers including raising awareness of the

possibility of anxiety and advising on ways to combat it such as self-regulation of anxiety or

self-encouragement.

7.3.3.3 Lecturers and peers impact on students' motivation

The qualitative data from the focus group discussions and interviews revealed that both

lecturers and peers have a significant impact on students' motivation to learn English.

Students perceived their lecturers as instrumental in providing psychological support,

relevant teaching activities, and a friendly attitude, which helped them feel more motivated
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and engaged in the learning process. Lecturers who exhibited these qualities were highly

regarded by students, who saw them as role models for their own learning and development.

Peers, on the other hand, were highly influential in motivating students to learn English.

Students reported that they were often more comfortable practicing their language skills with

peers, and that this practice helped them to build confidence in their abilities. The study

found that peer support was particularly important for rural students who may not have access

to the same range of English-speaking opportunities as urban students.

Overall, the impact of lecturers and peers on students' motivation to learn English was found

to be similar across rural and urban contexts. However, the specific mechanisms through

which they impacted students' learning may differ depending on the students' individual

characteristics, such as their level of English proficiency. It is important for policymakers and

educators to understand these differences to provide effective support for students in both

rural and urban areas, and to create learning environments that foster positive relationships

between students, lecturers, and peers.

7.3.3.4 Attitudes Toward English

As discussed in the literature review, attitude refers to a mental state that includes beliefs and

feelings (Latchanna & Dagnew, 2009). The attitude of a student toward learning English is

one of the prominent predictors of success in learning the language (Karatas et al., 2016).

This component refers to the learner’s sentiments which included the fact that they liked

learning English. This cognitive factor comprises of student’s beliefs such as believing that

they will feel confident when asked to speak English in class. Several researchers such as

Pérez (2018) have pointed out that EFL motivation is associated with student’s mental

process, personal beliefs, and feelings. These feelings about EFL can significantly contribute
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to understanding students’ motivation to learn English. The relevant items were ‘I really

enjoy learning English’ and ‘I feel very much at ease when I have to speak English’. These

factors have been identified in prior studies as relating to intrinsic motivation (e.g., Noels et

al., 2000; Wang, 2010). Furthermore, responses in the focus group discussions suggest that

students were eager to learn English because it is an international language for

communication, and they felt they could use it when “they travel abroad” or “for the

internet”. The participants had positive attitudes toward learning English and strong belief

that English is a global language, and that it is worthwhile for learners to practice English in a

Saudi Arabian context. As discussed above, students in the current study seemed to have

instrumental motivation as they had a willingness and desire to learn the language for the

purpose of communication, study, or career promotion which aligns with the theoretical

framework (Gardner, 2001).

It is crucial that teachers take instrumental motivation into consideration when they design

English instruction (Hall, 2009). In the focus group discussions, participants stated that

“English is an important language as it helps me to communicate with other people from

different parts of the world”. These beliefs, which were voiced by various participants, are

crucial in language learning. Beliefs have been found to be among the essential points that

have a relationship with learning (Hall, 2017). Students’ beliefs can be an obstacle if they

believe they cannot learn the new language successfully (Lennartsson, 2008). Negative

attitudes can hinder the learning of English, but learners’ negative attitudes can be altered

into positive ones (Lennartsson, 2008). Thus, the student’s attitude is closely aligned to

motivation. Csize´r and Lukács (2010) remarked that positive attitude enhances learners’

motivated behaviour. It is crucial to consider the association of instrumental motivation with

students’ attitude toward their learning.

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7.3.3.5 Attitudes Toward the English Teacher

Attitude refers to an individual’s tendency to be favourable or unfavourable toward an object

(Hart, 2018). In the current study, students’ enjoyment/utility of learning English, attitudes

toward the English teacher, instrumental purpose of EFL, motivation in class, feelings about

English language learning, and feelings on statements of low desire, negative feeling, and

interest were all related to students’ academic performance. There was strong association

with students’ enjoyment/utility of learning English, and attitudes toward the English teacher.

This suggests that attitude toward the English teacher is a strong predictor of students’

intrinsic motivation in learning a foreign language.

This result mirrors other studies (e.g., Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Miller, 1995) which

showed a positive relationship between attitude toward the English teacher and intrinsic

motivation. Answers to the open-ended questions also supports this association. It must be

noted that while attitude to a teacher is dependent on the teacher-student relationship, in the

SA context learners assume a passive role in the EFL and other learning processes because

they largely depend on teachers for their main source of knowledge (Alkubaidi, 2014), and

are often content to remain passive observers and recipients of knowledge rather than be

active participants in the learning process. Most students agreed that the best types of

activities delivered by the teacher made them motivated and these were the ones that were

interesting and fun. Such activities made them like the teacher because they created “a

friendly, positive, and interesting atmosphere”. In addition, during the interview questions,

teachers confirmed that interesting materials and activities are relevant to learners’

acquisition of English skills and that it made the students genuinely engage in their English

studies.
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Participants are intrinsically motivated to learn English in class when the activity delivered

by the teacher is relevant and fun in relation to their interests and needs. This aligns with the

underlying assertion of SDT that human behaviour is directed by the primary psychological

need for autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000, 2002). Therefore, the participants would want

to be intrinsically and autonomously engaged in English learning activities.

The study did not specifically differentiate between the impacts of high school/schoolteachers

versus lecturers on students' English language learning. The study specifically sought to

answer the following question in relation to lecturers “How do lecturers and peers influence

SA students’ motivation to learn English?” High school teachers were outside the scope of

this thesis. However, it did find that teachers, in general, had a positive impact on students'

motivation and learning outcomes. In particular, the study found that teachers' provision of

psychological support, relevant teaching activities, and a friendly attitude positively

influenced students' intrinsic motivation. Students also perceived their teachers as important

sources of support and guidance in their learning process.

While the study did not find any significant differences between the impacts of high

school/schoolteachers versus lecturers, it did find differences between the motivational levels

of urban and rural students. Urban students reported higher levels of motivation, which may

be due to their exposure to better job opportunities and limited occupations in rural areas that

require English proficiency. Therefore, while both high school/schoolteachers and lecturers

can have a positive impact on students' English language learning, the study suggests that

their impact may be influenced by factors such as the students' location and access to

opportunities.
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7.3.3.6 Role of Parents

Most of the participants experienced instrumental motivation from the influence of family

members, especially parents. The focus group participants revealed that their parents were

supportive. They indicated that their parents encouraged them to learn English by providing

financial support, although the analysis of the questionnaires suggested that urban students

may be receiving much more support than their rural counterparts. The financial support

enabled the children to go to school and enrol in English classes. In addition, the parents

supported their children to go abroad to countries where English is the dominant language.

Some parents provided the assistance of private tutors at examination times. One participant

emphasised by saying that ‘my parents are the second most supportive factor to learn English

after the teacher as they give me inspiration because the parents know that if their kid speaks

English they will rely on him, and they support me financially because they see the result of

my hard work’ Another participant said ‘yes they (parents) have a major role, sometimes

when I face difficulties, I go to them and they try to help me and support me.’ Most students

felt that parents encouraged them to learn English by providing financial support, assistance

with private tutoring and by offering psychological support. Almost every participant took a

turn to describe how their parents were having an impact on their English studies. Although it

could not be distinguished whether the motivation came from parental pressure or from their

responsibilities as good children, parents’ involvement acted as a very strong motivational

force.

As shown in the findings in Chapter 6, the students were aware of their parents’ financial

support and most of them wanted to study hard so they would obtain good academic results to

repay their ‘moral debts’ (Jamieson, 1993). The terms Gao (2006) employed to describe the

role of Chinese parents in his study summarises what the participants in the current study
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were stating about their parents. They included stating that their parents were ‘language

learning advocates’, ‘language learning facilitators’, ‘collaborators with teachers’, and

‘language learning coercers’. All these descriptions show the caring and financial investment

parents have in their children’s English achievement and progress. Previous studies have

established the positive influence that most Saudi Arabian parents play in working together

with teachers to encourage students to learn English (Holbah, 2015). Lamb (2012) found that

families in rural areas in an Indonesian study had less influence on learners’ motivation,

possibly because of their lack of awareness of the potential advantages of knowing English,

and learners had less positive views of learning English outside school having fewer

opportunities for such learning. Wenfeng and Gao (2008) even warn against making

generalisations about the English learning characteristics of national populations.

7.4 Conclusion

This discussion provides more light on important aspects of learners’ motivational

orientations toward learning English. Students in urban areas are more highly motivated to

learn English compared to rural students. There may also be some challenges that can hinder

them to learn English (e.g., Dörnyei, 2003). Contextual factors in SA’s university educational

system, and especially in the ESL system, such as a specific curriculum that a teacher is

expected to follow, prescriptive books in the curriculum, and lack of a proper continuous

practice environments may impede students’ EFL motivations (Imran & Wyatt 2015;

Shamim, 2011). The results of the current study reveal the significantly higher motivation of

urban students to learn English compared to rural students, although it is also evident that

some EFL motivational factors are crucial.

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Instrumental purpose, motivation in class, and feelings about English language learning were

the strongest predictors of students’ intrinsic motivation in learning a foreign language. The

qualitative data show that students attach great importance to learning English with the

benefits being having a higher chance of getting a job, engaging in social activities, and

exploring the internet as values that drive them to learn English. It is crucial that teachers take

instrumental motivation into consideration when they design English instruction.

In addition, the qualitative data reveal specific details and other interesting dimensions of the

differences between urban and rural students. Most students living in rural communities in

SA are interested in farming businesses hence do not think they need English, although the

rapid urbanisation is eroding this urban-rural divide. Parent involvement was strong in urban

areas. Although support in rural areas from parents was available, it was generally weak

suggesting that strategies to teach students in urban and rural settings in SA could potentially

be different. Statistical analysis of the expected differences in motivation and English

language test performance between urban and rural students confirmed the expectation that

urban students will show higher levels of motivation and higher performance scores.

Adequately supporting rural students may shift lack of motivation to developing positive

attitudes toward English and enhancing their language proficiency.

Students were also eager to see changes in the teaching methods of English such as

employing interactive activities involving learner participation. The Grammar Translation

method and Audio-Lingual method currently dominating the EFL teaching landscape in SA

needs to be replaced by other contemporary approaches such as communicative language

teaching. The promotion of communicative and game-like activities has been hindered by a

test-driven teaching culture, and the need to keep learning as hard work and a serious

endeavour. This has been detrimental to the motivation of students learning EFL.
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The teachers’ role was also found to be key, particularly in terms of deciding on relevant

content and fluency in the teaching of English. This includes support to help rural EFL

teachers in integrating technology in ways that promote engagement with their students, and

requiring EFL teachers to complete additional tests to ensure they receive the appropriate

level of training provided in various other schools. The teacher’s psychological support,

relevant teaching activities, presence, and friendly facilitative attitude toward learners are

also essential for students’ motivation. The enjoyment/utility and English class experiences

were strong predictors of academic performance, hence confirming the second prediction.

The importance of instrumental motivation also came through from the influence of family

members, especially parents who were supportive. Parents encourage students to learn

English by providing financial support, with urban students potentially receiving more

support than their rural counterparts.

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Chapter 8: Conclusion

8.1 Introduction

This final chapter is organised into four sections. The first revisits the research questions and

summarises the findings of the study. The second explains how the study contributes to a

revised theoretical framework with reference to a modification of Gardener’s (2000) model.

In addition, an explanation of the contribution the study makes to EFL teaching practice and

curriculum design in SA is presented. The final section describes possible avenues for future

research from this study.

8.2 Revisiting the Findings

The present study examined the differences between students from urban and rural areas. The

research aimed to investigate the differences in various aspects of students' motivation based

on their geographical location. This investigation provides valuable insights into the unique

challenges and opportunities faced by students in urban and rural settings.

The previous chapter outlined what motivates students to learn English as a foreign language

in SA. This included a discussion of the major findings from the quantitative and qualitative

results as related to the literature on motivation and English as foreign language (EFL)

learning. Instrumental purpose, motivation in class, and feelings about English language

learning were the strongest predictors of students’ intrinsic motivation in learning a foreign

language.

The qualitative results revealed that students attach great importance to learning English with

the benefits being having a higher chance of getting a job, engaging in social activities, and

exploring the internet as values that drive them to learn English. It was also evident that most
 234

rural students are interested in farming businesses, hence do not think they need English. The

quantitative analysis showed that urban students had higher levels of motivation and higher

performance scores than rural students.

8.3 Contribution to the Revised Theoretical Framework

The model of language learning motivation developed by Gardner (1985, 2001, 2005) was

used in this study. The results suggest that specific additions to the two factors proposed in

the original model can be made. The two factors in the Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) model

are integrative factors and attitudes toward the learning situation. Gardner (1985, 2001, 2005)

provides the classic dichotomy of instrumental and integrative motivation. Integrative

orientation represents a desire by the learner to be like members of the target language

community, and to be fully immersed into that community (Gardner & Lambert, 1972).

Integrative motivation indicates the learners’ wish to at least assimilate or communicate with

members of the target language. In the Saudi Arabian context, the lack of engagement, lack

of positive attitudes toward the target language group, and lack of willingness to integrate

into the target language community were the most common factors.

Overall, almost study after study carried out to investigate Arab students’ motivation and

attitudes have overwhelmingly suggested that EFL Arab students possess instrumental

motivation compared to integrative motivation. While this true in a majority of cases, that

Arabic speakers are steeped in their own culture does not mean there is no interest in

understanding English culture. For example, a comparison between students’ type of

motivation to learn English before and after they arrived in the USA showed significant

difference; the integrative motivation of Saudi students after arrival was higher than before

(Suleiman, 1993). More immersive experiences with the host culture increases integrative
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motivation. Hence watching English films and listening to English audio or movies may have

gradual influence over time, although a significant difference on students’ motivation may

not be apparent in the short term. With regard to students’ attitudes, they tend to have more

positive attitudes toward learning English and toward the native English speakers.

The dotted circles shown in Figure 8 indicate the factors identified in this study, while the

rest reflect Gardner’s (1985, 2001, 2005) original theory. It shows that integrative motivation

is also influenced by attitudes toward the learning situation, which in turn influence

motivation to learn a second language (Gardner, 2000). In the Saudi Arabian context, the

English teacher, English course, teachers’ knowledge, and prescriptive curriculum all

influenced learners’ attitudes and feelings toward English. If the feeling in any of these is

positive, the learner is likely to be motivated to learn the language, and if the learner has a

negative attitude toward the language this will likely have a negative impact on their

motivation to learn.

The two additions to the theory are powerful in explaining the impact of motivation on

English learning. These were added by building on the work of Dörnyei (1990), who defines

the relevance and characteristics of integrativeness as an influencing factor within a

population of learners receiving homogeneous cultural and instructional input such as in SA.

These two additions were derived from Dörnyei’s (1990) questionnaire with the items

‘English is a bridge to other cultures and peoples’ and ‘English broadens one’s view’. They

correspond with factors they named ‘Interest in foreign language and cultures’ and ‘Desire

for knowledge and values associated with English’. The findings in this study match these

factors as Saudi Arabian learners, particularly students in rural areas, may not have had

enough contact with the target language community to form attitudes. A contextualised,
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dynamic model that incorporates these two factors is crucial to understanding students’

motivation in SA.

Figure 8: Modified Gardner’s (2000) Socio-Psychological Model

Other support

Engagement;
Willingness; Attitudes;
Location; Interaction
opportunities
Other factors

Intergrativeness

Language
Motivation
Achievement

Attitudes

toward
English teacher; English
the course; Teacher
Knowledge; Prescriptive
learning curriculum

situation

Language

aptitude
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8.4 Contribution to EFL Teaching Practice and Curriculum Design in SA

Based on the results of the current study, there are various recommendations for Saudi

Arabian EFL educational policy makers, teachers, and the community. These

recommendations are made with a full understanding that there are numerous factors that

shape the nature of EFL learning in SA which include teaching and learning practices,

religion, SA community, culture, and the students’ primary language – Arabic; the dominant

of which is a collective and religious community with deep rooted conservative traditions,

alliances, and family ties (Al-Saraj, 2014). This makes the Saudi community resistant to

change despite increasing need for Saudi Arabians to learn English.

The following ideas that have been identified from this study could be used to shape

strategies for motivating students for future SA EFL learning and teaching. These ideas

include: educational policy makers incorporating students’ interests in curriculum design and

decisions; universities to review EFL curriculum to be student-centred; English language

experts assisting EFL teachers by sharing contemporary work practices; teachers move away

from dominating the learning process and providing students with real-life examples; and a

broader campaign by multiple stakeholders including the government for the broader SA

community to understand the value of English competence without eroding religious, social,

and political Islamic values.

Students are the ones who need to be motivated to enhance their English proficiency, and it is

crucial that their views are taken into account while updating curriculum. This would likely

increase their level of motivation. Students are likely to appreciate a curriculum that reflects

their needs rather than an abstract curriculum that contains content they cannot relate with.
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The university needs to review the EFL curriculum given the fact that the current one results

in students being uninterested, and EFL teachers seem to worry more about completing the

whole curriculum than focusing on enhancing students’ learning. Rewarding teachers on

completing the curriculum rather than emphasising students’ needs would continue to act as a

demotivating factor for students. The current focus is on English proficiency and subject

matter knowledge, with little Saudi Arabian contextual knowledge. English language

curriculum should be student-centred and focus on fulfilling learners’ desires. This would

enable students to be motivated and eager to learn.

It is essential for English language educators to implement a variety of teaching methods

utilising a range of motivational strategies. Teachers would need to undertake educational

training to increase their skills as teachers and incorporate better teaching practices that

benefit learners. This would eliminate some practices such as the use of the mother tongue as

the language of instruction in EFL classes, as this has distinctly negative impacts on students’

learning of English because it undermines their communicative competence by minimising

exposure to English and giving them little or no opportunity to practise and communicate in

English.

The results of this study have shown that multiple factors have the potential to motivate

students including teachers’ provision of psychological support, relevant teaching activities,

and a friendly attitude. English language experts need to help EFL teachers by sharing

contemporary work experiences and providing resources to have the desirable impact on a

range of factors that motivate students.

The findings also suggest that there should be continuous research practice in EFL teaching

which can help by providing teachers with a supporting environment. The research would
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provide better ways for teachers to deal with classroom motivational issues. This may entail a

gradual adjustment of their teaching approach to consider the SA context. There is need to

move away gradually from a typical feature of the EFL class where the teacher dominates the

learning process. If teachers continually provide students with examples from real-life

situations in their English classes in addition to encouraging and praising students’ ideas and

participation, students are likely to be highly motivated and successful in their English

studies.

Besides recommendations specific to Saudi Arabian EFL teachers, there is a broader issue

that needs to be addressed to improve EFL teaching and learning practices. To improve the

SA community’s understanding of the value of English competence, particularly for the rural

community, there is need for the government to undertake initiatives aimed at raising the

population’s awareness of the importance of EFL learning. This needs to highlight that

English is the world’s most widely spoken language and used in all areas such as business,

politics, technology, science, and so forth. In addition, the practical benefits because of

globalisation and the Saudi marketplace requires English competency.

Teachers, students, and parents must all work together to motivate students to assist them to

be proficient in English. As discussed, teachers should implement communicative teaching

methods, incorporate real life examples, and contemporary teaching practices that motivate

students. Parents need to continue to provide fees and encouragement to students. The

government through the education department needs to offer a favourable environment for

students through enacting education policies that have broad stakeholder consultation, takes

into account that students expectations need to be understood, and patience which needs to be

extended to students.
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8.5 Implications for universities and government

The findings highlight the importance of English proficiency in Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030,

which aims to uplift educational standards and enable the country to compete with the world.

The government needs to accelerate the need to improve English instruction in schools and

universities to achieve this goal. The country has set a goal to transform its economy and

society, diversify its income sources, and reduce its reliance on oil exports. To achieve this

goal, Saudi Arabia needs to compete globally and attract foreign investment, businesses, and

talents. English is the main means of communication in international business, science,

technology, and academia, and therefore, proficiency in English is a critical component of the

country's success. As the current study has shown, Saudi students' motivation to learn English

remains low, and there is need for an explicit plan to improve English instruction and uplift

educational standards and enable the country to compete with the world. To aid this goal, the

government can invest in improving the quality of English language teaching and learning by

providing training and resources to teachers, developing a comprehensive English language

curriculum, and promoting language immersion programs. Additionally, the government can

continue to incentivise foreign institutions to enter into partnerships with Saudi universities

and offer joint programs in undergraduate and postgraduate studies to expose students to

diverse learning environments and cultures.

With regards to the rural-urban divide, the study showed that students' motivation to learn

English is influenced by their exposure to job opportunities and limited occupations requiring

English, with urban students showing higher levels of motivation. The government needs to

address this rural-urban divide by providing equal opportunities and resources for English

language education in both settings.

 241

The study's findings have significant implications for universities in Saudi Arabia. As the

government aims to uplift educational standards and enable the country to compete globally,

universities must prioritize improving students' English language proficiency. The study

revealed that teachers play a crucial role in facilitating students' intrinsic motivation through

psychological support, relevant teaching activities, and a friendly attitude. Therefore, the

university needs to provide appropriate training and resources to teachers to ensure that they

are equipped to support their students effectively. Universities need to continue developing

comprehensive English language curricula and improve the quality of English language

teaching and learning. This can be achieved by providing training and resources to English

language teachers, promoting language immersion programs, and incentivizing students to

study abroad to expose them to diverse learning environments and cultures.

Another implication is that universities need to consider the different motivational factors that

affect language learning in urban and rural contexts. The study found that urban students are

more motivated to learn English compared to rural students, primarily due to better job

opportunities and limited occupations in rural areas requiring English. Therefore, universities

in rural areas need to provide additional incentives and support to motivate students to learn

English.

Furthermore, universities need to encourage peer-to-peer learning and foster positive

relationships between students and teachers. The study found that peers and teachers have a

positive influence on students' learning motivation, and teachers' provision of psychological

support, relevant teaching activities, and a friendly attitude can facilitate intrinsic motivation.
 242

The government and universities in Saudi Arabia must prioritise improving students' English

language proficiency and consider the different motivational factors that affect language

learning in urban and rural contexts. They need to provide comprehensive English language

curricula, improve the quality of English language teaching and learning, and promote peer-

to-peer learning and positive relationships between students and teachers. By doing so,

universities can contribute to the country's vision of uplifting educational standards and

enabling Saudi Arabia to compete globally. The government needs to continue investing in

English language education to have significant positive implications for the country's

economy, society, and global competitiveness.

8.6 Limitations of the Thesis

This study investigates motivation among Saudi Arabian university students in learning

English, in line with government's efforts to improve English proficiency as part of its Vision

2030 initiative. Rural students refers to students who reside in or come from rural areas,

which are typically characterized by a low population density, small towns or villages, and an

economy that is largely based on agriculture and natural resources (Li et al., 2019). Urban

students refers to students who reside or come from urban areas, which are typically

characterized by large cities or metropolitan areas, and an economy that is diverse and driven

by a range of industries and services. These students may have greater exposure to diverse

social and economic contexts, compared to students from rural areas (Charles, 2016).

For this study to achieve its purposes, it has classified students into two categories, i.e. urban

and rural, despite the fact that there are rural students who live in semi-urban areas or urban

students who live in the outskirts (almost rural-like areas). This study only included male

students due to cultural reasons as Saudi Arabia does not offer mixed gender university
 243

degrees. During the time of conducting this research, it was culturally unacceptable for a

male teacher to interview female students. Future studies should include female students to

provide more insights or confirm existing results.

In addition, this study did not develop any new motivational techniques in EFL contexts but

instead administered a questionnaire and conducted interviews with students and teachers to

explore what presently occurs in the classroom and whether their responses could provide

ideas about what motivates students and what classroom strategies are useful while

comparing urban and rural students.

Besides, this study relied on students’ rating of each motivational statement on a Likert-type

scale and data was analysed using mean score values (Kuhlmann et al., 2017). While this

works in terms of providing accurate quantitative analysis, and is the best tool available, it

cannot be guaranteed that all students were honest and truthful in the completion of the

questionnaire. However, this was the main reason why interviews with students and teachers

were administered; to ensure the triangulation of results, so this may not have been a major

limitation.

Furthermore, like most PhD theses, this study was limited by time constraints. It would have

been useful to collect more data over a longer period of time with a longitudinal approach to

investigate motivational strategies that occur and that are effective, and whether the rural-

urban EFL motivation divide is widening or narrowing over time. With the timeframe to

undertake PhD studies, this was not possible.

Finally, and similar to other previous studies, when dealing with human participants it is

possible that interviewees may be sensitive to the interviewer and alter their responses. In this

thesis, students could have changed their answers because they were responding to the
 244

interviewer; a phenomenon researchers have labelled the ‘Hawthorne effect’ (Gursoy & Bag,

2018). The researcher’s presence may affect interviewee responses as they may have acted

more motivated during discussions to impress the researcher, which may not be depicting

their true perceptions. Teachers may also have portrayed different pedagogical practices

because they were being recorded, which may make some to act in a different way. However,

it should be noted that all participants voluntarily participated in this study without any

compensation and were free to decline participation at any point without consequences.

8.7 Avenues for Future Research

What is evident from this thesis is that EFL motivation has been well researched for several

decades since the beginning of a dichotomous view of instrumental and integrativeness

motivation (Gardner, 1985, 2001, 2005). However, despite several modifications to this

model there is still more that can be explored particularly in terms of how teachers can

motivate and assess motivation in a Saudi Arabian context and indeed elsewhere. Motivation

is not static and its dynamic and complicated nature in the EFL context requires continuous

research in this area. To this end, this thesis has managed to provide insight into the

perspectives of students and teachers on motivation in the SA context.

The research results in this thesis reveal that the mixed methods approach is an effective way

of analysing students and lecturers’ perceptions in SA, the context for the study. It has

allowed for multifaceted data analysis utilising quantitative and qualitative information.

Comparison of student perceptions in the form of focus group discussions, data obtained from

questionnaires, and teachers’ interview questions illustrated the consistency of beliefs on

learner motivations. The current study was limited by the budget available and time
 245

constraints. Future studies could expand to other universities in SA utilising a larger sample.

There would be an improvement in the applicability of findings.

 246

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Appendix 1: UOW Ethics Approval

Dear Dr Duursma,

I am pleased to advise that the application detailed below has been approved.
Ethics Number: 2017/567
Approval Date: 10/07/2018
Expiry Date: 09/07/2019

Project Title: UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION TO LEARN ENGLISH OF RURAL STUDENTS COMPARED TO

URBAN STUDENTS AT A SAUDI ARABIAN UNIVERSITY

Researcher/s: Almansour Sami; Verenikina Irina; Duursma Elisabeth

Documents Approved: Ethics Application 27/06/2018
Response to Review 15/04/2018 & 27/06/2018
PARTICIPATION INFORMATION SHEETS for teachers 15/04/2018
PARTICIPATION INFORMATION SHEETS for students-focus group 15/04/2018
PARTICIPATION INFORMATION SHEETS for students-questionnaire 15/04/2018
CONSENT FORM for teachers 15/04/2018
CONSENT FORM for students to be in focus groups 15/04/2018
Students Questionnaire 15/04/2018
Presentation to recruit students 27/06/2018
Initial contact email 27/06/2018
Translated Info sheet for questionnaire 27/06/2018
Arabic Questionnaire 27/06/2018
Translated Info sheet for teachers 27/06/2018
Translated Info sheet 27/06/2018
Translated Consent Form Teachers 27/06/2018
Translated Consent Form 27/06/2018
Sites: Site Principal Investigator for Site
Shaqra University, Saudi Arabi (SA) Sami Almansour

The HREC has reviewed the research proposal for compliance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct
in Human Research and approval of this project is conditional upon your continuing compliance with this
document. Compliance is monitored through progress reports; the HREC may also undertake physical
monitoring of research.

Approval is granted for a twelve-month period; extension of this approval will be considered on receipt of a
progress report prior to the expiry date. Extension of approval requires:
• The submission of an annual progress report and a final report on completion of your project.
• Approval by the HREC of any proposed changes to the protocol or investigators.
• Immediate report of serious or unexpected adverse effects on participants.
• Immediate report of unforeseen events that might affect the continued acceptability of the project.
If you have any queries regarding the HREC review process or your ongoing approval, please contact the Ethics
Unit on 4221 3386 or email rso-ethics@uow.edu.au.

Yours sincerely,
Emma Barkus
Associate Professor Emma Barkus,
Chair, UOW & ISLHD Social Sciences Human Research Ethics Committee
The University of Wollongong and Illawarra and Shoalhaven Local Health District Social Sciences HREC is constituted and
functions in accordance with the NHMRC National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research.
 286

Appendix 2: Shaqra University Approval

 287

Appendix 3: Teachers’ Interview Questions

1. How many years have you been teaching EFL?

2. What is the highest level of formal education that you have completed?
3. Which country did you come from?
************************
4. What are your preferred methods of teaching and assessment in your EFL classroom? What types of
feedback do you offer your students?
5. How constrained or independent are you as an English teacher in choosing how to perform your classroom
duties? For example, what material and or strategies to implement?
6. In a few words, how would your students describe your teaching strategies?
7. How do you accommodate for individual needs of your students?
8. If I were to enter your classroom on an average day, what should I expect to see with regard to student
behaviour?
9. Have you taught EFL in any other Universities in different areas of SA? If yes, where? (e.g. rural, urban).
Did the students behave similarly or differently? For example, were there any differences in their
motivation?
10. What do you consider to be a major issue in EFL teaching in SA today?
11. As a teacher, how do you think EFL teaching can be enhanced?
12. Are you aware of any new teaching methods like CLT or other? If yes, are you able to implement them?
Why?
13. Do you usually participate in any English teaching professional development activities, either formal or
informal? If yes - tell me a little bit about these experiences
14. Are there any additional thoughts or comments that you would like to provide?
 288

Appendix 4: Focus Group Questions

1. Why are you studying English?

2. Do you think learning English will earn you a better job in the future? Why?
3. What do you like most when you learn English in the university?
4. What don’t you like about learning English in the university?
5. Think about a time when you have felt really motivated to learn English? Describe that experience for me?
6. Do you think learning English will enable you to participate freely in academic, social, and professional
activities among other cultural groups? Why?
7. How do you think your teacher might influence your motivation to learn English?
8. How do your peers feel about you learning English? Are they supportive?
9. How do your parents feel about you learning English? Are they supportive? What do they do to show their
support or lack of support?
 289

Appendix 5: Participant Information Sheet For Students Participating In Focus Groups

RESEARCH TITLE: UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION TO LEARN ENGLISH OF RURAL

STUDENTS COMPARED TO URBAN STUDENTS AT A SAUDI ARABIAN
UNIVERSITY

Participant Information Sheet for students participating in focus groups

PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

You are invited to take part in a study conducted by researchers at the University of Wollongong. The purpose
of the research is to look at the level of motivation among urban and rural students learning English at Shaqra
University in Saudi Arabia during first year of university studies.

INVESTIGATORS
Dr Elisabeth Duursma, School of Education, UOW, +61 2 4221 5295, eduursma@uow.edu.au
A/Professor Irina Verenikina, School of Education, UOW,+61242214285, irina@uow.edu.au
Dr Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan, Learning, Teaching & Curriculum Unit, UOW, +61242213135,
meeta@uow.edu.au
Sami Almansour, (student researcher) School of Education, UOW,+ , sa597@uowmail.edu.au

PROCEDURE AND VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION

The aim of this project is to find out the extent to which students are motivated in learning English language
during the first year of university studies. If you choose to participate, you will be asked to be involved in one
focus group discussion with other students. The discussion group is facilitated by Sami Almansour. The focus
group will take place at a convenient time for the participants in the group.

Your participation in this research is voluntary. Your refusal to participate or withdrawal of consent will not
have any implications for you and will not affect your relationship with Shaqra University.
 290

POSSSIBLE RISKS, INCONVENIENCES AND DISCOMFORTS

Apart from time participating in the focus group, we foresee no risks or inconveniences to you. Your
involvement in the study is voluntary and you may withdraw your participation and your data from the study at
any time. Refusal to participate in the study will not have any implications for you and will not affect your
relationship with Shaqra University.

FINDINGS AND BENEFITS OF THE RESEARCH

This research will give us more information on students’ desire, effort, and positive affect toward learning the
English language. All information will be confidential. Only the research team will have access to the data.
Findings from the study will be published in a thesis, academic journals and presented at conferences in a
confidential manner.

ETHICS REVIEW AND COMPLAINTS

This study has been reviewed by the Human Research Ethics Committee (Social Science, Humanities and
Behavioural Science) of the University of Wollongong. If you have any concerns or complaints regarding the
way this research has been conducted, you can contact the UOW Ethics Officer on (02) 4221 3386 or email rso-
ethics@uow.edu.au.

For any questions or concerns about the study you can contact Sami Almansour (+ or
), Dr Elisabeth Duursma (+61 2 4221 5295), A/Professor Irina Verenikina (+61242214285), Dr
Meeta Chatterjee (+61242213135) at the School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Wollongong.

Kind regards,
Sami Almansour
Dr Elisabeth Duursma
A/Professor Irina Verenikina
Dr Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan
 291

Appendix 6: Participant Information Sheet for Students Completing the Questionnaire

RESEARCH TITLE: UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION TO LEARN ENGLISH OF RURAL

STUDENTS COMPARED TO URBAN STUDENTS AT A SAUDI ARABIAN
UNIVERSITY

Participant Information Sheet for students completing the questionnaire

PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

You are invited to take part in a study conducted by researchers at the University of Wollongong. The purpose
of the research is to look at the level of motivation among urban and rural students learning English at Shaqra
University in Saudi Arabia during first year of university studies.

INVESTIGATORS
Dr Elisabeth Duursma, School of Education, UOW, +61 2 4221 5295, eduursma@uow.edu.au
A/Professor Irina Verenikina, School of Education, UOW,+61242214285, irina@uow.edu.au
Dr Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan, Learning, Teaching & Curriculum Unit, UOW, +61242213135,
meeta@uow.edu.au
Sami Almansour, (student researcher) School of Education, UOW,+ , sa597@uowmail.edu.au

PROCEDURE AND VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION

The aim of this project is to find out the extent to which students are motivated in learning English language
during the first year of university studies. If you choose to participate, you will be asked to complete the
questionnaire which would take approximately 30 minutes to complete. The completion of the questionnaire
will take place during your normal lecture time. The questions will be concerned with your learning English as
foreign language, for example, on a scale of 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree) you will be expected to
rate the following statements: I wish I could speak many foreign languages perfectly; I look forward to going to
class because my English teacher is so good; I don’t pay much attention to the feedback I receive in my English
class. Furthermore, we would like to ask permission to have access to your marks. This information will be used
to examine the potential relationship between motivation and achievement. All the information gathered will be
de-indentified and only shared with the researchers.
Your participation in this research is voluntary. Your refusal to participate or withdrawal of consent will not
have any implications for you and will not affect your relationship with Shaqra University.
 292

POSSSIBLE RISKS, INCONVENIENCES AND DISCOMFORTS

Apart from time participating in the completion of the questionnaire, we foresee no risks or inconveniences to
you. Your involvement in the study is voluntary and you may withdraw your participation and your data from
the study at any time. Refusal to participate in the study will not have any implications for you and will not
affect your relationship with Shaqra University.

FINDINGS AND BENEFITS OF THE RESEARCH

This research will give us more information on students’ desire, effort, and positive affect toward learning the
English language. All information will be confidential. Only the research team will have access to the data.
Findings from the study will be published in a thesis, academic journals and presented at conferences in a
confidential manner.

ETHICS REVIEW AND COMPLAINTS

This study has been reviewed by the Human Research Ethics Committee (Social Science, Humanities and
Behavioural Science) of the University of Wollongong. If you have any concerns or complaints regarding the
way this research has been conducted, you can contact the UOW Ethics Officer on (02) 4221 3386 or email rso-
ethics@uow.edu.au.

For any questions or concerns about the study you can contact Sami Almansour (+ or
), Dr Elisabeth Duursma (+61 2 4221 5295), A/Professor Irina Verenikina (+61242214285), Dr
Meeta Chatterjee (+61242213135) at the School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Wollongong.

Kind regards,
Sami Almansour
Dr Elisabeth Duursma
A/Professor Irina Verenikina
Dr Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan
 293

Appendix 7: Participant Information Sheet for Teachers

RESEARCH TITLE: UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION TO LEARN ENGLISH OF RURAL

STUDENTS COMPARED TO URBAN STUDENTS AT A SAUDI ARABIAN
UNIVERSITY

Participant Information Sheet for teachers

PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

You are invited to take part in a study conducted by researchers at the University of Wollongong. The purpose
of the research is to look at the level of motivation among urban and rural students learning English at Shaqra
University in Saudi Arabia during first year of university studies.

INVESTIGATORS
Dr Elisabeth Duursma, School of Education, UOW, +61 2 4221 5295,eduursma@uow.edu.au
A/Professor Irina Verenikina, School of Education, UOW,+61242214285, irina@uow.edu.au
Dr Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan, Learning, Teaching & Curriculum Unit, UOW, +61242213135,
meeta@uow.edu.au
Sami Almansour, (student researcher) School of Education, UOW,+ , sa597@uowmail.edu.au

PROCEDURE AND VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION

The aim of this project is to find out the extent to which students are motivated in learning English language
during the first year of university studies. If you choose to participate, you will be interviewed in your office for
approximately 30 minutes. The interview will involve asking you questions about the learning strategies you
employ associated with a range of tasks. The interview include also questions about the techniques you utilise to
enhance student understanding and ways, both formal and informal, you might assess a student with limited
English fluency. Interview questions might include: Do English teachers generally have the teaching and
learning materials necessary to do their job? How constrained or independent are you as an English teacher in
choosing how to perform your classroom duties? How do you accommodate the different learning styles of the
students in your class? Interviews will be audio recorded. Your participation in this research is voluntary. You
are invited to participate on a voluntary basis and you will be free to withdraw from the research at any time.
Your refusal to participate or withdrawal of consent will not have any implications for you and will not have any
consequences for you and will not affect your relationship with Shaqra University.
 294

POSSSIBLE RISKS, INCONVENIENCES AND DISCOMFORTS

Apart from time participating in research activities, we foresee no risks or inconveniences to you or your
students. Your involvement in the study is voluntary and you may withdraw your participation and your data
from the study at any time. Refusal to participate in the study will not affect your relationship with the Shaqra
University.
Audio recording is an essential part of the study as this will provide us with information on the student’s
motivation to learn English. At this point, it is not possible to participate in the study without being audio
recorded.

FINDINGS AND BENEFITS OF THE RESEARCH

This research will give us more information on students’ desire, effort, and positive affect toward learning the
English language. All information will be confidential. Only the research team will have access to the data.
Findings from the study will be published in a thesis, academic journals and presented at conferences.

ETHICS REVIEW AND COMPLAINTS

This study has been reviewed by the Human Research Ethics Committee (Social Science, Humanities and
Behavioural Science) of the University of Wollongong. If you have any concerns or complaints regarding the
way this research has been conducted, you can contact the UOW Ethics Officer on (02) 4221 3386 or email rso-
ethics@uow.edu.au.

For any questions or concerns about the study you can contact Sami Almansour (+ or
+ ), Dr Elisabeth Duursma (+61 2 4221 5295), A/Professor Irina Verenikina (+61242214285), Dr
Meeta Chatterjee (+61242213135) at the School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Wollongong.

Kind regards,
Sami Almansour
Dr Elisabeth Duursma
A/Professor Irina Verenikina
Dr Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan
 295

Appendix 8: Consent Form For Students To Be In Focus Groups

CONSENT FORM FOR STUDENTS TO BE IN FOCUS GROUPS

RESEARCH TITLE: UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION TO LEARN ENGLISH OF RURAL

STUDENTS COMPARED TO URBAN STUDENTS AT A SAUDI ARABIAN
UNIVERSITY

RESEARCHER/S:
Dr Elisabeth Duursma, School of Education, UOW, +61 2 4221 5295,eduursma@uow.edu.au
A/Professor Irina Verenikina, School of Education, UOW,+61242214285, irina@uow.edu.au
Dr Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan, Learning, Teaching & Curriculum Unit, UOW, +61242213135,
meeta@uow.edu.au
Sami Almansour, (student researcher) School of Education, UOW,+ , sa597@uowmail.edu.au

I have been given information about Understanding motivation to learn English of rural students compared to
urban students at a Saudi Arabian University and discussed the research project with Sami Almansour who is
conducting this research as part of a PhD studies supervised by Dr Elisabeth Duursma, Associate Professor Irina
Verenikina and Dr Meeta Chatterjee in the School of Education at the University of Wollongong.

I have been advised of the potential risks and burdens associated with this research, which include the burden with
time commitment, associated with participating in the interviews. I have had an opportunity to ask Sami
Almansour any questions I may have about the research and my participation.

I understand that my participation in this research is voluntary, I have been invited to participate and I am free to
withdraw from the research at any time. My non-participation or withdrawal of consent will not have any
implications for me and will not affect my relationship with Shaqra University.

If I have any enquiries about the research, I can contact Sami Almansour (+ or + ),
Dr Elisabeth Duursma (+61 2 4221 5295), A/Professor Irina Verenikina (+61242214285), Dr Meeta Chatterjee
Padmanabhan, (+61242213135) or if I have any concerns or complaints regarding the way the research is or has
been conducted, I can contact the Ethics Officer, Human Research Ethics Committee, Office of Research,
University of Wollongong on 4221 3386 or email rso-ethics@uow.edu.au.
 296

By signing below I am indicating my consent to participate in a focus group interview which will be audio
recorded. I understand that the data collected from my participation will be used in confidential manner for a
thesis and journal and conference publications, and I consent for it to be used in that manner.

Signed Date
...................................................................................................................................... ......./....../......

Name (please print) ......................................................................................................... ......................................

 297

Appendix 9: Consent Form For Teachers To Be Interviewed

CONSENT FORM FOR TEACHERS TO BE INTERVIEWED

RESEARCH TITLE: UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION TO LEARN ENGLISH OF RURAL

STUDENTS COMPARED TO URBAN STUDENTS AT A SAUDI ARABIAN
UNIVERSITY

RESEARCHER/S:
Dr Elisabeth Duursma, School of Education, UOW, +61 2 4221 5295,eduursma@uow.edu.au
A/Professor Irina Verenikina, School of Education, UOW,+61242214285, irina@uow.edu.au
Dr Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan, Learning, Teaching & Curriculum Unit, UOW, +61242213135,
meeta@uow.edu.au
Sami Almansour, (student researcher) School of Education,UOW,+ , sa597@uowmail.edu.au

I have been given information about Understanding motivation to learn English of rural students compared to
urban students at a Saudi Arabian University and discussed the research project with Sami Almansour who is
conducting this research as part of a PhD studies supervised by Dr Elisabeth Duursma, Associate Professor Irina
Verenikina and Dr Meeta Chatterjee in the School of Education at the University of Wollongong.

I have been advised of the potential risks and burdens associated with this research, which include the burden
with time commitment, associated with participating in the interviews. I have had an opportunity to ask Sami
Almansour any questions I may have about the research and my participation.

I understand that my participation in this research is voluntary, I have been invited to participate and I am free to
withdraw from the research at any time. My non-participation or withdrawal of consent will not have any
implications for me and will not affect my relationship with Shaqra University.

If I have any enquiries about the research, I can contact Sami Almansour (+ or + ),
Dr Elisabeth Duursma (+61 2 4221 5295), A/Professor Irina Verenikina (+61242214285), Dr Meeta Chatterjee
Padmanabhan (+61242213135) or if I have any concerns or complaints regarding the way the research is or has
been conducted, I can contact the Ethics Officer, Human Research Ethics Committee, Office of Research,
University of Wollongong on 4221 3386 or email rso-ethics@uow.edu.au.
 298

By signing below I am indicating my consent to participate in an interview which will be audio recorded.
I understand that the data collected from my participation will be used in confidential manner for a thesis and
journal and conference publications, and I consent for it to be used in that manner.

Signed Date
......................................................................................................................................... ......./....../......

Name (please print) .................................................................................................................................................

 299

Appendix 10: Students’ Questionnaire

Students Questionnaire

University ID number………………….

We would like to get access to your English marks to see if there is a relationship between motivation and
achievement. All of the information will be de-identified, treated confidentially and only the researchers will
have access to. This information will help us study the potential impact of motivation on student achievement.

Please indicate whether you do or do not wish to give the researchers access to your English marks.

Yes, I give permission for the researchers to access my English marks.

No, I do not give permission for the researchers to access my English marks

The following are a number of statements with which some people agree and others disagree. There are no right
or wrong answers since many people have different opinions. I would like you to indicate your opinion about
each statement by marking (√ ) the alternative next to it which best indicates the extent to which you disagree or
agree with that statement.

The following is a sample item. Tick (√ ) the alternative next to the statement which best indicates your feeling.
1 – Strongly disagree; 2 – Disagree; 3 – Neutral; 4 – Agree; 5 – Strongly agree
No. Statement 1 2 3 4 5
1 Saudi national soccer team is better than Omani national soccer team.

Basic Demographic Questions:

1. What is your age:………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Where do you live (please circle and state):

Urban area (specify)…………………………………………………………………………………………….

Rural area (specify)……………………….........................................................................................................

 300

3. Why do you learn

English?.......................................................................................................... ......................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................................

4. Do you have any future

goals?....................................................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................................................
5. What would you like to be in
future?...................................................................................................................... .............................................
..............................................................................................................................................................................

No. Statement 1 2 3 4 5
1 I wish I could speak many foreign languages perfectly.
2 I don’t pay much attention to the feedback I receive in my English class.
3 I don’t get anxious when I have to answer a question in my English class.
4 I look forward to going to class because my English teacher is so good.
5 Learning English is really great.
6 If Saudi Arabia had no contact with English-speaking countries, it would
be a great loss.
7 Studying English is important because it will allow me to be more at ease
with people who speak English.
8 I have a strong desire to know all aspects of English.
9 I would get nervous if I had to speak English to a tourist.
10 My English class is really a waste of time.
11 Studying foreign languages is not enjoyable.
12 I make a point of trying to understand all the English I see and hear.
13 Studying English is important because I will need it for my career.
14 I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in our English class.
15 Knowing English isn’t really an important goal in my life.
16 I don’t think my English teacher is very good.
17 I hate English language.
18 I feel very much at ease when I have to speak English.
19 I wish I could read newspapers and magazines in many foreign languages.
20 I don’t bother checking my assignments when I get them back from my
English teacher.
21 I feel confident when asked to speak in my English class.
 301

22 I would rather spend more time in my English class and less in other
classes.
23 I really enjoy learning English.
24 Most native English speakers are so friendly and easy to get along with,
we are fortunate to have them as friends.
25 Studying English is important because it will allow me to meet and
converse with more and varied people.
26 If it were up to me, I would spend all of my time learning English.
27 Speaking English anywhere makes me feel worried.
28 I really have no interest in foreign languages.
29 My English teacher is better than any of my other teachers.
30 I keep up to date with English by working on it almost every day.
31 Studying English is important because it will make me more educated.
32 It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in our English class.
33 I sometimes daydream about dropping English.
34 I would rather spend my time on subjects other than English.
35 It doesn’t bother me at all to speak English.
36 I think my English class is boring.
37 I wish I could have many native English speaking friends.
38 I would really like to learn many foreign languages.
39 I put off my English homework as much as possible.
40 English is a very important part of the school program.
41 Native English speakers are very sociable and kind.
42 Studying English is important because it will enable me to better
understand and appreciate the English way of life.
43 The less I see of my English teacher, the better.
44 I want to learn English so well that it will become natural to me.
45 Native English speakers have much to be proud about because they have
given the world much of value.
46 It would bother me if I had to speak English on the telephone.
47 It is not important for us to learn foreign languages.
48 I am calm whenever I have to speak in my English class.
49 When I have a problem understanding something in my English class, I
always ask my teacher for help.
50 Studying English is important because it will be useful in getting a good
job.
51 I enjoy the activities of our English class much more than those of my
other classes.
 302

52 It worries me that other students in my class seem to speak English better

than I do.
53 I’m losing any desire I ever had to know English.
54 Learning English is a waste of time.
55 English is one of my favourite courses.
56 I would feel quite relaxed if I had to give street directions in English.
57 If I planned to stay in another country, I would try to learn their language.
58 I tend to give up and not pay attention when I don’t understand my English
teacher’s explanation of something.
59 My English teacher has a dynamic and interesting teaching style.
60 I don’t understand why other students feel nervous about speaking English
in class.
61 I plan to learn as much English as possible.
62 I would like to know more native English speakers.
63 Studying English is important because I will be able to interact more easily
with speakers of English.
64 My English teacher doesn’t present materials in an interesting way.
65 I would like to learn as much English as possible.
66 I would feel uncomfortable speaking English anywhere outside the
classroom.
67 Most foreign languages sound crude and harsh.
68 I really work hard to learn English.
69 Studying English is important because other people will respect me more
if I know English.
70 To be honest, I really have little interest in my English class.
71 I get nervous when I am speaking in my English class.
72 To be honest, I really have no desire to learn English.
73 I think that learning English is dull.
74 I have a hard time thinking of anything positive about my English class.
75 I would feel comfortable speaking English where both Saudi and English
speakers were present.
76 I enjoy meeting people who speak foreign languages.
77 My English teacher is one of the least pleasant people I know.
78 I can’t be bothered trying to understand the more complex aspects of
English.
79 Students who claim they get nervous in English classes are just making
excuses.
80 I really like my English teacher.
 303

81 I love learning English.

82 The more I get to know native English speakers, the more I like them.
83 I like my English class so much, I look forward to studying more English
in the future.
84 I wish I were fluent in English.
85 I feel anxious if someone asks me something in English.
86 My English teacher is a great source of inspiration to me.
87 I would rather see a TV program dubbed into our language than in its own
language with subtitles.
88 To be honest, I don’t like my English class.
89 When I am studying English, I ignore distractions and pay attention to my
task.
90 I am sometimes anxious that the other students in class will laugh at me
when I speak English.
91 I would prefer to have a different English teacher.
92 I haven’t any great wish to learn more than the basics of English.
93 When I leave school, I will give up the study of English because I am not
interested in it.
94 I look forward to the time I spend in English class.
95 I would feel calm and sure of myself if I had to order a meal in English.
96 You can always trust native English speakers.