EMM 509

ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

 1. Industrial Robots
Introduction

A robot can be defined as a programmable multifunctional manipulator designed to move

material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of specified tasks.

or

ISO definition:

A machine formed by a mechanism including several degrees of freedom, often having the
appearance of one or several arms and ending in a wrist capable of holding a tool, a workpiece or
an inspection device.

or

A mechanical device that can be programmed to perform some task of manipulation or

locomotion under automatic control.

In particular, a robot must have a control unit with a memorizing device and it may sometimes
use sensing or adaptation appliances to take into account environment and circumstances.

Uses

Initially, robots were used for dull, dirty and dangerous (3D) jobs or hot, heavy and hazardous
(3H) jobs, but they have recently become an important component in many manufacturing
processes. They are widely employed in tasks such as machine tending, material transfer, spot
welding, arc welding, spray painting/coating, grinding, drilling, assembly, inspection, etc. The
use of robots has generally resulted in improved productivity, quality and safety.

1.1 Importance of Robots in Manufacturing

In manufacturing, robots employed to perform tasks that would otherwise be performed by

humans. They are especially desirable if they:

 Relieve personnel of hazardous or monotonous tasks.

 Lead to improvements in product quality and consistency.
 Offer opportunities for unmanned production.
 Lead to reduction in labour cost.
 Can be used to access and operate awkward places.
 1.2 Classification of Industrial Robots

1. Fixed sequence robot – This performs repetitive operations according to a predetermined

pattern. The set of information cannot be easily changed.
2. Variable sequence robot – This repetitively performs operations according to a
predetermined set of rules whose set of information can be changed easily.
3. Playback robot – Also known as a teachable robot. Produces operations originally
executed under human control. An operator initially operates (teaches) the robot to
establish the rules. All the information relevant to the operations is then loaded into
memory, and can be retrieved whenever required. The teaching could be by “walk
through” or via a teach pendant.
4. NC robot – This performs a given task according to the sequence, condition, and position
as commanded via numerical data.
5. Intelligent robot – This uses vision and/or touch sensors to detect changes in the work
environment or condition.
6. Android – This is a robot resembling human in physical appearance.
7. Mobile robot – A mobile mounted on a movable platform.
8. Limited-degree-of-freedom robot – A robot with an overall less than six degrees of
freedom.
9. Pick and place robot – A robot which transfers items from place to place by means of
point to point moves, with little or no trajectory control.

1.3 SOME COMMON ROBOT TERMINOLOGY

1. Work Envelope: The set of points representing the maximum extent or reach of the robot
hand or working tool in all directions.
2. Payload: The ability to carry, continuously and satisfactorily, a given maximum weight at
a given speed.
3. Velocity: The maximum speed at which the tip of a robot is capable of moving at full
extension, expressed in inches or millimeters per second.
4. Cycle: Time it takes for the Time it takes for the robot to complete one cycle of picking
up a given object at a given height, moving it to a given distance, lowering it, releasing it,
and returning to the starting point.
5. Accuracy: A robots ability to position the end effector at a specified point in space upon
receiving a control command without previously having attained that position.
6. Repeatability: The ability of a robot to return consistently to a previously defined and
achieved location.
7. Resolution: The smallest incremental change in position that it makes or its control
system can measure.
8. Size: The physical size of a robot, which influences its capacity and its capabilities.
9. Actuator: Any device in a robot system that converts electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic
energy into mechanical energy or motion.
 10. Continuous path: A servo-driven robot that provides absolute control along an entire path
of arm motion, but with certain restrictions, on the degree of difficulty in changing the
program
11. Controlled path: A servo-driven robot with a control system that specifies the location
and orientation of all robot axes. A controlled-path robot moves in a straight line between
programmed points.
12. Degrees of freedom: The number of movable axes on the robot`s arm. A robot with 3
movable joints has 3 dof.
13. Limited sequence: A simple non-servo type of robot. Its movement is limited by stop
switches.
14. Point to point: A robot with a control system for programming a series of points without
regard to coordination axes.
15. Pitch: Up and down motion along an axis.
16. Servomechanism: An automatic feedback control system for mechanical motion.
17. Roll: Circular motion about an axis.
18. Yaw: Side to side motion along an axis.

1.4 Basic Components of a Robot

Fig. 1.1 Interaction of basic components of a robot

1. Manipulator

This is a mechanical unit that provides motion similar to that of a human arm. Its primary
function is to provide motion similar to that of a human arm. Its primary function is to provide
the specific motions that will enable the tolling at the end of the arm to do the required work. A
robot movement can be divided into two general categories: arm and body (shoulder and elbow)
motions and wrist motions. The individual joint motions associated with these categories are
referred to as degree of freedom. Each axis is equal to one degree of freedom, typically an
industrial robots are equipped with 4-6 degrees of freedom.

The wrist can reach a point in space with specific orientation by any of three motions: a pitch, or
up-and-down motion; a yaw, or side-to-side motion; and a roll, or rotating motion. The joint
labeled pitch, yaw, and roll are called orientation axes. The points that manipulator bends, slides,
rotates are called joints or position axes. Manipulation is carried out using mechanical devices,
such linkages, gears, actuators, and feedback devices.

Position axes called world coordinates, are identified as being fixed location within the
manipulator that serves as absolute frame of reference. The x-axis travel moves the manipulator
in-and-out motion. The y-axis motion causes the manipulator to move side-to-side. The z axis
motion causes the manipulator to move in and up-and-down motion. The mechanical design of a
robot manipulator relates directly to its work envelope and motion characteristics.

2. End-Effector

This is the device that is mechanically opened and closed. It acts as the tool-mounting plate.
Depending on the type of operation, conventional end effectors are equipped with various
devices and tool attachments, as follows:
 Grippers, hooks, scoops, electromagnets, vacuum cups for material handling
 Spray guns for painting
 Attachments for spot and arc welding and arc cutting
 Special devices and fixtures for machining and assembly
 Measuring instruments such as dial indicators, depth gauges, etc.

The origin of the coordinate system or the point of action of the tool attached to the robot arm
is known as tool center point (TCP). End effectors generally custom-made to meet special
handling requirements. Mechanical grippers are most commonly used and are equipped with
two or more fingers. The selection of an appropriate end effector for a specific application
depends upon factors such as payload, environment, reliability, and cost.

3. Power Sources and Actuators

The function of the power supply is to provide and regulate energy that is required for a robot
to be operated.

There are basic types of power supply systems:

- Electric powered robots provide precise and quiet motion. Usually used for
assembly work demanding fine movement.
- Hydraulic can deliver large forces, so it is commonly used on large robots that
have to move large payloads.
- Pneumatics is used on those robots whose payload requirements are low, but
that require high speed movement.

Electricity is the most common source of power and is used extensively with industrial robots.
The second most common is pneumatic, and the least common is hydraulic power. The power
supply has a direct relation to the payload rating.

4. Controller
The controller is an information processing device that initiates, terminates and coordinates
the motions and sequences of a robot. It accepts necessary inputs to the robot and provides the
output drive signals to controlling a motor or actuator to correspond with the robot movements
and outside world. Block diagram illustrates the many different parts of robot controller. The
heart of the controller is the computer and its solid-state memory. The input and output section
of a control system must provide a communication interface between the robot controller,
computer and following parts:

- Feedback sensors
- Production sensors
- Production machine tools
- Teaching device
- Program storage devices, hard copy devices

The computer controls the motion of the robot arm by means of drive signals that pass through
the drive interface to the actuators on the arm. Robots are often classified under the three
major categories, according to the type of control system used.

- nonservo open loop system

- servo closed loop system
- servo-controlled closed loop systems with continuously controlled path.

1.5 Robot Anatomy

Robot anatomy is concerned with the physical construction and characteristics of the body,
arm, and wrist, which are components of robot manipulator. Movements between the various
components of the body, arm and wrist are provided by a series of joints. Attached to the
robot wrist is the end effector (or end-of-arm tooling) that performs the work. The effector is
not considered a part of the robots anatomy.

1.5.1 Robot Configurations

Industrial robots are available in a wide range of shapes, sizes, speeds, load capacities, and
other capabilities. The vast majority of today’s commercially available robots possess five
distinct configurations.

a) Cartesian or Rectangular robot

A robot with this geometry has three linear axes using sliding joints, which are typically
arranged in a cantilever configuration whose motion traces a box like shape. This type of
configuration is ideal for straight –line and side-to-side movements.
 Fig. 1.2 Cartesian coordinates robot

The coordinates of the end effector are determined from the joint variables according to the
equations:
X = a
Y = b
Z =c

Where a, b and c are the joint variables.

These robots can be used for tasks involving pick and place operations like material handling
and loading and unloading of work pieces in machines.

b) Cylindrical or Rectilinear robot

A robot with this geometry has a shaft that goes in and out and rises up and down on a vertical
shaft, which rotates about the base. Thus, it has two linear axes and one rotary axis.

The coordinates of the end effector are obtained as:

X = a cosα
Y = b sinα
Z =c

Where a, b and c are the joint variables.

 Fig. 1.3 Cylindrical coordinates robot

Cylindrical robots are mainly employed in machine tending and material handling.

b) Spherical Robot

A spherical coordinate robot can move so that the work envelope forms the outline of a
sphere. It has one linear axis and two rotary axes. The coordinates for the end effector of a
spherical robot are obtained from the joint variables as:

X = a cosα cosβ
Y = b sinα cosβ
Z = a sinα

Fig. 1.4 Spherical coordinates robot

Spherical robots are employed mainly for welding and material handling.

d) Articulated arm robot

An articulated arm robot or a jointed arm robot can perform similar actions to a human’s
shoulder, arm, elbow arrangements, and is often referred to as anthropomorphic arm because
of its close resemblance to human hand. It has three rotary axes. The equations for the position
of the end effector based on joint variables are:

X = [l1cosβ + l2cos(β+γ)]cosα
Y = [l1cosβ + l2cos(β+γ)]sinα
Z = l1sinβ + l2sin(β+γ)
Where l1 and l2 are the lengths of the arms.
 Fig. 1.5 Articulated arm robot

Articulated arm robots are widely used in welding and assembly.

e) SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm)

To increase the number of degrees of freedom as well as to maintain its rigidity, a

combination of an articulated arm robot and a cylindrical robot is used. This is called a
SCARA robot. This type of robot moves by sweeping over the workspace at a fixed
horizontal distance before moving the vertical arm down.

Fig. 1.6 SCARA robot

This type of robot permits a compact and relatively low cost design for assembly tasks.

f) Gantry Robot

This is a rectangular co-ordinate configuration with all three linear axes of motion suspended
above the work space. It can be very rigid, which allows high precision and high acceleration.
It also lends itself to modularity in design for a variety of configurations, including multiple
arms.

Fig. 1.7 Gantry robot

This type of robot is used for loading work pieces in CNC turning centers in flexible turning
installations.

1.6 Robot Generations

The five generations of robot controllers after the high-tech inception in 1960 are as follows:

1. First generation: repeating robots. These were generally pick and place robots, with
mechanical sequences defining stop points.
2. Second generation: hardwired controllers provided the first programmable units.
3. Third generation: programmable logic controllers (plc), introduced in the industry over
twenty years ago, provided a microprocessor-based robotic controller that is easy to program.
4. Fourth generation: when control beyond the plc is required, a microcomputer may control
the entire system, including other programmable machinery in a robot work cell.
5. Fifth generation: robot controller will involve complete artificial intelligence (AI),
miniature sensors, and decision making capabilities.

An artificial biological robot might provide the impetus for sixth and higher generation robots.

Robot Selection
A large range of robots with different components, techniques, and means of operation have
already been designed and manufactured. These are selected according to their utility and
financial considerations. A futuristic robot, with modern sensors and appropriate software, can
perform tasks efficiently, accurately, and quickly, but will be expensive. Thus, all the relevant
factors must be considered while selecting robots for industrial applications, including the initial
expenditure and the benefits to be achieved in using the robot.

Robot must be matched properly by capabilities to task requirements. An objective approach to

robot selection provides fewer restrictions in system design by allowing for the optimum system
design to be achieved regardless of the specific robot need.

Criteria for robot selection:

1. Technical issues:

- Type of controller: nonservo, servo, servo-controlled

- Work envelope: rectangular, cylindrical, spherical, jointed arm, scara
- Payload
- Cycle time
- Accuracy and Precision
- Repeatability
- Drive: electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, any combination
- Unique capabilities

2. Non-technical issues:
- Cost and benefit consideration
- Commonality of equipment
- Training and maintenance requirements
- Reliability Services "systems" help
- Safety

Example

An organization is considering the acquisition of a robot to speed up production. The robot is to

pick up crates of small gas cylinders from a conveyor and stack them onto a waiting
Automatically Guided Vehicle (AGV), which docks at a fixed position. Stacking is done such
that the crates have to _t into each other precisely. Each crate weighs 500kg. The cost of the
preferred robot must be kept at a minimum. Give a technical description of the most ideal robot to
be used in the set-up described above.
Solution

Solution should provide the most economical yet ideal robot in that it will perform all the
required functions, without additional features that are of no significance to the process.
 Type of robot needed: 1st generation with no intelligence.
 Configuration: Cylindrical Rigidity due to the heavy load to be lifted, yet precision is
required to ensure that the crates land accurately in the required place (Gantry is also
rigid but requires too much space hence not economical)
 Actuators and transmitters: Hydraulic for rotation, translation and grippers should be
used due to the heavy load. Transmission will be piping networks from pumps to
hydraulic motors
 Control system Simple limit switches will do for sensors, to indicate to the controller
when certain position is achieved Teach pendant can be used in programming - due to
simplicity and cost.
 End effectors Mechanical grippers since crates will not deform under minimal
pressure.