Vector Calculus Lecture Slides

VECTOR CALCULUS
LECTURE SLIDES
ASASIpintar, Session 2022/2023
By Dr. Faieza Samat
Partial derivatives
Partial Derivatives
Remember the derivative of a function of one variable
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ( x) = lim
h →0 h
Now, if f is a function of two variables, its partial derivatives are the function fx and fy
defined by
f ( x + h, y ) − f ( x, y )
f x ( x, y ) = lim
h →0 h
f ( x, y + h ) − f ( x, y )
f y ( x, y ) = lim
h →0 h
Rule for finding partial derivatives
To find fx, regard y as a constant and differentiate f(x,y) with respect to x
To find fy, regard x as a constant and differentiate f(x,y) with respect to y.
Other notation:
f
fx =
x
f
fy =
y
Example 1
If 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 − 2𝑦 2 , find 𝑓𝑥 (2,1) and 𝑓𝑦 (2,1) .
Answer: 𝑓𝑥 (2,1) = 16
𝑓𝑦 (2,1) = 8
Example 2
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 𝑦. Use the limit definition of partial derivatives to compute
𝑓𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑓𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦)
Answer: 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦
𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
Example 3
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Find and if 𝑧 = 𝑥 4 sin(𝑥𝑦 3 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑧 𝜕 𝜕
Solution: = 𝑥4 sin 𝑥𝑦 3 + sin(𝑥𝑦 3 ) (𝑥 4 )
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥
= 𝑥 4 cos 𝑥𝑦 3 𝑦 3 + sin 𝑥𝑦 3 4𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑦 3 cos 𝑥𝑦 3 + 4𝑥 3 sin 𝑥𝑦 3
3 4
𝜕𝑧 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝑥4 sin 𝑥𝑦 3 + sin(𝑥𝑦 3 ) (𝑥 4 )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥 4 cos 𝑥𝑦 3 3𝑥𝑦 2 + sin 𝑥𝑦 3 0 = 3𝑥 5 𝑦 2 cos(𝑥𝑦 3 )
Graphical understanding of partial
derivatives
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/multivariable-
calculus/multivariable-derivatives/partial-derivatives/v/partial-
derivatives-and-graphs
Example 4
Find the slopes of the traces to 𝑧 = 10 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 at the point (1,2).
The curves we define when we fix one of

the independent variables in
our two variable function are called
traces.
Example 4
Solution:
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Slope of this trace is at point (1,2) Slope of this trace is 𝜕𝑥 at point (1,2)
𝜕𝑦
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
= −2𝑦. At the point 1,2 , = −2 2 = −4 = −8𝑥. At the point 1,2 , 𝜕𝑥 = −8 1 = −8
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
The slopes of the traces to 𝑧 = 10 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 at the point 1,2 are −4 and −8

Example 4
𝜕𝑧
- From Example 4, ቚ can be viewed as the slope of the tangent line to the curve
𝜕𝑦 (1,2)
𝜕𝑧
𝐶1 at the point 1,2 , and ቚ can be viewed as the slope of the tangent line to
𝜕𝑥 (1,2)
the curve 𝐶2 at the point (1,2).
𝜕𝑧
- We will call as the slope of the surface in the y-direction at the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ),
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑧
and as the slope of the surface in the x-direction at the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
𝜕𝑥
Example 5
𝑚
Define the body mass index (BMI) of a person as 𝐵(𝑚, ℎ) =
ℎ2
where m = mass, h = height.
Calculate the partial derivatives of B for a young man with m = 64 kg and h = 1.68 meters and
interpret them.
Solution:
Case 1
𝜕𝐵 1
=
𝜕𝑚 ℎ2
Example 5
𝜕𝐵 1
= ≈ 0.35
𝜕𝑚 (1.68)2
𝜕𝐵
is the rate at which the man’s BMI changes with respect to weight when height is
𝜕𝑚
𝜕𝐵
fixed. In other words, is the rate of change of BMI with respect to weight when
𝜕𝑚
height is fixed.
If his weight increases by one kilogram while his height remains unchanged, then his
BMI will increase by about 0.35.
Example 5
Case 2
𝜕𝐵 2𝑚
= − 3
𝜕ℎ ℎ
𝜕𝐵 2 64
= − ≈ −27
𝜕ℎ 1.68 3
𝜕𝐵
is the rate of change of BMI with respect to height when weight is fixed.
𝜕ℎ
If the man is still growing and his weight stays unchanged while his height increases
by 1 meter, then his BMI will decrease by about 27.
Exercises
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
Find , and 2, 2 if 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 𝑦 − 2𝑥 3 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = sin( ), calculate and
1+𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Find the partial derivative 𝑅𝑡 (0,1) if 𝑅(𝑠, 𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 𝑠/𝑡
2 3
Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑦 + 5𝑦 . Find the slope of the surface 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) in the x-direction
at the point (1, −2).
INDEFINITE AND
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
Learning outcomes
Students should be able to
◦ find all antiderivatives of a given function
◦ evaluate indefinite integrals
◦ find the Riemann sum for a given function
◦ evaluate definite integrals
Definition (Antiderivative)
◦ A function F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I provided 𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) for all x in I.
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
F(x) f(x)
◦ Example 1:
◦ Find one example of antiderivative F of f(x) = 3x2.
antiderivative
◦ Solution:
𝑑
◦ We know that 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3 = 3𝑥 2 . So, F(x) = 𝑥 3
The family of antiderivatives
◦ Let F be any antiderivatives of f on an interval I. Then all the antiderivatives of f on I have the form F +
C, where C is an arbitrary constant.
◦ Example 2
◦ Find all antiderivatives of f(x) = x2.
◦ Solution:
𝑥3
◦ All antiderivatives of f(x) = x2 is F(x) = + Cwhere C is an arbitrary constant.
3
Indefinite integrals
◦ Find the antiderivatives of f in the indefinite integral ‫ 𝑥 𝑓 ׬‬dx. 𝑑
◦ Power Rule for Indefinite Integrals: 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑝+1
‫׬‬ 𝑥𝑝 𝑑𝑥 = +C
𝑝+1
F(x) f(x)
where p ≠ −1 is a real number and C is an arbitrary constant.
◦ Example 3 Antiderivative=indefinite integral
Determine the following indefinite integral Notation: ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 ׬‬

‫(׬‬3𝑥 5 + 2 − 5 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 f(x) : integrand
Solution: x : variable of integration
◦ Example 5
◦ Example 4
1
◦ Evaluate the following indefinite integral ◦ Solve 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 with 𝑓 1 = 3 .
◦ Solution:
න sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
◦ Step 1: Evaluate the indefinite integral
◦ Solution: ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 − 2𝑥dx
sin 𝑢
◦ u = 3x න sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 න 𝑑𝑢 1
Step 2: Substitute point (1, 3) into f(x) to find C
3
◦ du = 3 dx
𝑥3
1
Answer: 𝑓 𝑥 = − 𝑥2 + 1
3
◦ Answer: − 3 cos 3𝑥 + 𝐶
Approximating Areas by Riemann Sums
◦ Suppose [a, b] is a closed interval containing n subintervals
[x0, x1], [x1, x2], …, [xn−1, xn]
Area??? 𝑏−𝑎
of equal length x = with a = x0 and b = xn.
𝑛
The points x0, x1, x2, …, xn−1, xn are called grid points, and they create
a regular partition of the interval [a, b].
In the kth subinterval [xk−1, xk], we choose a point 𝑥𝑘∗ and build a
rectangle whose height is 𝑓 𝑥𝑘∗ . The area of the rectangle on the kth
subinterval is
height  base = 𝑓 𝑥𝑘∗ 𝑥
Summing the areas of the rectangles for k = 1, 2, …, n, we obtain
𝑓 𝑥1∗ 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥2∗ 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑥𝑛∗ 𝑥.
This is an approximation to the area S; called Riemann Sum
x→ x→ x→ x→ x→
…
x
x0 = a x1 x2 x3 x4 … xn-1 xn = b
Georg Friedrich Bernhard
Riemann was an influential
Riemann Sum
German Mathematician
who made lasting and
revolutionary contributions
to analysis, number theory,
and differential geometry.
Suppose f is defined on a closed interval [a, b],

which is divided into n subintervals of equal
length x. If 𝑥𝑘∗ is any point in the kth subinterval
[xk−1, xk] for k = 1, 2, …, n then
𝑓 𝑥1∗ 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥2∗ 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑥𝑛∗ 𝑥
is called a Riemann Sum for f on [a, b]. This
sum is called
◦ A left Riemann Sum if 𝑥𝑘∗ is the left endpoint of
[xk−1, xk]
◦ A right Riemann Sum if 𝑥𝑘∗ is the right endpoint
of [xk−1, xk]
◦ A midpoint Riemann Sum if 𝑥𝑘∗ is the midpoint
of [xk−1, xk]
◦ Example 4
◦ Sketch the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 over the interval [0, 2]. Partition the interval [0, 2] into four
subintervals of equal length. Then, add to your sketch the rectangles associated with the Riemann Sum
σ4𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑥𝑘∗ )∆𝑥 given that 𝑥𝑘∗ is the
a) left-hand endpoint
b) right-hand endpoint
c) midpoint of the kth subinterval.
Make a separate sketch for each set of rectangles.
Solution:
◦ Example 5
◦ Let R be the region bounded by the graph of
f(x) = sin(x) and the x-axis between x = 0 and x
𝜋
=2.
a) Approximate the area of R using a left
Riemann sum with n = 6 subintervals.
Illustrate the sum with the appropriate
rectangles.
b) Approximate the area of R using a right
Riemann sum with n = 6 subintervals.
Illustrate the sum with the appropriate Solution:
rectangles.
c) Do the area approximations in parts (a) and
(b) underestimate or overestimate the actual
area under the curve?
General Riemann Sum
◦ Suppose [x0, x1], [x1, x2], …, [xn−1, xn] are subintervals of [a, b] with a = x0 x1  x2  …  xn−1  xn = b.
◦ Let xk be the length of the subinterval [xk−1, xk] and let 𝑥𝑘∗ be any point in [xk−1, xk], for k = 1, 2, … , n.
◦ If f is defined on [a, b], the sum
σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓 𝑥𝑘∗ ∆𝑥𝑘 = 𝑓(𝑥1∗ ) ∆𝑥1 + 𝑓(𝑥2∗ )∆𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛∗ )∆𝑥𝑛
is called a general Riemann sum for f on [a, b].
Definite integral
◦ The definite integral is the limit of a Riemann sum.
◦ A function f defined on [a, b] is integrable on [a, b] if
lim σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑥𝑘∗ )∆𝑥𝑘 exists and is unique over all
∆→0
choices of 𝑥𝑘∗ . This limit is the definite integral of f
from a to b, which we write
𝑏
◦ ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬lim σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑥𝑘∗ )∆𝑥𝑘 .
∆→0
◦ To simplify these calculations, let 𝑥𝑘∗ be the right
endpoint of [xk-1, xk]. Thus,
𝑏
◦ ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬lim σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑥𝑘∗ )∆𝑥𝑘
∆→0
= lim 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑘∆𝑥)∆𝑥
𝑛→∞
𝑏−𝑎
◦ where 𝑥𝑘∗ = a + k∆𝑥 and ∆𝑥 = 𝑛
.
Properties of definite integrals
◦ Let f and g be integrable functions on an interval that contains a, b, and p.
𝑎
◦ ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬0
𝑎 𝑏
◦ ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑏׬‬− ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
◦ ‫ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬+ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬+ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑔 𝑎׬‬
𝑏 𝑏
◦ ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬ 𝑐 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓𝑐 𝑎׬‬
𝑏 𝑝 𝑏
◦ ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬+ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑝׬‬
𝑏
◦ The function | f | is integrable on [a, b] and ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬is the sum of the areas of the regions bounded by
the graph of f and the x-axis on [a, b].
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
(part 2)
𝑏
◦ If f is continuous on [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b], then ‫ 𝑏 𝐹 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬− 𝐹(𝑎).
◦ Example 6 Shorthand notation

10 for F(b) – F(a) is
◦ Evaluate the definite integral ‫׬‬0 60𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 F(x)|𝑎𝑏
◦ Answer: 1000
◦ Example 7
2𝜋
◦ Evaluate the definite integral ‫׬‬0 3 sin𝑥 𝑑𝑥
◦ Answer: 0
Example 8
A curve is given by 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥. Compute
a) The definite integral over the interval [-1, 2]
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
b) The area between the graph and the x-axis over [-1, 2]
Answers:
2
a) ‫׬‬−1 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2.25
0 2
b) Area = ‫׬‬−1 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5 2 37
= 12 + −2 3 = 12
Area between two curves
◦ If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a, b], and if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) for all x in [a, b], then the
area of the region bounded above by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), below by 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥), on the left by the line 𝑥 = 𝑎, and on
the right by the line 𝑥 = 𝑏 is
𝑏
𝐴 = න 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Example 9
◦ Find the area of the region that is enclosed between curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 6
◦ Solution:
◦ Step 1: Find the intersection points between the two curves
◦ 𝑥2 = 𝑥 + 6 → 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0
◦ 𝑥+2 𝑥−3 =0
◦ 𝑥 = −2, 𝑥 = 3
◦ 𝑦 = (−2)2 = 4, 𝑦 = 32 = 9
◦ Points of intersection: (−2,4) and (3,9)
Example 9
◦ Step 2: Sketch the graph 𝑏
◦ Step 3: Use formula 𝐴 = ‫ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬− 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
3
◦ Area = ‫׬‬−2 𝑥 + 6 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
125
◦ Answer: 6
EXAMPLES
Algebraic function
 Example 1  Example 3
 Evaluate ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 + 3𝑥 4 2𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥  Evaluate ‫ ׬‬3𝑦 7 − 3𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 2 +3𝑥)5 1 3Τ
 Answer:
5
+𝐶  Answer: − 7 − 3𝑦 2 2 +𝐶
3
 Evaluate ‫ ׬‬12 𝑦 4 + 4𝑦 2 + 1 2 (𝑦 3 + 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑦  Evaluate ‫׬‬
1
𝑑𝑥
𝑥(1+ 𝑥)2
 Answer: (𝑦 4 +4𝑦 2 + 1)3 + 𝐶 2
 Answer: − +𝐶
1+ 𝑥
4 𝑑𝑦
 Evaluate ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥  Evaluate ‫׬‬1
2 𝑦(1+ 𝑦)2
1 5 1 3
 Answer: (𝑥 2 + 1) Τ2 − (𝑥 2 + 1) Τ2 + C  Answer:
1
5 3
6
 Example 6
1
 Evaluate ‫׬‬−1 𝑡 3 (1 + 𝑡 4 )3 𝑑𝑡
 Answer: 0
Formulas of integration for
trigonometric functions and
trigonometric identities
 ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶  cos2 𝜃 + sin2(𝜃) = 1
 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶  1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2(𝜃)
 ‫ ׬‬sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶  1 + cot 2 𝜃 = csc 2 (𝜃)

 cos 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
 ‫ ׬‬sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
 sin 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
 ‫ ׬‬csc 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
 cos 2𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 (𝜃)
 ‫ ׬‬csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 + 𝐶
 sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos(𝜃)
1+cos(2𝜃)
 cos2 𝜃 =
2
1−cos(2𝜃)
 sin2 𝜃 =
2
Trigonometric function
 Evaluate ‫ ׬‬sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥  Evaluate ‫ ׬‬sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
cos 2𝑥 1 1
 Answer: − +𝐶  Answer: 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 2 4
 Evaluate ‫ ׬‬cos 3𝑥 +
𝜋
𝑑𝑥  Evaluate ‫ ׬‬tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4
sin 3𝑥+
𝜋  Answer: tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
4
 Answer: +𝐶
3  Example 12
𝜋Τ 3Τ
4
 Evaluate ‫׬‬0 (1 − sin 2𝑡 ) 2 cos 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
 Answer:
5
 Example 13
2𝜋
 Evaluate ‫𝜋׬‬Τ sin 2𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2
2
 Answer: −
3
 Example 14
2𝜋
 Evaluate ‫𝜋׬‬Τ sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2
1
 Answer: −
3
Natural logarithmic function
1
 If u is a differentiable function and that it is never zero, then ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢 = ln 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑢
 Example 15
−2 1
 Evaluate ‫׬‬−3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
2
 Answer: 𝑙𝑛
3
 Example 16
2𝑦
 Evaluate ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 2 −25
 Answer: 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 2 − 25 + 𝐶
Modulus function
 Example 17
4
 Evaluate ‫׬‬−4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Answer: 16
 Example 18 −4 4
1
 Evaluate ‫׬‬−1 2 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
y
 Answer: 3 2
−1 0 1 x
Exponential function
 ‫ 𝑥 𝑒 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬+ 𝐶  Example 21
𝑒𝑟
 Example 19  Evaluate ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑟
1+𝑒 𝑟
 Evaluate ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬3𝑥 + 5𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥  Answer: ln 1 + 𝑒 𝑟 + 𝐶
𝑒 3𝑥
 Answer: − 5𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶
3
 Example 20
2
 Evaluate ‫ ׬‬2𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
 Answer: −𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝐶
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
 ‫׬‬ = sin−1 ( ) + 𝐶
𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
 ‫𝑎 ׬‬2 +𝑥2 = 𝑎 tan−1 𝑎
+𝐶
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
 ‫𝑥׬‬ = sec −1 + 𝐶, 𝑎 > 0
𝑥 2 −𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎
 Example 22  Example 23 1
𝑎=
 Evaluate ‫׬‬
4
𝑑𝑥  Evaluate ‫׬‬
𝑑𝑥 4
9−𝑥 2 16𝑥 2 +1
 Solution:  Solution:
4 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
 ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 = 4 ‫׬‬ = 4sin−1 +𝐶  ‫ ׬‬16𝑥 2+1 = 16 ‫׬‬ 1 = ‫׬‬
16 𝑥 2 +(1)2
9−𝑥 2 32 −𝑥2 3 𝑥2+
16 4
1
= tan−1 4𝑥 + 𝐶
a=3 4
Hyperbolic function
Definition (hyperbolic function)
 Hyperbolic cosine  Hyperbolic sine

𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
cosh 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥 =
2 2
 Hyperbolic tangent  Hyperbolic cotangent
sinh(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 cos ℎ(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
tanh 𝑥 = = coth 𝑥 = =
cosh(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 sinh(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
 Hyperbolic secant  Hyperbolic cosecant
1 2 1 2
sech 𝑥 = = csch 𝑥 = =
cosh(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 sinh(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
Derivative and Integral Formulas of
hyperbolic functions
Examples
𝑑 ln(3)
 Evaluate
𝑑𝑥
sech(3𝑥)  Evaluate ‫׬‬0 sinh3 𝑥 cosh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
64
 Answer: −3 sech 3𝑥 tanh 3𝑥  Answer:
81
 Example 2
csch2 𝑥
 Evaluate ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
 Answer: −2 coth 𝑥 +𝐶
Integration techniques: Integration by
parts
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑢 +𝑢 (𝑣)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
 ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑢 𝑥𝑑 𝑣 ׬ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑣𝑢 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬+ ‫)𝑣( 𝑥𝑑 𝑢 ׬‬
 ‫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 ׬ = 𝑣𝑢 𝑑 ׬‬+ ‫𝑣𝑑𝑢 ׬‬
 𝑢𝑣 = ‫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 ׬‬+ ‫𝑣𝑑𝑢 ׬‬
Suppose that u and v are differentiable functions. Then
‫ 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑢 ׬‬− ‫𝑢𝑑𝑣 ׬‬
Examples: Integration by parts
 Example 1  Step 2: Use the formula ‫ 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑢 ׬‬− ‫𝑢𝑑𝑣 ׬‬

 Evaluate ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 ׬‬  ‫ 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 ׬‬− ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬
 Solution: = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 .
 Step 1: Divide 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 dx into a function u and dv.
 Let u = x and dv = ex dx
Therefore du = dx and 𝑣 = ‫𝑥 𝑒 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬
 Example 2  ‫ 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑣𝑑𝑢 ׬‬− ‫𝑢𝑑𝑣 ׬‬

 Evaluate ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥  ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ‫ ׬‬− cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Solution: =−𝑥cos 𝑥 + ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Therefore = −𝑥cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
du = dx and v =‫ ׬‬sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cos(𝑥).
 Example 3  Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

 Evaluate ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Solution:
 Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 ‫ 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 ׬‬− 𝑒 𝑥
 So, ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 ׬‬
 ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 ׬‬ = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ) + C
Integration techniques: Partial
fractions
 Rational function  Partial fraction decomposition

Method of partial fractions
3𝑥 1 2
+
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8 𝑥−2 𝑥+4
 Difficult to integrate  Easy to integrate

3𝑥 1 2
න 2 𝑑𝑥 න + 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥−2 𝑥+4
Example 1
3𝑥 3𝑥
 Find the partial fraction decomposition for 𝑓 𝑥 = . Then, evaluate ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8
 Solution:
 Step 1: Factor the denominator
3𝑥 3𝑥
 =
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+4)
 Step 2: Form the partial fraction decomposition by writing

3𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
 = +
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+4) 𝑥−2 𝑥+4
 Step 3: Solve for A and B.

 3𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑥 + 4 + 𝐵 𝑥 − 2 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥 + 4𝐴 − 2𝐵
 A + B = 3 --- (1) 3𝑥 1 2
 ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2+2𝑥−8 𝑑𝑥 = ‫𝑥 ׬‬−2 + 𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥
 4A – 2B = 0 --- (2)
= ln 𝑥 − 2 + 2 ln 𝑥 + 4 + 𝐶
 From (1), A = 3 – B. So,
= ln 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 + 4)2 + 𝐶
 4(3 – B) – 2B = 0
 12 – 6B = 0
 B = 2.
 Therefore, A = 3 – 2 = 1.
1 2
 Partial decomposition for f(x) is +
𝑥−2 𝑥+4
 Example 2
3𝑥 2 +7𝑥−2 3𝑥 2 +7𝑥−2
 Find the partial decomposition for 𝑓(𝑥) = . Then evaluate ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3−𝑥 2−2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −2𝑥
 Solution:
 Step 1: Factor the denominator
 Denominator: 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)
 Step 2: Form the partial fraction decomposition by writing
3𝑥2 +7𝑥−2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
 = + +
𝑥(𝑥+1)(𝑥−2) 𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥−2
 Step 3: Solve for A, B and C (Student activity)

 A = 1, B = −2 and C = 4.
3𝑥 2 +7𝑥−2 1 2 4
 ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3−𝑥 2−2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =‫ ׬‬−
𝑥 𝑥+1
+
𝑥−2
𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 − 2 ln 𝑥 + 1 + 4 ln 𝑥 − 2 + 𝐶
|𝑥|(𝑥−2)4
= ln +𝐶
(𝑥+1)2
Method of partial fractions: Repeated
linear factors
 Procedure: Suppose the repeated linear factor (x – r)m appears in the denominator of a
proper rational function in reduced form. The partial fraction decomposition has a partial
fraction for each power of (x – r) up to and including the mth power; that is, the partial
fraction decomposition contains the sum
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴𝑚
+ + +⋯+
(𝑥−𝑟) (𝑥−𝑟)2 (𝑥−𝑟)3 (𝑥−𝑟)𝑚
where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑚 are constants to be determined.

Method of partial fractions: Repeated
linear factors
 Example 3 5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 1 1 4
 ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3−2𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬ − + 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥−2
5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2
 Evaluate ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 ׬‬where 𝑓(𝑥) = :
𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2
 Solution: :
5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 4 1
 = = + + = ln 𝑥 𝑥 − 2 + +𝐶
𝑥 3 −2𝑥2 𝑥 2 (𝑥−2) 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥−2 𝑥
:
:
A = 1, B = −1, C = 4
Method of partial fractions: Irreducible
factor
 Procedure: Suppose an irreducible factor (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) appears in the denominator of a

proper rational function in reduced form. The partial fraction decomposition contains a
term of the form
This quadratic cannot be
𝐴𝑥+𝐵
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
factored
where A and B are unknown coefficients to be determined.
factor
 Example 4 7𝑥 2 −13𝑥+13 5 2𝑥+1

 ‫𝑥( ׬‬−2)(𝑥2−2𝑥+3) 𝑑𝑥 =‫׬‬
𝑥−2
+ 2
𝑥 −2𝑥+3
𝑑𝑥
7𝑥 2 −13𝑥+13
 Evaluate ‫𝑥( ׬‬−2)(𝑥2−2𝑥+3) 𝑑𝑥 5 2𝑥+1
 =‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 +‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−2 𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3
 Solution 2𝑥−2+3
= 5 ln 𝑥 − 2 + ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
7𝑥2 −13𝑥+13 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶 𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3
 = + 2
(𝑥−2)(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3) 𝑥−2 𝑥 −2𝑥+3
:
:
A = 5, B = 2, C = 1 ln 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 +
3
tan−1
𝑥−1
2 2
factor
7𝑥 2 −13𝑥+13 3 𝑥−1
 ‫𝑥( ׬‬−2)(𝑥2−2𝑥+3) 𝑑𝑥 = 5 ln 𝑥 − 2 + ln 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 + tan−1 + C.
2 2
IMPROPER INTEGRALS: Improper
integrals over infinite intervals
Definition:
∞ 𝑡
1. If f is continuous on [a, ∞) then ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬lim ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬
𝑡→∞
𝑏 𝑏
2. If f is continuous on (−∞, b] then ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑡׬‬
𝑡→−∞
3. If f is continuous on (−∞, ∞) then
∞ 𝑐 ∞
න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−∞ −∞ 𝑐
𝑐 𝑡
= lim ‫𝑓 𝑡׬‬ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + lim ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑐׬‬
𝑡→−∞ 𝑡→∞
where c is any real number.
If the limits in cases 1 ⎯ 3 exist (as a finite number), then the improper integrals converge; otherwise
they diverge.
Examples: Improper integrals
Example 1
 Evaluate each integral
∞ ∞ 𝑑𝑥
a) ‫׬‬0 𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ‫׬‬−∞
1+𝑥 2
1
Answers: a) b) 
3
Examples: Improper integrals
 Example 2
∞1
 Determine whether the integral ‫׬‬1 𝑑𝑥 converges or
𝑥
diverges.
∞1
 Answer: ‫׬‬1 𝑑𝑥 = ∞. Thus, the integral diverges.
𝑥
 Example 3
0
 Determine whether the integral ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 converges
or diverges.
0
 Answer: ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −1. Thus, the integral
converges.
IMPROPER INTEGRALS: Improper
integrals with discontinuous integrands
Definition:
𝑏 𝑡
1. If f is continuous on [a, b) and is discontinuous at b, then ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬lim− ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬if this limit
𝑡→𝑏
exists (as a finite number).
𝑏 𝑏
2. If f is continuous on (a, b] and is discontinuous at a, then ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬lim+ ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑡׬‬if this limit
𝑡→𝑎
exists (as a finite number).
𝑏
The improper integral ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬converges if the corresponding limit exists and diverges if the limit does
not exist.
𝑐 𝑏
3. If f has a discontinuity at c, where 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏, and both ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬and ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑐׬‬converge, then
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬+ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑐׬‬.
Examples:
Improper integrals
Example 4
3 1
Determine whether ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 converges or diverges.
𝑥−1
3 1
Answer: ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 = ∞ . Thus, this integral diverges.
𝑥−1
 Example 5
5 1
 Determine whether ‫׬‬2 𝑑𝑥 converges or diverges.
𝑥−2
5 1
 Answer: ‫׬‬2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 3 . Thus, this integral converges.
𝑥−2
DOUBLE INTEGRALS
Learning outcomes

 Sketch a simple solid over a region in Cartesian coordinates
 Evaluate double integrals over rectangles
 Evaluate double integrals over general regions
 Relate the polar and the Cartesian coordinates
 Evaluate double integrals in polar coordinates
Introduction
 Recall that the single integral of one variable arose from the problem of finding areas
under curves. If 𝑓 is defined for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 then the definite integral of 𝑓 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is:
𝑏 𝑛
න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ෍ 𝑓 𝑥𝑖∗ ∆𝑥 .
𝑛→∞
𝑎 𝑖=1
Introduction
 Integrals of functions of two variables arise
from the problem of finding volumes under
surfaces.
 The volume problem: Given a function f of
two variables that is continuous and
nonnegative on a region R in the xy-plane,
find the volume of the solid enclosed
between the surface z = f(x, y) and the
region R.
Surfaces
Solids
Example 1
Consider 𝑅 to be a closed rectangle defined by
𝑅 = 0,1 × 0,2 = 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 |0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 z
Solid S
and suppose the surface 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 6. 6
Sketch the region of the solid S enclosed between the surface

z = f(x, y) and the region R.
Solution:
Solid 𝑆 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ3 |0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2, 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 . 2
R 1 2 6 y
3
x
Example 2
Consider 𝑅 to be a closed rectangle defined by
𝑅 = 0,1 × 0,2 = 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 |0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 z
and suppose the surface 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 6 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦 ≥ 0.

Solid S 6
Sketch the region of the solid S enclosed between the surface

z = f(x, y) and the region R.
Solution:
Solid 𝑆 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ3 |0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2, 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 . 2
R 1 2 6 y
3
x
Example 3
Estimate the volume of the solid that lies above the square 𝑅 = 0,2 × 0,2 and below
𝑧 = 16 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 by dividing 𝑅 into four equal squares and choose the sample point to
be the upper right corner of each square 𝑅𝑖𝑗 .
 Answer: 44
y
x
0 2
Process of approximating the volume
of the solid
• Now consider 𝑅 to be a closed rectangle defined by
𝑅 = 𝑎, 𝑏 × 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 |𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑑
and suppose the surface 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0.
• Divide the rectangle 𝑅 into subrectangles 𝑅𝑖𝑗 = 𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑖 × 𝑦𝑗−1 , 𝑦𝑗 . This can be done
by dividing the intervals 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐, 𝑑 into respectively 𝑚 and 𝑛 subintervals of equal
width ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦. The area of each 𝑅𝑖𝑗 is ∆𝐴 = ∆𝑥∆𝑦.
• Now select a sample point 𝑥𝑖𝑗 ∗ ∗

, 𝑦𝑖𝑗 ∗
in 𝑅𝑖𝑗 and compute 𝑓 𝑥𝑖𝑗 ∗
, 𝑦𝑖𝑗 .
• Consider the above thin rectangular box with base 𝑅𝑖𝑗 and height 𝑓 𝑥𝑖𝑗 ∗ ∗
, 𝑦𝑖𝑗 . The
∗ ∗
volume of this box is 𝑓 𝑥𝑖𝑗 , 𝑦𝑖𝑗 ∆𝐴.
• If we add the volumes of the corresponding boxes, we get an approximation to the total
volume of 𝑆:
𝑚 𝑛
∗ ∗
𝑉 ≈ ෍ ෍ 𝑓 𝑥𝑖𝑗 , 𝑦𝑖𝑗 ∆𝐴
𝑖=1 𝑗=1
Double integrals over rectangles
The double integral of 𝑓 over the rectangle 𝑅 is Double

Riemann Sum
𝑚 𝑛
∗ ∗
𝑉 = ඵ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 = lim ෍ ෍ 𝑓 𝑥𝑖𝑗 , 𝑦𝑖𝑗 ∆𝐴
𝑚,𝑛→∞
𝑅 𝑖=1 𝑗=1
if this limit exists. When this happens, we say that 𝑓 is integrable over 𝑅.
Thus if 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0, then 𝑉 represents the volume of the solid that lies above the
rectangle 𝑅 and below the surface 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 .
Iterated integrals
Integration
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑑
න න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = න න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
means we first integrate w.r.t 𝑦 and then w.r.t 𝑥. Similarly we get
𝑑 𝑏 𝑑 𝑏
න න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = න න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎
The above two iterated integrals are equal and the order of integration does not
matter.
Example 4: Evaluate the iterated integrals
3 2 2 3
න න 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 ; න න 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
0 1 1 0
 (Answer: 27/2)
Properties of double integrals
where R is subdivided into two regions R1 and R2.

Example 5: Sketch a solid that is bounded above by the plane
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 − 𝑦
and below by the rectangle 𝑅 = 0,1 × 0,2 . Then, find its volume.
 Answer: Sketching ….(Student activity)
Volume = 5
Double integrals over general regions
 We will limit our study to two types of regions, which we will call Type I and Type II.
Type 1 region
• bounded on the left by 𝑥 = 𝑎 and

right by 𝑥 = 𝑏
• bounded below by 𝑦 = 𝑔1 𝑥 and
above by 𝑦 = 𝑔2 𝑥 .
Type II region
• bounded on the left by 𝑥 = ℎ1 𝑥 and

right by 𝑥 = ℎ2 𝑥
• bounded below by 𝑦 = 𝑐 and above
by 𝑦 = 𝑑.
Example 6
 Evaluate
ඵ 2𝑥 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
𝑅
over the following shaded region
𝑥
4 𝑥 4 𝑦3
 Solution: ‫׬‬2 ‫𝑥׬‬ 2𝑥 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬2 2𝑥𝑦 − 3 ቃ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 … (student activity)
2 2
Example 7
 Set up the double integral to find the volume of z = 4 – 4x – 2y over the region R
 Answer: 2−𝑦
1 2−2𝑥 2 2
ඵ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 = න න 4 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = න න 4 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦.
𝑅 0 0 0 0
Example 8
 Set up the double integral
ඵ 25 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
𝑅
over the following shaded region.

Example 9
 Express
2 1
2
න න 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑦
0
2
with the order of integration reversed.
 Solution:
The integral can be rewritten as
𝑦=2 𝑥=1
2
න න 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 .
𝑦
𝑦=0 𝑥= 2
Then, sketch the lines

𝑦
𝑥= , 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 2
2
and we obtain
𝑥=1 𝑦=2𝑥 1 2𝑥
𝑥2 2
න න 𝑒 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = න න 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑦=0 0 0
Area of region R
Volume of solid
= ඵ 𝑧 𝑑𝐴 = ඵ 1 𝑑𝐴 = Area of 𝑅 Height of the solid = Area of 𝑅

𝑅 𝑅
Area of 𝑅
= ඵ 1 𝑑𝐴 = ඵ 1 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ඵ 1 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 .
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Area of a region R is
the volume of a solid
with the height of 1.
Example 10
 Find the area of the shaded region below:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑦 𝜋 3
 Solution: ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0
3 1 3 3
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = sin 𝑦ሿ0 = sin 3 = = 0.8660
2
Double integrals in polar coordinate: polar
coordinate and Cartesian coordinate
Double integrals in polar coordinate:
relating polar and Cartesian coordinates
We can locate the polar axis to the x-axis and the pole on
 Some double integrals are easier to evaluate if
𝑅 is expressed in polar coordinates. the origin of the Cartesian coordinate plane.
 Used when the integrands are in the form of

𝑥2 + 𝑦2.
To work in polar coordinates, we substitute,
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
ൠ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 → 𝑓 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃
and the limit of integrations are chosen from polar
coordinates.
Example 11
 Convert f(x,y) to polar coordinates
a) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟: 𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟
b) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟: 𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃 = 𝑎 − 𝑟 2
1 1
c) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2+𝑦2 𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟: 𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃 = 𝑟 2
Simple polar region
A simple polar region in a polar coordinate system is a

region that is enclosed between 𝜃 = 𝛼 and 𝜃 = 𝛽, and
two continuous polar curves 𝑟 = 𝑟1 𝜃 and 𝑟 = 𝑟2 𝜃
(their graphs do not cross) and satisfy the following
condition:
𝛼 ≤ 𝛽, 𝛽 − 𝛼 ≤ 2𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝑟1 𝜃 ≤ 𝑟2 𝜃 .
Simple polar region
The above region 𝑅 is enclosed by:

𝜋 𝜋
≤𝜃≤ and 1.5 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 2.
6 4
Double integrals in polar coordinates:
evaluating the double integrals
 If R is a simple polar region whose boundaries are the rays 𝜃 = 𝛼 and 𝜃 = 𝛽 and
the curves 𝑟 = 𝑟1 (𝜃) and 𝑟 = 𝑟2 (𝜃) and if 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃) is continuous on R, then
𝛽 𝑟2 (𝜃)
ඵ 𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = න න 𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝛼 𝑟1 (𝜃)
𝑅
Note that 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃.

In this figure, ∆𝐴 ≈ (∆𝑟)(𝑟∆𝜃). In limit, this becomes 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
Area of 𝑅 = ඵ 1 𝑑𝐴 = ඵ 1 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃.
𝑅
𝑅
Example 12
 Find the volume of hemisphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 .
 Solution:
2𝜋 𝑎 2𝜋 𝑎 2𝜋 𝑎
3
2𝜋𝑎
𝑉 = න න 𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 = න න 𝑧 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 = න න 𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 =
3
0 0 0 0 0 0
Example 13
 Use polar coordinates to evaluate
1
1−𝑥 2 3
2 2 2
නන 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
0
−1
𝜋
 Answer: 5
SOME EXAMPLES OF DOUBLE INTEGRALS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
1) SKETCH VARIOUS PLANES AND SURFACES IN 2D AND 3D
2) SOLVE PROBLEMS RELATING TO DOUBLE INTEGRALS
VARIOUS PLANES AND SURFACES
Equation Graph in 2D Graph in 3D
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 4 Cylinder

𝑦 = 1 and 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 6 Plane y=1
y+x=6
Equation Graph in 3D
𝑧 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 and 𝑧 =
𝑦2 + 𝑥2
𝑧= 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 Paraboloid 𝑧 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 =
𝑧2 + 𝑥2
𝑦= 𝑧2 + 𝑥2 Paraboloid 𝑦 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑥 2
𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 and 𝑥 =
𝑦2 + 𝑧2
𝑥= 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 Paraboloid 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2 and 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 7 Plane
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =2
2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 7
𝑧 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 = 4,
𝑧 = 4 − 𝑦2 + 𝑥2
Sphere 𝑧 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 = 4 𝑧 = 4 − 𝑦2 + 𝑥2
𝑧 = 2, 𝑧 = 2𝑥, 𝑧 = −1 and 𝑧=2 𝑧=0
𝑧=0
𝑧 = −1
𝑧 = 2𝑥
𝑧2 + 𝑦 − 1 2
+ 𝑥2 = 3
𝑧 = 16 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑥 2 ,
𝑧 = 1 − 𝑥2
𝑧 = 1 − 𝑦2 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑦2
𝑧= 16 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2
𝑥 = 1 − 𝑧2
𝑧 =2+ 𝑦2 + 𝑥 2, 𝑥=1− 𝑦2,
𝑥 = 1 − 𝑧2
𝑥 = 1 − 𝑦2
𝑧 = 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑥2
𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 = 4, 𝑥 + 1 2
+ 𝑧−3 2
=4
𝑥2 + 𝑧2 = 4
(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑧 − 3)2 = 4

𝑧2 + 𝑦2 = 4
EXAMPLE 1
𝜋 𝜋
a) The depth of a m × 𝑚 swimming pool is given by 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = cos(𝑥) + 5. Let the pool be measured in 16
2 2
rectangles of equal area. Take (𝑥𝑘∗ , 𝑦𝑘∗ ) to be upper right corner of the kth rectangle. Approximate the volume of
water in the pool. Answer: 13.58
𝑧 = cos(𝑥) +5 y
𝜋
2
x
𝜋
0
2
b) Compare the result in part (a) to the exact value of the volume.
EXAMPLE 2
Each iterated integral represents the volume of a solid. Make a sketch of the solid. (You do not have to find the
volume).
5 2
 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬1 4𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
1 1
 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 2 − 𝑥 − 𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
3 4
 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 25 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
2 2𝑦
 ‫׬‬1/4 ‫׬‬ 𝑦
5 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
EXAMPLE 3
Use a double integral to find the volume of each solid

a) The solid bounded by the plane 𝑧 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 and the rectangle 𝑅 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 : 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5,1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2}.
b) The solid bounded above by the paraboloid 𝑧 = 9𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 below by the plane 𝑧 = 0, and laterally by the planes
𝑥 = 0, y = 0, 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 2.
c) The solid bounded by the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 and the planes 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 3 − 𝑥
EXAMPLE 4
a) Use a double integral in polar coordinates to find the volume of a cylinder of radius a and height h.
2 +𝑦 2 )
b) Use polar coordinates to evaluate ‫ 𝑒 𝑅׭‬−(𝑥 𝑑𝐴, where R is the region enclosed by the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1.
TRIPLE INTEGRALS
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Set up the triple integrals in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates
2. Evaluate the triple integrals in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates using
different orders
3. Relate the cylindrical and the Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates
4. Evaluate the triple integrals in cylindrical coordinates
INTRODUCTION
• A single integral of 𝑓 𝑥 -curve

▪ is defined over an interval 𝐼 in 𝑥 −axis.
▪ arise from the problem of finding areas under curves.
• A double integral of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 -surface

▪ is defined over a region 𝑅 in an 𝑥𝑦 −coordinate system.
▪ arise from the problem of finding volumes under surfaces.
• A triple integral of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 G is a rectangular box
▪ is defined over a closed solid 𝐺 in an 𝑥𝑦𝑧 −coordinate system.
G is a general solid
TRIPLE INTEGRALS OVER RECTANGULAR BOXES
Example 1
Let 𝐺 = 0,1 × 0,4 × 0,2 =
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 4,0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 2 and
z
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑧. Solid G
a) Sketch the solid G.
b) Find the Riemann sum of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 over G

by dividing G into 4 sub-boxes of equal sizes (see
figure) and choose the sample point to be the top front y
left corner of each sub-box.
Solution: Sample points = (1,0,1), (1,2,1), (1,0,2),

(1,2,2). …. Answer =4 (Student activity)
x
PROCESS OF DEFINING TRIPLE INTEGRALS
• Divide the solid 𝐺 into sub-boxes.

• We do this by dividing the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 into 𝑙 subintervals of equal width ∆𝑥,
dividing 𝑐, 𝑑 into 𝑚 subintervals of equal width ∆𝑦, and dividing 𝑝, 𝑞 into 𝑛
subintervals of equal ∆𝑧.
• Thus there are 𝑙𝑚𝑛 sub-boxes and each sub-boxes is defined by
𝐺𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑖 × 𝑦𝑗−1 , 𝑦𝑗 × 𝑧𝑘−1 , 𝑧𝑘
and has volume ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧.

PROCESS OF DEFINING TRIPLE INTEGRALS
• Then we form the triple Riemann sum

𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
∗ ∗ ∗
෍ ෍ ෍ 𝑓 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝑘 , 𝑦𝑖𝑗𝑘 , 𝑧𝑖𝑗𝑘 ∆𝑉
𝑖=1 𝑗=1 𝑘=1
∗ ∗ ∗
where the sample point 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝑘 , 𝑦𝑖𝑗𝑘 , 𝑧𝑖𝑗𝑘 ∈ 𝐺𝑖𝑗𝑘 .
TRIPLE INTEGRALS
Definition 1: The triple integral of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) over the region G is defined by
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
∗ ∗ ∗
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑉 = lim ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝑓 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝑘 , 𝑦𝑖𝑗𝑘 , 𝑧𝑖𝑗𝑘 ∆𝑉
𝑙,𝑚 ,𝑛→∞
𝐺 𝑖=1 𝑗 =1 𝑘=1
if this limit exists.

ITERATED INTEGRALS
The practical method for evaluating triple integrals is to express them as iterated
integrals as follows:
• Let 𝐺 be the rectangular box defined by

𝐺 = 𝑎, 𝑏 × 𝑐, 𝑑 × 𝑝, 𝑞 .
If 𝑓 is continuous over 𝐺 then

𝑏 𝑑 𝑞
‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝑝׬ 𝑐׬ 𝑎׬‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 .
Here
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥.
PROPERTIES OF TRIPLE INTEGRALS
• ‫𝑥 𝑓𝑐 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 c a constant
• ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ‫𝑥 𝑔 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉
• ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 − 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 − ‫𝑥 𝑔 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉
• If the region G is subdivided into two subregions G1 and G2 then
• ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉

1 2
Example 2
Evaluate the triple integral
12𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑉
𝐺
over the rectangular boxes 𝐺 = −1,2 × 0,3 × 0,2 .

Answer:
2 3 2
න න න 12𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 648.

0 0 −1
TRIPLE INTEGRALS OVER MORE GENERAL REGIONS
Simple solid sitting on
top of the xy-plane
• Let G be a simple xy-solid with upper surface

𝑧 = 𝑔2 (𝑥, 𝑦) and lower surface 𝑧 = 𝑔1 𝑥, 𝑦 ,
and let R be the projection of G on the xy-
plane. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is continuous on G, then
𝑔2 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ඵ න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝐴
𝑔1 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝐺 𝑅
DETERMINING LIMITS OF INTEGRATION: SIMPLE XY-
SOLID IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
• Step 1: Find an equation 𝑧 = 𝑔2 (𝑥, 𝑦) for the upper surface and an equation 𝑧 =
𝑔1 (𝑥, 𝑦) for the lower surface of G. The functions 𝑔1 (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑔2 (𝑥, 𝑦) determine
the lower and upper z-limits of integration.
• Step 2: Make a two-dimensional sketch of the projection R of the solid on the xy-
plane. From this sketch, determine the limits of integration for the double integral
over R
Example 3
• Consider a cylindrical xy-solid 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑦 2 where 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑦 ≥ 0. Cut the cylinder

by the plane 𝑦 = 𝑥 . Let G be the solid region bounded by the planes 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 =
𝑥. Evaluate ‫𝑉𝑑 𝑧 𝐺׮‬.
You can think R as
a shadow of G
• Solution:
• Step 1: Find an equation for the upper surface and an equation for the lower
surface of G.
• Equation for the upper surface : 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑦2
• Equation for the lower surface : 𝑧 = 0
1−𝑦 2
• We have ‫׬ 𝑅׭ = 𝑉𝑑𝑧 𝐺׮‬0 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝐴
• Step 2: Make a sketch of the projection R of the solid on the xy-plane.
• We have ‫= 𝑉𝑑𝑧 𝐺׮‬

1−𝑦 2 1 𝑦 1−𝑦 2 1 1 1−𝑦 2
‫׬ 𝑅׭‬0 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝐴 = ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬0 ‫𝑥׬‬ ‫׬‬0 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
1
• Answer =
8
INTEGRATION IN DIFFERENT ORDERS
• Simple xy-solid (we integrate with respect to z first)
𝑔2 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ඵ න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝐴
𝑔1 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝐺 𝑅
• Simple xz-solid (we integrate with respect to y first)
𝑔2 (𝑥,𝑧)
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ඵ න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝐴
𝑔1 (𝑥,𝑧)
𝐺 𝑅
INTEGRATION IN DIFFERENT ORDERS
• Simple yz-solid (we integrate with respect to x first)
𝑔2 (𝑦,𝑧)
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ඵ න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝐴
𝑔1 (𝑦,𝑧)
𝐺 𝑅
Example 4
• Consider a cylindrical xy-solid 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑦 2 where 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑦 ≥ 0. Cut the

cylinder by the plane 𝑦 = 𝑥 . Let G be the solid region bounded by the planes 𝑥 =
0 and 𝑦 = 𝑥. Evaluate ‫𝑉𝑑 𝑧 𝐺׮‬..
• Solution:
• Step 1: Find an equation for the upper surface and an equation for the lower
surface of G by viewing G from yz-plane.
• Equation for the upper surface : 𝑦 = 𝑥
• Equation for the lower surface : 𝑥 = 0
𝑦
• We have ‫׬ 𝑅׭ = 𝑉𝑑𝑧 𝐺׮‬0 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝐴
• Step 2: Make a sketch of the projection R of the solid on the yz-plane.
𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 1
(𝑧 = 1 − 𝑦 2 )
𝑦 1 1−𝑦 2 𝑦 1 1−𝑧 2 𝑦
We have ‫𝑅׭ = 𝑉𝑑𝑧 𝐺׮‬ ‫׬‬0 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝐴 = ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
1
Answer =
8
RELATING CYLINDRICAL AND RECTANGULAR
COORDINATES
• 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃,
• 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃,
• 𝑧=𝑧
• 𝑟2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2,
• tan 𝜃 = 𝑦/𝑥
• Point P = (x,y,z) is represented as 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧

TRIPLE INTEGRALS IN CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATES
• Let G be a solid region whose upper surface has the
equation 𝑔2 (𝑟, 𝜃) and lower surface has the equation
𝑔1 (𝑟, 𝜃) in cylindrical coordinates. If the projection of
the solid on the xy-plane is a simple polar region R
and if 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) is continuous on G then
𝑔2 (𝑟,𝜃)
𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ඵ න 𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝐴
𝑔1 (𝑟,𝜃)
𝐺 𝑅
𝜃2 𝑟2 (𝜃) 𝑔2 (𝑟,𝜃)
=න න න 𝑓 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 𝑟𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝜃1 𝑟1 (𝜃) 𝑔1 (𝑟,𝜃)
DETERMINING LIMITS OF INTEGRATION IN
CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
• Step 1: Identify the upper surface and lower surface of the solid (must be in
cylindrical coordinate). These surfaces are the lower and upper limits for 𝑧.
• Step 2: Sketch the projection (simple polar region) on the xy-plane and find the
limits for 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Example 5
Let G be the solid region inside the sphere of radius 2 centered at the origin and
above the plane 𝑧 = 1. Set up the triple integral
𝑧
‫𝐺׮‬ 𝑑𝑉
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
in cylindrical coordinates.
2𝜋 3 4−𝑟 2
Answer: ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬1 𝑧/(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )𝑟𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
Example 6
Use triple integration in cylindrical coordinates
to find the volume of the solid G that is
bounded above by the hemisphere 𝑧 =
25 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , below by the xy-plane and
laterally by the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 .
2𝜋 3 25−𝑟 2 𝜋
Answer: ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 𝑟 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 = 122 .
3
Example 7
Use cylindrical coordinate to evaluate
3 9−𝑥 2 9−𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
න න න 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
−3 − 9−𝑥 2 0
𝜋
Answer: 243 .
4
SOME EXAMPLES TRIPLE
INTEGRALS
Example 1 dV = dz dA or dV = dA dz ?
Which one is simpler to
calculate in this example ?
Evaluate ‫ 𝑦𝑥 𝐺׮‬sin 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑉 where G is the rectangular box defined by the inequalities

𝜋
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 6 .
 Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
1 𝜋 1 𝜋 −𝑥𝑦 cos(𝑦𝑧) 6
 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬06 𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
0
1 𝜋 𝜋
= ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 −𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
6
𝜋
1 𝑥2 𝜋 𝑥2
= ‫׬‬0 − 2 cos 6 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦
2 0
1 𝜋2 𝜋 𝜋2
= ‫׬‬0 − 2 cos 6 𝑦 + 2 𝑑𝑦
Continue
𝜋
1 𝜋2 𝜋 𝜋2 𝜋2 sin 𝑦 𝜋2 𝜋2
6
 ‫׬‬0 − 2 cos 6 𝑦 + 2 𝑑𝑦 = −2 𝜋 + 2
− − 2 (0) +0
6
𝜋2 6 1 𝜋2 𝜋 3 𝜋−3
= −2 𝜋 2 + =𝜋 −2 =𝜋 .
2 2 2
Example 2
the first octant is
the portion under
an xyz-axis where
Evaluate ‫ 𝑉𝑑 𝑧𝑦𝑥 𝐺׮‬where G is the solid in the first octant that is bounded by the
all three variables
parabolic cylinder 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑥 2 and the planes 𝑧 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑥, and 𝑦 = 0. are positive
values.
Continue
 Solution:
 Upper surface: 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑥 2
 Lower surface: 𝑧 = 0
2−𝑥 2
 We have ‫= 𝑉𝑑 𝑧𝑦𝑥 𝐺׮‬ ‫׬ 𝑅׭‬0 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝐴
Continue
 Region R:
2 𝑥 2−𝑥 2
 We have ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
1
Answer: 6
Example 3
Find the volume of the solid between the cone 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and the inverted paraboloid
𝑧 = 12 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 .
Continue
 Solution:
 Upper surface: 𝑧 = 12 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 → 𝑧 = 12 − 𝑟 2
 Lower surface: 𝑧 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 → 𝑧 = 𝑟
12−𝑟 2
 We have ‫ 𝐺׮‬1 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑟׬ 𝑅׭‬ 1 𝑑𝑧 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
Continue
 Region R is the intersection between the upper and lower surfaces

𝑧 = 12 − 𝑟 2 (1)
𝑧=𝑟 (2)
12 − 𝑟 2 = 𝑟
𝑟 2 + 𝑟 − 12 = (𝑟 − 3)(𝑟 + 4) = 0.
So, 𝑟 = 3, 𝑟 = −4. Because 𝑟 ≥ 0, the relevant root is 𝑟 = 3.
𝑟 = 3 → 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 (a circle with radius 3).
Continue
 Region R
2 3 12−𝑟 2
 We have ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 ‫𝑟׬‬ 1 𝑟𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑟𝑑
99𝜋
 Answer: 2
VECTORS IN THREE
DIMENSIONS
Learning outcomes

 apply arithmetic operations on 3D vectors
 calculate the magnitude (or length) of a 3D vector
 determine the unit vector in direction of the other vector
 determine the force vectors
 solve problems involving the dot product and cross product of vectors
 calculating the work done by a force
Arithmetic operations on vectors
 If 𝐯 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 and 𝐰 = 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 are vectors in R2 and k is any scalar, then

𝐯 + 𝐰 = 𝑣1 + 𝑤1 , 𝑣2 + 𝑤2
𝐯 − 𝐰 = 𝑣1 − 𝑤1 , 𝑣2 − 𝑤2
𝑘𝐯 = 𝑘𝑣1 , 𝑘𝑣2
Similarly, if 𝐯 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 and 𝐰 = 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 are vectors in R3 and k is any scalar, then
𝐯 + 𝐰 = 𝑣1 + 𝑤1 , 𝑣2 + 𝑤2 , 𝑣3 + 𝑤3
𝐯 − 𝐰 = 𝑣1 − 𝑤1 , 𝑣2 − 𝑤2 , 𝑣3 − 𝑤3
𝑘𝐯 = 𝑘𝑣1 , 𝑘𝑣2 , 𝑘𝑣3
Example 1
2
(a) Given that 𝐯 = 2, −3 and w = 1,10 . Compute v + w, v – w, and − 5 𝐰 + 2𝐯.
2 18
 Answer: 𝐯 + 𝐰 = 3,7 , 𝐯 − 𝐰 = 1, −13 , − 5 𝐰 + 2𝐯 = , −10
5
1 2
(b) Given that 𝐯 = 1, −2,0.6 and w = 0,2, − 2 . Compute v + w, v – w, and − 5 𝐰 + 2𝐯.
2 24
 Answer: 𝐯 + 𝐰 = 1,0,0.1 , 𝐯 − 𝐰 = 1, −4,1.1 , − 5 𝐰 + 2𝐯 = 2, − , 1.4
5
Illustration
−2v
w
1
v v v+w 1
2 −2w
v
1
𝐯− 𝐰
2
Rules of vector arithmetic
For any vectors u, v, and w and any scalars k and l, the following relationships hold:
(a) u+v=v+u
(b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) 𝟎 = 0,0,0 is a
zero vector
(c) u+0=0+u=u
(d) u + (−u) = 0
(e) k(lu) = (kl)u
(f) k(u + v) = ku + kv
(g) (k + l)u = ku + lu
(h) 1u = u
Position vectors
 In R2, position vector of a point P (x, y) is the vector 𝑂𝑃 where O is the origin (0, 0).
 In R3, position vector of a point P (x, y, z) is the vector 𝑂𝑃 where O is the origin (0, 0, 0).
z
P (x, y, z)
𝑂𝑃
0
y
x
y
Vectors in R3 𝐴𝐵 = 2,2 𝐵(3,4)
𝐴(1,2)
z
 If 𝐴𝐵 is a vector in R2 with initial point
𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and terminal point 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
then 𝐴𝐵 = 1, −2,2 x
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
B(2,0,4) 𝐴(1,2,2)
Similarly, if 𝐴𝐵 is a vector in R3 with
initial point 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and terminal
point 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) then y
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
Note: Terminal point – Initial point
x
Example 2
(a) Find the vector 𝐴𝐵 with 𝐴(1, −3) and 𝐵(−2,3). Draw 𝐴𝐵.
(b) Given the point 𝑅 1,2 . Determine points P, Q and the vector 𝑅𝑃 with 𝑃𝑄 = 4,2 and 𝑄𝑅 = −2,3 .
(c) Find the vector 𝑄𝑅 with 𝑅(1,3,5) and Q 1,2, −5 . Draw 𝑄𝑅.
Answers: 𝐴𝐵 = −3,6 , 𝑅𝑃 = −2, −5 , point 𝑃(−1, −3), point 𝑄(3, −1), 𝑄𝑅 = 0,1,10
Magnitude (or length) of vectors
 The magnitude (or length) of a vector v is the distance between the initial and terminal
points of v.
 The length of a vector 𝐯 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 is 𝐯 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 .
 The length of a vector 𝐯 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 is 𝐯 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 𝑣32 .

Example 3
1
(a) Given that 𝐯 = −1,2,2 and 𝐰 = 0,3,1 . Compute 𝐯 and 𝐯 −𝐰 .
2
(b) Given that 𝑃𝑄 = 4,2 and 𝑄𝑅 = −2,3 . Compute 𝑃𝑅 .
1 17
Answers: (a) 𝐯 = 3, 𝐯 −𝐰 = .
2 2
(b) 𝑃𝑅 = 29
Unit vectors
 A unit vector is a vector of length 1.

1 1 3 4
 Examples of unit vectors : 1,0 , 0,1 , 1,0,0 , 0,1,0 , 0,0,1 , , , 5,5
2 2
 If 𝐯 is any nonzero vector, then the unit vector that has the same direction as v is
1 𝐯
𝐰= 𝐯= .
𝐯 𝐯
 In R2, vectors 1,0 and 0,1 are denoted by 𝐢 = 1,0 and 𝐣 = 0,1 . Every vector in
R2 can be expressed in terms of i and j. They are called the standard basis vectors in R2.
 In R3, vectors 1,0,0 , 0,1,0 and 0,0,1 are denoted by 𝐢 = 1,0,0 , 𝐣 = 0,1,0 and
𝐤 = 0,0,1 . Every vector in R3 can be expressed in terms of i, j and k. They are called
the standard basis vectors in R3.
Example 4
(a) If a = i + 2j − 3k and b = 4i + 7k, express the vector 2a + 3b in terms of i, j, and k.

(b) Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i – j – 2k.
Answers: (a) 14i + 4j + 15k

2 1 2
(b) 3 𝐢 − 3 𝐣 − 3 𝐤
Force vectors
Example 5
 A child pulls a wagon with a force of 𝐅 = 20N at an angle of 𝜃 = 300 to the
horizontal. Find the force vector F.
 Solution
A force can be represented |F| = 20

as a two dimensional vector Fy
300
because a force has both a
Fx
magnitude and a direction
• 𝐅 = 𝐹𝑥 𝐢 + 𝐹𝑦 𝐣
= 20 cos 300 𝐢 + 20 sin 300 𝐣
= 10 3𝐢 + 10𝐣
The dot product
 If 𝐮 = 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 and 𝐯 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 are vectors in R2, then the dot product of u and v is

written as 𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 and is defined as
𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2
 Similarly if 𝐮 = 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 and 𝐯 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 are vectors in R3, the dot product of u
and v is defined as
𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3
Example 6
Given that 𝐮 = 1,2,0 and 𝐯 = 5, −1,3 . Compute

(a) 𝐮∙𝐮
(b) 𝐮∙𝐯
(c) 𝐯∙𝐮
(d) 𝟎∙𝐯
(e) (6𝐮) ∙ 𝐯
Why the expressions 𝐮 ∙ (𝐯 ∙ 𝐰) and 𝐯 + (𝐯 ∙ 𝐰) make no sense ?
Angle between vectors
 If u and v are nonzero vectors in R2 or

R3, and if  is the angle between them
(where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋), then cos 𝜃 =
𝐮∙𝐯
𝐮 |𝐯|
Example 7
Given that 𝐮 = 1,2,0 and 𝐯 = 5, −1,3 . Compute the angle  between u and v.
Answer: 76.890
The cross product
 If 𝐮 = 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 and 𝐯 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 are vectors in R3, then
the cross product 𝐮 × 𝐯 is the vector defined by
Or equivalently
Example 8
Given that 𝐮 = 1,2,3 , 𝐯 = 4,5,6 and 𝐰 = 1, −2, −4 . Compute

(a) 𝐮×𝐯 Answer: −3,6, −3
(b) 𝐯×𝐮 Answer: 3, −6,3
(c) (𝐮 + 𝐯) × 𝐰 Answer: −10,29, −17
(d) 𝐰×𝐰 Answer: 0,0,0
Cross products of unit vectors
Evaluate all the cross

products among the
coordinate unit vectors
 𝐢×𝐣 =𝐤
i, j, and k.
 𝐣×𝐤=𝐢
 𝐤×𝐢=𝐣
 𝐢×𝐢=𝐣×𝐣=𝐤×𝐤=𝟎
Magnitude and direction of cross product
Let u and v be nonzero vectors in R3, and let 

be the angle between these vectors (where 0 ≤
𝜃 ≤ 𝜋) when they are positioned so their initial
points coincide.
 𝐮 × 𝐯 = 𝐮 𝐯 sin(𝜃)
 The area A of the parallelogram that has u
and v as adjacent sides is 𝐴 = 𝐮 × 𝐯
 𝐮 × 𝐯 = 𝟎 if and only if u and v are parallel
vectors, that is, if and only if they are scalar If the fingers of the right hand
multiples of one another. are cupped so they curl from u
 The direction of 𝐮 × 𝐯 is the direction of toward v, then the thumb will
your thumb, perpendicular to both u and v. If point (roughly) in the direction
𝐮 × 𝐯 = 𝟎, then direction of 𝐮 × 𝐯 is of u  v.
undefined.
Illustration
Area, 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∙ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

= 𝐮 𝐯 sin(𝜃) = 𝐮 × 𝐯
Example 9
(a) Given that 𝐮 = 1,2,0 and 𝐯 = −3,1,3 . Compute the angle between u and
v. Draw u, v and 𝐮 × 𝐯. Hence, determine the magnitude of 𝐮 × 𝐯 .
(b) Find the area of the triangle that is determined by the points 𝑃(2,2,0),
𝑄 −1,0,2 and R 0,4,3 .
Answers uv
(a) 𝜃 = 95.890 . 𝐮 × 𝐯 = 9.695

v
1 15
(b) 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑄 × 𝑃𝑅 =
2 2

u
Work done by a force
 If a constant force of F (in the direction of motion) is applied to move an

object a distance d in a straight line, then the work exerted is
 Work = ( Force ) ( Distance )
 The unit for force is N (newton) and the unit for distance is m (meter). The
unit for work is joule=(newton)(meter).
 Now suppose that the there is an angle theta between direction in which the
constant force is applied and the direction of motion.
 In this case the work is given by:
Work = |F|cos() |D| = |F||D|cos() = F • D
Example 10
 A child pulls a wagon with a force of 𝐅 = 20N for a distance of 100 m along a
horizontal path. The handle of the wagon makes an angle of 𝜃 = 300 to the horizontal.
Find the work done by the force.
 Solution: Work = | F | | D | cos()
= 20 (100) cos(300)
 1732 J
Parametric equations and
Cartesian equations
 The path of a particle moving in a plane need not trace out the
graph of a function, hence we cannot describe the path by
expressing y directly in terms of x. An alternate way to describe
the path of the particle is to express the coordinates of its points
as functions of a third variable using a pair of equations
x = x(t), y = y(t).
 Equations of this form are called parametric equations for x and
y, and the unknown t is called a parameter. The parameter t may
represent time in some instances, an angle in other situations, or
the distance a particle has traveled along the path from a
designated starting point.
Example 1
 Sketch a line represented by the parametric equations
𝑥 = 1 − 𝑡, 𝑦 = 3𝑡, 𝑧 = 2𝑡, where 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1.
 Answer:
Parametric equations and
Cartesian equations
Parametric equation Cartesian equation
Equation: 𝑥 = cos(𝑡), 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 , Equation: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 . The graph
0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 . The graph is a circle is a circle of radius 1, centered at
of radius 1, centered at the origin, the origin.
and oriented counterclockwise.
Example 2
 A curve is defined by
𝑥 = 1 − 𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 − 2, −2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
Sketch the curve by using the parametric equations to plot
the points. Indicate with an arrow the direction in which the
curve is traced as t increases.
Answer:
Example 3
 For each curve, eliminate the parameter to find a

Cartesian equation of the curve.
(a) 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 − 3, 𝑦 = 𝑡 + 2, −3 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3
(b) 𝑥 = sin 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 1 − cos 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
(c) 𝑥 = 𝑡 − 1, 𝑦 = 𝑡 3 + 1, −2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
Lines determined by
parametric equations
 The line in R2 that passes through the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and is
parallel to the nonzero vector 𝐯 = 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑎𝐢 + 𝑏𝐣 has
parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡.
 The line in R3 that passes through the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and is
parallel to the nonzero vector 𝐯 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 = 𝑎𝐢 + 𝑏𝐣 + 𝑐𝐤 has
parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡.
Illustration
 Consider a line L that passes through a point 𝑃0 and is parallel to a

nonzero vector v. If P is any other point on L, then the vector 𝑃0 𝑃 is
parallel to v (or a scalar multiple of v). Say 𝑃0 𝑃 = 𝑡𝐯.
L L
P0 𝐯 = 𝑎, 𝑏 𝐯 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐
P0
• 𝑃0 𝑃 = 𝑡𝐯
• 𝑃0 𝑃 = 𝑡𝐯 • 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 =
• 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑡𝑎, 𝑡𝑏 𝑡𝑎, 𝑡𝑏, 𝑡𝑐
• 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 • 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧 =
𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡
Example 4
a) Find parametric equations of the line that passes through (4, 2)

and parallel to 𝐯 = −1,5 .
b) Find parametric equations of the line that passes through
(1,2, −3) and parallel to 𝐯 = 4𝐢 + 5𝐣 − 7𝐤 .
c) Find parametric equations of the line that passes through origin
in R3 and parallel to 𝐯 = 1,1,1 .
Answers:
a) 𝑥 = 4 − 𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 + 5𝑡
b) 𝑥 = 1 + 4𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 + 5𝑡, 𝑧 = −3 − 7𝑡
c) 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑡
Example 5
Find parametric equations of the line L that is tangent to the circle

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 at the point (3, −4).
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝐯 = 4,3
Step 1: Determine 𝑑𝑥
of the circle at the given
point. 3
L
Step 2: Determine vector v.
Step 3: Determine the parametric equations. 4
Answer: 𝑥 = 3 + 4𝑡, 𝑦 = −4 + 3𝑡
Example 6
Find parametric equations of the line L passing through the points 𝑃1 (2,4, −1) and
𝑃2 5,0,7 .
Solution: P1 L
Step 1: Determine vector v P2
𝐯 = 𝑃1 𝑃2 = 3, −4,8
Step 2: Determine the parametric equations
𝑃1 𝑃 = 𝑡𝐯 (P (x, y, z) is any point on L)
𝑥 − 2, 𝑦 − 4, 𝑧 + 1 = 3𝑡, −4𝑡, 8𝑡
So, the parametric equations: 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑡, 𝑦 = 4 − 4𝑡, 𝑧 = −1 + 8𝑡
Remark: Had we used 𝑃2 as the point on L rather than 𝑃1 (see Step 2), we would
have obtained 𝑥 = 5 + 3𝑡, 𝑦 = −4𝑡, 𝑧 = 7 + 8𝑡. The two sets of equations are
actually equivalent because both generate L as t varies from −∞ to +∞.
Line segments
 Parametric equations of a line segment can be obtained by

finding parametric equations for the entire line, then restricting
the parameter appropriately so that only the desired segment is
generated.
Example 7
Find parametric equations describing the line segment joining the points
𝑃1 (2,4, −1) and 𝑃2 5,0,7 .
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the parametric equations of the entire line
See Example 6
Step 2: Determine the appropriate t for 𝑃1 (2,4, −1) and t for 𝑃2 5,0,7 .
For 𝑃1 2,4, −1 , 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑡 = 2 → 𝑡 = 0,
𝑦 = 4 − 4𝑡 = 4 → 𝑡 = 0,
𝑧 = −1 + 8𝑡 = −1 → 𝑡 = 0.
So, the appropriate t for 𝑃1 (2,4, −1) is t = 0.
Continue
In the same manner, the appropriate t for 𝑃2 5,0,7 is t = 1. Thus,

the line segment joining 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 is given by
𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑡, 𝑦 = 4 − 4𝑡, 𝑧 = −1 + 8𝑡, 0≤𝑡≤1
VECTOR-VALUED
FUNCTIONS
Learning outcomes

 recognize a vector-valued function
 determine the vector equation of a line and a plane
 determine the derivative and antiderivative of a vector-valued function
 determine the arc length and curvature of a curve
 solve related problems in science
VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS
 A vector-valued function is a function that takes a real number and returns a vector.
real number
vector
VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS
 Example
Notation:
 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑡 𝐣
 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑡 𝐤
The graph of a vector–valued function 𝐫(𝑡) is defined to be the
parametric curve described by the component of the function. 𝐫 𝑡
is also called as Radius vector; a vector from the origin to points on
curve.
Curves: plane curve
space curve
A plane curve must lie on a single plane.
As t varies, the tip of the radius vector
A space curve is a curve whose points do not necessarily all lie on a
single plane r(t) traces out the curve C.
Graphing vector functions
https://www.geogebra.org/m/ubratnur
r
r
𝐫 = cos 𝑡 𝐢 + sin 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑡𝐤
Vector equation of a line
 Recall: The line in R2 that passes through the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and is parallel to the nonzero
vector 𝐯 = 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑎𝐢 + 𝑏𝐣 has parametric equations
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡. (1)
 The line in R3 that passes through the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and is parallel to the nonzero
vector 𝐯 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 = 𝑎𝐢 + 𝑏𝐣 + 𝑐𝐤 has parametric equations
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡. (2)
 Equation (1) can be written in vector form as

𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 + 𝑡 𝑎, 𝑏 (3)
 Equation (2) can be written in vector form as
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 + 𝑡 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 (4)
Vector equation of a line
 In R2, define 𝐫 = 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝐫0 = 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 and 𝐯 = 𝑎, 𝑏 .

In R3, define 𝐫 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 , 𝐫0 = 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 and 𝐯 =
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 . Hence, equations (3) and (4) can be
represented by
𝐫 = 𝐫𝟎 + 𝑡𝐯
 We call 𝐫 = 𝐫𝟎 + 𝑡𝐯 the vector equation of a line.
 In this equation, v is a nonzero vector parallel to the
line, and 𝐫0 is the position vector of a point on the line.
Vector equation of a line segment
 Consider a line segment joining point 𝑃0 to point 𝑃1 . P0
 Define 𝐫0 and 𝐫1 be the position vectors of 𝑃0 and 𝑃1
respectively. Hence, the vector equation of the line P1
segment is given by
 𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡(𝐫1 − 𝐫0 )
Or
 𝐫 = 𝐫0 (1 − 𝑡) + 𝑡𝐫1
where 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
Example 1
 A line is parallel to the vector 3𝐢 − 𝐣 + 6𝐤 and passes through the point (3,2,1).
a) Find the vector equation of the line.
b) Find p and q such that the point (p, 4, q) lies on the line.
Solution:
a) The equation is: 𝐫 = 3𝐢 + 2𝐣 + 𝐤 + 𝑡 3𝐢 − 𝐣 + 6𝐤
b) If the point (p, 4, q) lines on the line, then
𝐫 = 3𝐢 + 2𝐣 + 𝐤 + 𝑡 3𝐢 − 𝐣 + 6𝐤 = 𝑝𝐢 + 4𝐣 + 𝑞𝐤 for some t
This implies 3 + 3t = p
2 – t = 4  t = −2 Hence, p = −3, q = −11.
1 + 6t = q
Example 2
 Find a vector equation r(t) of the line segment joining the point P(1, 3, −2) to
the point Q(2, −1, 3).
 Solution: Take 𝐫0 = 1,3, −2 and 𝐫1 = 2, −1,3
 So,
r (t ) = r0 + t (r1 − r0 )
= 1,3, −2 + t 2 − 1, −1 − 3,3 + 2
= 1 + t ,3 − 4t , −2 + 5t , 0  t  1
Equation of a plane
 A vector perpendicular to a plane is called a normal to
the plane
 From this figure, vector 𝐫 − 𝐫0 is perpendicular to the

normal vector n. Hence, the vector equation of the
plane is 𝐧 ∙ 𝐫 − 𝐫0 = 0
 From the vector equation, we obtain the (Cartesian)
equation of a plane: 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥0 + 𝑏 𝑦 − 𝑦0 +
𝑐 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 0
Example 3
 Find an equation of the plane passing through the point (3, −1, 7) and perpendicular to the
vector 𝐧 = 4,2, −5 .
 Solution: Let 𝐫0 be the position vector of the point (3, −1, 7) and 𝐫 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 . Therefore,
𝐫0 = 3, −1,7 .
 The vector equation of the plane is given by 𝐧 ∙ 𝐫 − 𝐫0 = 0
4,2, −5 ∙ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 − 3, −1,7 =0
4,2, −5 ∙ 𝑥 − 3, 𝑦 + 1, 𝑧 − 7 = 0
4 𝑥 − 3 + 2 𝑦 + 1 + −5 𝑧 − 7 = 0
4𝑥 − 12 + 2𝑦 + 2 − 5𝑧 + 35 = 0
4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 25 = 0
So, the Cartesian equation of the plane is 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 25 = 0.
Example 4
 Find an equation of the plane through the points 𝑃1 1,2, −1 , 𝑃2 (2,3,1) and 𝑃3 (3, −1,2).
 Solution:
 Step 1: Find the normal vector to the plane.
n
 𝑃1 𝑃2 = 1,1,2 𝑃1 𝑃3 = 2, −3,3
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 r
 𝐧 = 𝑃1 𝑃2 × 𝑃1 𝑃3 = 1 1 2 = 9𝐢 + 𝐣 − 5𝐤
2 −3 3
r0
 Step 2: Use formula 𝐧 ∙ 𝐫 − 𝐫0 = 0
0
 Let 𝐫0 be the position vector of 𝑃1 . Therefore 𝐫0 = 1,2, −1 .
 𝐧 ∙ 𝐫 − 𝐫0 = 0
 9,1, −5 ∙ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 − 1,2, −1 =0
 9 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑦 − 2 − 5 𝑧 + 1 = 0  9𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5𝑧 − 16 = 0
Finding a normal from an equation
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are constants, and 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are not all zero, then the graph of the equation
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
is a plane that has the vector 𝐧 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 as a normal.
Example 5
 Determine whether the planes 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 0 and −6𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 10𝑧 − 4 = 0 are

parallel.
 Solution: Geometrically, the two planes are parallel if and only if their normals are parallel
vectors. A normal to 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 0 is 𝐧1 = 3, −4,5 . A normal to −6𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 10𝑧 −
4 = 0 is 𝐧2 = −6,8, −10 .
 Since 𝐧2 = −2𝐧1 (scalar multiple of 𝐧1 ), the normals are parallel, and hence so are the
planes
Example 6
 Determine whether the line given by parametric equations
𝑥 = 3 + 8𝑡, 𝑦 = 4 + 5𝑡, 𝑧 = −3 − 𝑡
is parallel to the plane 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5 = 12.
 Solution: The vector 𝐯 = 8,5, −1 is parallel to the line and
𝐧 = 1, −3,5 is normal to the plane 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5 = 12.
 For the line and plane to be parallel, the vectors v and n
must be perpendicular (orthogonal). That is 𝐯 ∙ 𝐧 = 0.
 𝐯 ∙ 𝐧 = 8,5, −1 ∙ 1, −3,5 = −12 (nonzero).
 Thus, the line and plane are not parallel.
Derivative of vector-valued functions
 Let 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑡 𝐤 where x, y, and z are differentiable functions on (a, b).

Then r has a derivative (or is differentiable) on (a, b) and
𝐫′ 𝑡 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑧 ′ 𝑡 𝐤
′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝐫 𝑡 = 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example 7
Compute the derivative of the following functions.

3
3 2 𝑡
(a) 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑡 , 3𝑡 , 6
(b) 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝐢 + 10 𝑡𝐣 + 2 cos 3𝑡 𝐤
Solution:
𝑡 2
(a) 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 3𝑡 2 , 6𝑡, 2
5
(b) 𝐫 ′ 𝑡 = −𝑒 −𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑡
𝐣 − 6 sin 3𝑡 𝐤
Indefinite Integral of a vector-valued
function
 Let 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑡 𝐤 be a vector function and let 𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑌 𝑡 𝐣 +
𝑍 𝑡 𝐤 , where X, Y, and Z are antiderivatives of x, y, and z, respectively. The indefinite
integral of r is
න 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐑 𝑡 + 𝐂
where C is an arbitrary constant vector. In component form,

න 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑡 , 𝑌 𝑡 , 𝑍(𝑡) + 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3
Example 8
 Find 𝐫(𝑡) such that 𝐫 ′ 𝑡 = 10, sin 𝑡 , 𝑡 and 𝐫(0) = 𝐣.

𝑡2
 Answer: 𝐫(𝑡) = 10𝑡, 2 − cos 𝑡 ,2
Definite integral of a vector-valued
function
 Let 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑡 𝐤 , where f, g, and h are integrable on the interval [a, b].
The definite integral of r on [a, b] is
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
න 𝐫 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐢 + න 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐣 + න 𝑧 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐤
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Example 9
𝜋 𝑡
 Evaluate ‫׬‬0 𝐢 + 3 cos 𝐣 − 4𝑡𝐤 dt
2
 Answer: 𝜋𝐢 + 6𝐣 − 2𝜋 2 𝐤
Arc length
 If 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) and 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡) are parametric equations for a curve C of a vector function r(t)
where 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , and 𝑧 ′ are continuous in R3 then the arc length s over the parameter interval a  t  b is
given by
𝑏 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2
𝑠= ‫𝑎׬‬ + + 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
In general, the arc length is given by

𝑏
𝑠 = න 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎
Note: 𝐫 ′ 𝑡 is called the tangent vector of C

Example 10
Find the arc length of the curve defined by

𝐫 𝑡 = 12𝑡, 5 cos 𝑡 , 3 − 5sin(𝑡)
from t = 0 to t = 2.
 Answer: 26
Some properties of arc length
 If s is the arc length of a curve C defined by r(t) in R3 , then for every value of t, the
tangent vector has length
′
𝑑𝐫 𝑑𝑠
𝐫 (𝑡) = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 If s is the arc length of a curve C defined by r(s) in R3, then for every value of s the tangent
vector to C has length
𝑑𝐫
𝑑𝐫 𝑑𝑡 𝐫′(𝑡) 𝐫′(𝑡) 𝐫′(𝑡)
= 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝐫 = = =1
𝑑𝑠 𝐫′(𝑡) 𝐫′(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Unit tangent vector
 Unit tangent vector is the vector with magnitude 1, formed by dividing 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) by its length. Thus, unit
tangent vector is the velocity with magnitude equals 1.
 A smooth curve is a curve with no sharp corners or cusps; when the tangent vector turns, it does so
continuously.
cusp
Non-smooth curve Smooth curve

 Let 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑡 𝐤 be a smooth parametrized curve, for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏. The unit tangent
vector for a particular value of t is
𝐫 ′ (𝑡)
𝐓(𝑡) = ′
𝐫 (𝑡)
Example 11
Find the unit tangent vectors for the following parametrized curves.
a) 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 , 4𝑡, 4ln(𝑡) for t  0
b) 𝐫(𝑡) = 10,3 cos 𝑡 , 3sin(𝑡) for 0  t  2
Solution
𝑑𝐫
Step 1: Find 𝐫 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
𝐫′ 𝑡
Step 2: Find 𝐓(𝑡) = 𝐫′ 𝑡
4
2𝑡,4, 𝑡
Answer: a) 𝐓(𝑡) = 4
2𝑡+ 𝑡
b) 𝐓(𝑡) = 0, − sin 𝑡 , cos(𝑡)

Example 12
 Find the unit tangent vector to graph of 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 𝐢 + 𝑡 3 𝐣 at the point where t = 2.
1 3
 Answer: 𝐓 2 = 𝐢 + 𝐣
10 10
T(2)
(4, 8)
Curvature
 Suppose that C is the graph of a smooth vector valued function.
𝑑𝐓
 The sharpness of the bend in C is closely related to 𝑑𝑠
, which is the rate of change of the
unit tangent vector T with respect to s.
 If C is a straight line (no bend), then the direction of T remains constant. Thus, the
curvature is zero at all points.
 If C bends slightly, then T undergoes a gradual change of direction.
 If C bends sharply, then T undergoes a rapid change of direction.
 The curvature of a circle in R2 is constant.
Curvature
 Let r(t) describe a smooth parametrized curve. If s denotes arc length and
𝐫 ′ (𝑡)
𝐓(𝑡) = 𝐫 ′ (𝑡)
is the unit tangent vector, the curvature is
𝑑𝐓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑠
(𝑠) = = 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 𝐯
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡
From the Chain Rule, we know that
𝑑𝐓(𝑡) 𝑑𝐓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑠
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐓(𝑡) 𝑑𝐓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑠
Thus, 𝑑𝑡
= .
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐓(𝑡)
𝑑𝐓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝐓(𝑡)
implying = 𝑑𝑠 = where v is the velocity.
𝑑𝑠 𝐯 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐓(𝑡)
Hence, we have (𝑠) = 𝐯 𝑑𝑡
.
Formula
 The curvature of the curve given by the vector function r is

𝐫 ′ (𝑡) × 𝐫 ′′ (𝑡)
𝜅(𝑡) =
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) 3
This formula is often more convenient to apply.
Video
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ugtUGhBSeE0
Example 13
 What is the curvature of the circle 𝐫(𝑡) = 3cos 𝑡 , 3sin(𝑡) for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 ?
y
1
 Answer: 3 3
r
x
-3 3
-3
Example 14
 What is the curvature of the 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑡, 𝑡 2 for −5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5 ?
y
25
r
x
-5 0 5
2
 Answer: 3
1+4𝑡 2 2
Example 15
 From Example 7, the curvature varies depending on the value of t.

2
 For t = −5,  = 3 = 0.001970370673
2
1+4(−5) 2
2
 For t = 0,  = 3 =2
2
1+4(0) 2
2
 For t = 2,  = 3 = 0.02853360294
1+4(2)2 2
Motion in space
 Let the position of an object moving in three-dimensional space be given by 𝐫 𝑡 =

𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧(𝑡) , for 𝑡 ≥ 0. The velocity of the object is
𝐯 𝑡 = 𝐫 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 , 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 , 𝑧 ′ (𝑡) .
The speed of the object is the scalar function
𝐯(𝑡) = 𝑥 ′ (𝑡)2 + 𝑦 ′ (𝑡)2 + 𝑧 ′ (𝑡)2
The acceleration of the object is 𝐚 𝑡 = 𝐯 ′ 𝑡 = 𝐫 ′′ (𝑡)

Note: The curve described by 𝐫 is the path or trajectory of the object.
Velocity vector v is tangent to the trajectory.
Example 16
A ball is moving on a trajectory described by the position

2 𝑡3
function 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑡, 𝑡 − 4, 4 − 8 for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4.
 Compute the velocity vector associated with the

position function.
3𝑡 2
 Answer: 1,2𝑡, 4
 Determine the speed of the ball when t = 2.

 Answer: 26
Motion in a gravitational field
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
F = ma(t)
Example 6
 A small rocket is fired from a launch pad 10 m above
the ground with an initial velocity, in m/s, of
300,400,500 . A crosswind blowing to the north
produces acceleration of the rocket of 2.5 m/s2.
(a) Find the velocity and position vectors, for 𝑡 ≥ 0.
(b) Determine the time of flight and range of the rocket
(c) Determine the maximum height of the object.
Continue
 Solution: Set up a suitable Cartesian

coordinate system.
 Positive z-axis points vertically upward (this
is a standard convention). Thus, z = 0
corresponds to ground level.
 Positive y-axis points the direction of the
trajectory.
 The origin corresponds to the launch point.
If only the gravitational force is present (now in the negative z-

axis), then the force vector 𝐅 = 0,0, −𝑚𝑔 = 0,0, −𝑚(9.8)
Continue
Given that 𝐯 0 = 300,400,500 , 𝐫(0) = 0,0,10 and 𝐚(𝑡) = 0,2.5, −9.8 .

(a) 𝐯 𝑡 = ‫ = 𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝐚 ׬‬0,2.5𝑡, −9.8𝑡 + 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3
𝐯 0 = 300,400,500 = 0,2.5 0 , −9.8(0) + 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 𝐶1 = 300, 𝐶2 = 400, 𝐶3 = 500
So, the velocity vector 𝐯 𝑡 = 300,2.5𝑡 + 400,500 − 9.8𝑡
𝐫(𝑡) = ‫ 𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝐯 ׬‬---class activity
So, 𝐫(𝑡) = 300𝑡, 1.25𝑡 2 + 400𝑡, 500𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 2 + 10
(b) The rocket hits the ground when z-component of r(t) is zero.
500𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 2 + 10 = 0 → 𝑡 = −0.02 or 102.06.
Reject t = -0.02 which is impossible.
Continue
 Thus, t = 102.06 s. At this time, the rocket is at the point

300 102.06 , 1.25 102.062 + 400 102.06 , 0 = 30618,53844.3,0
The range is approximately 306182 + 53844.32 = 61940.86 m
(c) The maximum height of the rocket occurs when z-component of v(t) is zero.
Answer: Maximum height is 12765 m.
Example 17 – class activity
A soccer ball is kicked from the point 0,0,0 with initial velocity 0,80,80 feet/seconds. The
spin on the ball produces an acceleration of 1.2,0, −32 ft/s2.
 (a) Find the velocity and position vectors for t  0.
 (b) Make a sketch of the trajectory for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 6.
 (c) Determine the time of flight and range of the soccer ball.
 (d) Determine the maximum height of the ball.
Vector valued function &
vector field
Objectives

 calculate the partial derivatives of multi-variable functions
 calculate directional derivatives of multi-variable functions
 calculate the gradient vector of functions of multi-variables
 identify vector field
Partial derivatives
If 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) then the partial derivatives 𝑓𝑥 and 𝑓𝑦 are defined as

𝜕𝑓 𝑓 𝑥0 +ℎ,𝑦0 −𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
𝑓𝑥 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 = 𝜕𝑥ቃ = lim
(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) ℎ→0 ℎ
𝜕𝑓 𝑓 𝑥0 ,𝑦0 +ℎ −𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )

𝑓𝑦 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 = ቃ = lim
𝜕𝑦 (𝑥 ,𝑦 ) ℎ→0 ℎ
0 0
Example 1
 Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 sin 𝑥 2 𝑦 . Find 𝑓𝑥 and 𝑓𝑦 and evaluate each at the point 𝑒 2 , 2 .

 Answer:
sin(𝑥 2 𝑦)
 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 cos 𝑥 2𝑦 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥
sin(2𝑒 4 ) sin(2𝑒 4 )
𝑓𝑥 𝑒2, 2 = ln 𝑒2 cos 2𝑒 4 4𝑒 2 + = 2 cos 2𝑒 4 4𝑒 2 + 𝑒2
𝑒2
sin(2𝑒 4 )
= 8𝑒 2 cos 2𝑒 4 + 𝑒2
𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 cos 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑥 2
𝑓𝑦 𝑒 2 , 2 = ln 𝑒 2 cos 2𝑒 4 𝑒 4 = 2𝑒 4 cos 2𝑒 4
Example 2
 Find the slopes in the x-direction and in the y-

direction of the surface
𝑥2 25
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = − − 𝑦 2 +
2 8
at the point 1Τ2,1,2 .
Answer: 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 = −𝑥, 𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 = −2𝑦
1
In the x-direction, the slope is 𝑓𝑥 1Τ2 , 1 = − 2 .
In the y-direction, the slope is 𝑓𝑦 1Τ2 , 1 = −2

Directional derivatives for functions of
two variables
 The directional derivative of f at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) in the direction of a unit vector 𝐮 = 𝑎, 𝑏 is

𝑓 𝑥0 +ℎ𝑎,𝑦0 +ℎ𝑏 −𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
𝐷𝐮 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
 Remark: The partial derivatives of f with respect to x and y are special cases of the directional
derivative.
Directional derivatives for functions of
two variables
 If f is a differentiable function of x and y, then
f has a directional derivative in the direction of
any unit vector 𝐮 = 𝑎, 𝑏 and
𝑦
𝐷𝐮 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎 + 𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑏 Directional derivative 𝐮
1
If the unit vector 𝐮 makes an angle  with the represents the rate of change
of a function in the direction 𝜃
positive x-axis, then we can write
of the unit vector u.
𝐮 = cos 𝜃 , sin(𝜃) and the above Geometrically, the directional
derivative is the slope of a 𝑥
formula becomes
surface in the direction of u
𝐷𝐮 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 cos(𝜃) + 𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 sin(𝜃) at a point on the surface
Example 3
Find the directional derivative 𝐷𝐮 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 if

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2
𝜋
and u is the unit vector given by angle 𝜃 = 6 . What is 𝐷𝐮 𝑓 1,2 ?
 Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
 𝐷𝐮 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 cos + 𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 sin
6 6
3 1
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 + (−3𝑥 + 8𝑦)
2 2
3 1 13−3 3
𝐷𝐮 𝑓 1,2 = 3(1)2 −3(2) 2
+ −3 1 + 8 2 2
= 2
.
The gradient vector for functions of
two variables
 If f is a function of two variables x and y, then the gradient of f is the vector function grad f or f
defined by
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝛻𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝐣
Alternative form of the directional derivative

 If f is a differentiable function of x and y, then the directional derivative of f in the direction of the unit
vector u is 𝐷𝑢 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = ∇𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ∙ 𝐮
Example 4
 Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥𝑦 . Find 𝛻𝑓(0,1)

 Solution:
 𝛻𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑒 𝑥𝑦 , 𝑥𝑒 𝑥𝑦
 𝛻𝑓 0,1 = cos 0 + (1)𝑒 0 , 0 = 2,0
Directional derivatives and the
gradient vector for functions of three
variables
 For functions of three variables, the directional derivatives and the gradient vector are defined in a similar
manner.
 The directional derivative of f at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) in the direction of a unit vector 𝐮 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 is
𝑓 𝑥0 +ℎ𝑎,𝑦0 +ℎ𝑏,𝑧0 +ℎ𝑐 −𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ,𝑧0 )
𝐷𝐮 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

 The gradient vector, denoted by 𝛻𝑓 or grad f, is
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝛻𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑓𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 , 𝑓𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 , 𝑓𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝜕𝑥 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝐣 + 𝜕𝑧 𝐤
Example 5
 Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 . Find the gradient vector of 𝑓.

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
 Answer : 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
Properties of the gradient
 Let f be differentiable at the point (x, y).

 If ∇𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝟎 then 𝐷𝐮 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0 for all u
 The direction of maximum increase of f is given by ∇𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦). The maximum value of 𝐷𝐮 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 (i.e. the
steepest possible slope) is ∇𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
Vector field
A vector field is an assignment of a
vector to each point in a subset of space. A
vector field in the plane (for instance), can
be visualised as: a collection of arrows
with a given magnitude and direction, each
attached to a point in the plane. Vector
fields are often used to model, for example,
the speed and direction of a moving fluid
throughout space, or the strength and
direction of some force, such as the
magnetic or gravitational force, as it
changes from point to point.
Vector
Vector field
 Let D be a set in R2 (a plane region). A vector field on R2 is a function F that assigns to each point
(x, y) in D a two-dimensional vector F(x, y).
 Let E be a subset of R3. A vector field on R3 is a function F that assigns to each point (x, y, z) in E a
three-dimensional vector F(x, y, z).
Example 6
 A vector field on R2 is defined by 𝐅 𝑥, 𝑦 = −𝑦𝐢 + 𝑥𝐣 . Sketch F(x, y) for the following

set of points: {(1, 0), (2, 2), (3, 0), (0, 1), (−2, 2)}.
y
 Solution: ? ?
(x, y) F(x, y)
(1, 0) 0,1 F = 0,1
(2, 2) ? x
1
(3, 0) ?
(0, 1) ?
(−2, 2) ?
Recall gradient vector
𝑥2 𝑦2
 Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 9
+ 4 . The gradient of f is
2 2
𝛻𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝐢 + 𝑦𝐣
9 4
 At point (0, 2), the gradient of f is
𝛻𝑓 = 0𝐢 + 𝐣 = 𝐣 = 0,1,0
The maximum rate of change of f at (0, 2) is
02 + 1 2 + 02 = 1
 A gradient vector is really a vector field because
it assigns to each point a vector 𝛻𝑓.
 Thus, the gradient vector is often called the
gradient vector field.
Conservative vector field
 A vector field F is called a conservative vector field if there exist a function f such that
𝐅 = 𝛻𝑓. In this situation, f is called a potential function for F.
Gravitational field
 The gravitational force acting on the object 𝐱 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 :

𝑚𝑀𝐺
𝐅 𝐱 =− 𝐱
𝐱3
where M = mass of the Earth
m = mass of the object x
G = gravitational constant.
is a conservative vector field
Gravitational field
It is because, if we define
𝑚𝑀𝐺
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = , then
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝛻𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝜕𝑥 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝐣 + 𝜕𝑧 𝐤
−𝑚𝑀𝐺𝑥 −𝑚𝑀𝐺𝑦 −𝑚𝑀𝐺𝑧
= (𝑥 2+𝑦 2+𝑧 2 )3/2 𝐢 + (𝑥 2+𝑦2+𝑧 2 )3/2 𝐣 + (𝑥 2+𝑦2+𝑧 2 )3/2 𝐤
= 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Note: Gravitational force is also called gravitational field
TYPES OF CURVES
 Suppose a curve C (in R2 or R3) is described parametrically by 𝐫(𝑡), where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏. Then C is

a simple curve if 𝐫(𝑡1 ) ≠ 𝐫(𝑡2 ) for all 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 , with 𝑎 < 𝑡1 < 𝑡2 < 𝑏; that is, C never intersects
itself between its endpoints. The curve C is closed if 𝐫 𝑎 = 𝐫(𝑏); that is the initial and terminal
points of C are the same.
TYPES OF REGIONS
 An open region R in R2 (or D in R3) is connected if it is possible to connect any two points of R
by a continuous curve lying in R. An open region R is simply connected if every closed simple
curve in R encloses only points that are in R; that is a simply connected region contains no hole
and can’t consist of two separate pieces.
(a) SC,C (b) SC, C (c) Not SC, Not C (d) C, Not SC
C = Connected
SC = Simply Connected
TEST FOR CONSERVATIVE
VECTOR FIELD
 Let 𝐅 = 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑀 be a vector field defined on a connected and simply connected region D of R3, where
TEST FOR P, Q, and M have continuous first partial derivatives on D. Then F is a conservative vector field on D if
and only if
CONSERVATI = ,
𝜕𝑃
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑄
𝜕𝑥
=
𝜕𝑃
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑀
𝜕𝑥
and
𝜕𝑄
𝜕𝑧
=
𝜕𝑀
𝜕𝑦
.
VE VECTOR 2
For vector fields in R , we have the single condition
𝜕𝑃
=
𝜕𝑄
.
FIELD
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
P Q M
x 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑀
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
y 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑀
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
z 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Example 7
 Determine whether or not the vector field

𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝐢 + 𝑥 − 2 𝐣
is conservative.
Answer: Not conservative
Example 8

𝐅 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝐢 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 𝐣
is conservative.
Answer: Conservative
Example 9

𝐅 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 2 𝐢 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑧 𝐣 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑧 𝐤
is conservative.
 Answer: Conservative
FINDING POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
 Example 10
 If 𝐅 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝐢 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 𝐣 , find a function f such that 𝐅 = 𝛻𝑓.
 Solution:
 Since F is conservative, we have
 𝐅 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝛻𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
 3 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝐢 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 𝐣 = 𝜕𝑥 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝐣
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
 → 𝜕𝑥 = 3 + 2𝑥𝑦, 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑓
 Step 1: Integrate 𝜕𝑥 with respect to x
FINDING POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
 We obtain: 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑔(𝑦)
 Step 2: Differentiate f(x,y) that was obtained in Step 1, with respect to y
𝜕𝑓
 We obtain: 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑔′ (𝑦)
 Step 3: Compute 𝑔(𝑦)
𝜕𝑓

𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥 2 + 𝑔′ 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 → 𝑔′ 𝑦 = −3𝑦 2
 Integrating 𝑔′ 𝑦 with respect to y, we have
 𝑔 𝑦 = −𝑦 3 + 𝐾 where K is a constant.
 Step 4: Write the desired potential function
 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 𝐾
LINE INTEGRAL AND
WORK
Learning outcomes

 evaluate the line integrals with respect to arc length
 evaluate the line integrals with respect to x, y and z
 relate the line integral and area under the graph of a function
 determine the work done by a variable force
 determine the work done by a vector field
Introduction
 The base of a circular fence is given by 𝑥 = cos(𝑡), 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋.

The height of the fence at position (x, y) is given by 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 4. Sketch the fence on R3.
What is the area of one side of the fence?
- we can use the line integral to calculate this area
Line integrals with respect to arc
length
• Let say you are given a smooth curve C on R3

and a function f defined on C.
• Subdivide C into small sections using distinct
points P = P0, P1, P2, …, Pn = Q.
• Write ∆𝑠𝑘 = arc length between 𝑃𝑘−1 and 𝑃𝑘 .
* * * *
• Choose points Pk ( xk , yk , zk ) between 𝑃𝑘−1 and
𝑃𝑘 .
n
• Then, calculate  f ( x , y , z )s
k =1
*
k
*
k
*
k k
Line integral of f n
with respect to s  f ( x, y, z )ds = lim  f ( xk* , yk* , z k* )sk
n →
along C C k =1
Formula
 In R2, let 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑡) be the parametric equations defining the smooth curve C
traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b. Then,
𝑏 2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝑓(𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 ) + 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
 Similarly, in R3, let 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) and 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡) be the parametric equations defining
the smooth curve C traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b. Then,
𝑏 2 2 2
න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝑓(𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)) + + 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
Other notations
 Integrals along C in R2:

𝐫 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡 𝐢+𝑦 𝑡 𝐣
𝑏 2 2 𝑏
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝑓(𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 ) + 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑓 𝐫 𝑡 |𝐫 ′ 𝑡 |𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎

𝐫 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡 𝐢+𝑦 𝑡 𝐣+𝑧 𝑡 𝐤
𝑏 2 2 2 𝑏
න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝑓(𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧(𝑡)) + + 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑓 𝐫 𝑡 |𝐫 ′ 𝑡 |𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎
Line integrals for piecewise-smooth
curve
 Suppose now that C is a piecewise-smooth curve; that

is C is a union of a finite number of smooth curves
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … , 𝐶𝑛 where the initial point of 𝐶𝑖+1 is the
terminal point of 𝐶𝑖 . Then we define the integral of f
along C as the sum of the integrals of f along each of
the smooth pieces of C:
න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑠
𝐶
= න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑠 + න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑠 + ⋯ + න 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑠
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛
Interpretation of line integrals in 3D
 We can interpret the line integral of a positive

function as an area.
 If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0, then ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐶׬‬, 𝑦 𝑑𝑠 represents

the area of one side of the “fence” or curtain,
whose base is C and whose height above the
point (x, y) is f(x,y).
Fence problem
 The base of a circular fence is given by

𝑥 = cos(𝑡), 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋. The
height of the fence at position (x, y) is given
by 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 4. Determine the area of one side
of the fence.
Fence problem
 Solution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑡 = − sin 𝑡 . 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑡 = cos(𝑡).
2𝜋
 ‫ 𝐶׬‬4𝑑𝑠 = ‫׬‬0 4 (− sin 𝑡 )2 +(cos 𝑡 )2 𝑑𝑡 = 4 2𝜋 − 4 0 = 8𝜋.
Example 1
 Evaluate ‫ 𝐶׬‬2 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑠, where C is the upper half of the circle 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜋.
2
 Answer: 2𝜋 + 3
Example 2
 Evaluate ‫ 𝐶׬‬2𝑥 𝑑𝑠 , where C consists of the arc 𝐶1 of the parabola 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 from (0,
0) to (1, 1) followed by the vertical line segment 𝐶2 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 𝑡 from (1, 1) to (1, 2).
5 5−1
 Answer: + 2
6
Example 3
 Evaluate the line integral ‫𝑠𝑑 𝑧𝑦 𝑒𝑥 𝐶׬‬, where C is the line segment from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 2, 3).
14(𝑒 6 −1)
 Answer: 12
Line integrals of f along C with respect
to x, y and z
n
 f ( x, y ) dx = lim  f ( xk* , yk* )xk

n →
C k =1
n
 f ( x, y ) dy = lim  f ( xk* , yk* )yk

n →
C k =1

n
 f ( x, y, z ) dx = lim  f ( xk* , yk* , z k* )xk

n →
C k =1
n
 f ( x, y, z ) dy = lim  f ( xk* , yk* , z k* )yk

n →
C k =1
n
 f ( x, y, z ) dz = lim  f ( xk* , yk* , z k* )z k

n →
C k =1
Formula
 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑡 → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑏
 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐶׬‬, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑡 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬, 𝑦 𝑡 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝑏
 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐶׬‬, 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ‫ 𝑡 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬, 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝑏
 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐶׬‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑡 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬, 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧(𝑡) 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡,
𝑏
 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐶׬‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑦 = ‫ 𝑡 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬, 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧 𝑡 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡,
𝑏
 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐶׬‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ‫ 𝑡 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬, 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧 𝑡 𝑧 ′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡,
Example 4
 Evaluate ‫ 𝑦 𝐶׬‬2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 where C is the line segment from (−5, −3) to (0,2).
5
 Answer: − 6
Example 5
 Evaluate ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝐶׬‬+ 𝑧𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑑𝑧 where C consists of the line segment 𝐶1 from (2, 0, 0) to
(3, 4, 5) followed by the vertical line segment 𝐶2 from (3, 4, 5) to (3, 4, 0).
 Answer: ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝐶׬‬+ 𝑧𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑑𝑧 = 24.5 , ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝐶׬‬+ 𝑧𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑑𝑧 = −15.
1 2
 Adding the values of these integrals, we obtain 24.5 – 15 = 9.5

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AqcbyjaSQ10
Work done by a variable force
 Definition: (work done by a variable force)

 Suppose that a force F, where F is continuous
on [a, b], acts on a body moving it along the x-
axis. Then the work done by the force in
moving the body from x = a to x = b is
𝑏
𝑊 = lim σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝐹 𝑐𝑘 ∆𝑥 = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝐹 𝑎׬‬
𝑛→∞
0 a b x
Example 6
1
a) Find the work done when a variable force 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 N in the positive x-direction moves and object
from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 6 ft.
6 1 5
Answer: Work = ‫׬‬1 𝑑𝑥 = 6 J
𝑥2
b) An object moves due to the variable force 𝐅 = 3 + 2𝑥 𝐢 𝑁. Determine the work done when the
object moves from x = 0 to x = 5.
5
Answer: Work =‫׬‬0 3 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 40 J
Work done by a force field
 Definition (work done by a force field)

 Let F be continuous force field defined in a region that contains a smooth curve C
described by a vector function r(t), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑏. Then the work done in moving an object
along C in positive direction is
𝑏
Work = ‫ 𝐫 ∙ ) 𝑡 𝐫(𝐅 𝑎׬ = 𝑠𝑑 𝐓 ∙ 𝐅 𝐶׬ = 𝐫𝑑 ∙ 𝐅 𝐶׬‬′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Note: T is the unit tangent vector.

Example 7
 Step 3: Calculate 𝐅(𝐫 𝑡 ) ∙ 𝐫 ′ (𝑡)

 (b) Calculate the work done by the force 𝐅 = (𝑥 −
2𝑦)𝐢 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝐣 in moving an object from point (0, 2) to 𝐅 𝐫 𝑡 ∙ 𝐫 ′ 𝑡 = 17𝑡 − 4 + 32𝑡 3
point (2, 18) along the path 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 4𝑡 2 + 2.  Step 4: Calculate Work =
2
 Solution: ‫׬‬0 17𝑡 − 4 + 32𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
 Step 1: Find 𝑡 Answer: 154 J
t from 0 to 2
 Step 2: Find 𝐅(𝐫 𝑡 ) and 𝐫 ′ 𝑡
𝐅 𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑡 − 8𝑡 2 − 4, 𝑡 + 4𝑡 2 + 2
𝐫 ′ 𝑡 = 1,8𝑡
The Fundamental Theorem of Line
Integrals
 Let C be a smooth curve given by the vector function 𝐫(𝑡), a ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏. Let f be a

differentiable function of two or three variables whose gradient vector 𝛻𝑓 is continuous
on C. Then ‫𝑏 𝐫 𝑓 = 𝐫𝑑 ∙ 𝑓𝛻 𝐶׬‬ − 𝑓(𝐫 𝑎 )
 Note: This theorem applies only for conservative vector fields
The Fundamental Theorem of Line
Integrals
 Let a curve C be defined by the parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 + 1, 𝑦 = 𝑡 3 + 𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1.

 Values of a function f is given in the table:
y 0 1 2
x
0 1 6 4
1 3 5 7
2 8 2 9
 Determine ‫𝐫𝑑 ∙ 𝑓𝛻 𝐶׬‬
 Solution: Evaluate x and y at the endpoints (that is when t = 0 and t = 1). Then, calculate
𝑓 𝐫 1 − 𝑓(𝐫 0 ). Answer: 6
Work done by a conservative force)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iba4gUeQN0w
 The line integral of a conservative vector field over any smooth curve C where C is
defined by the vector function 𝐫(𝑡), 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏, is ‫ 𝑏 𝐫 𝑓 = 𝐫𝑑 ∙ 𝑓𝛻 𝐶׬‬− 𝑓(𝐫 𝑎 ) .
The line integral is defined to be the work done by the conservative vector field
 The above line integral depends only on the endpoints of C. The integral is independent of
the path that C takes going from its starting point to its ending point.
 Note: conservative vector field is also called a path-independent vector field
Work done by the gravitational field
𝑚𝑀𝐺 𝑚𝑀𝐺
 Gravitational field is a conservative vector field given by 𝐅 𝐱 = − 𝐱 and 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 =
𝐱3 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
 Here, M = mass of the Earth, m = mass of the object x, G = gravitational constant.

 Find the work done by the gravitational field in moving a particle with mass m from the point (3, 4, 12)
to the point (2, 2, 0) along a piecewise-smooth curve C.
1 1
 Solution: Work = ‫ 𝑓 = 𝐫𝑑 ∙ 𝑓𝛻 𝐶׬‬2,2,0 − 𝑓 3,4,12 = 𝑚𝑀𝐺 − 13 .
2 2
Example 7
Suppose we have a conservative vector field 𝐅 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 2 , 𝑥 2 + 2𝑧, 2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑧 .

a) Find a potential function for F.
b) Find the work done by F on a particle that moves from (1, 2, 2) to (5, 6, 7)
 Answer: a) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧 2 + 2𝑦𝑧
b) ??
SURFACE
INTEGRAL
Learning outcomes
 recognize parametric representation of a surface in 3D
 determine the partial derivatives of a vector-valued
function of two variables
 calculate the surface area of a given parametric
surface in 3D
 calculate the surface integral on a given parametric
surface in 3D
CURVES AND SURFACES IN 3D
Curve
Surface
PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF
SURFACES
 We have seen that curves in 3D can be represented parametrically
by three equations involving one parameter :
𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡)
 Surfaces in 3D can be represented parametrically by three equations

involving two parameters :
𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑣 , 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑢, 𝑣 , 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑢, 𝑣)
EXAMPLES
Surface Parametric equations Cartesian equations
Paraboloid 𝑥 = 𝑢, 𝑦 = 𝑣, 𝑧 = 4 − 𝑢2 − 𝑣 2 𝑧 = 4 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
Cylinder 𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑣 , 𝑦 = 𝑢, 𝑥2 + 𝑧2 = 9
𝑧 = 3 sin 𝑣
EXAMPLES
Surface Parametric equations Cartesian equations
Cone 𝑥 = 𝑢, 𝑦 = 𝑣, 𝑧 = 2 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 𝑧 = 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
plane 𝑥 = 𝑢, 𝑦 = 𝑣, 𝑧 = 4 − 𝑢 − 𝑣 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =4
Example 1
 A paraboloid is represented by the parametric equations
𝑥 = 𝑢, 𝑦 = 𝑣, 𝑧 = 4 − 𝑢2 − 𝑣 2 , where 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 1.
Give four examples of points of the paraboloid. Draw the points on R3.
Solution:
u v Point (x,y,z)
0 0 (0, 0, 4)
0 1 (0, 1, 3)
1 0 (1, 0, 3)
1 1 (1, 1, 2)
VECTOR VALUED FUNCTIONS OF
TWO VARIABLES
 Recall that the parametric equations
𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡)
can be expressed in vector form as
𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑡 𝐤
 Similarly, the parametric equations
𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑣 , 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑢, 𝑣 , 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑢, 𝑣)
can be expressed in vector form as
𝐫(𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐤
VECTOR VALUED FUNCTIONS OF
TWO VARIABLES
 Recall: Graph of vector valued  Graph of vector valued
function of one variable function of two variables:
z
(x(u,v),y(u,v), z(u,v))
r(u,v)
x
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES OF VECTOR-
VALUED FUNCTIONS OF TWO
VARIABLES
 Partial derivatives of vector-valued functions of two variables are
obtained by taking partial derivatives of the components.
 If 𝐫 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐤, then
𝜕𝐫 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐫𝑢 = 𝜕𝑢 = 𝜕𝑢 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑢 𝐣 + 𝜕𝑢 𝐤
𝜕𝐫 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐫𝑣 = 𝜕𝑣 = 𝜕𝑣 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑣 𝐣 + 𝜕𝑣 𝐤
 These derivatives can be written as the limits
𝜕𝐫 𝐫 𝑢+ℎ,𝑣 −𝐫(𝑢,𝑣)
𝐫𝑢 = 𝜕𝑢 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝜕𝐫 𝐫 𝑢,𝑣+ℎ −𝐫(𝑢,𝑣)
𝐫𝑣 = 𝜕𝑣 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Example 4
 Find the partial derivatives of the vector-valued function
𝐫 = 𝑢𝐢 + 𝑣𝐣 + 4 − 𝑢2 − 𝑣 2 𝐤
𝜕𝐫
 Answer: 𝐫𝑢 = 𝜕𝑢 = 𝐢 − 2𝑢𝐤
𝜕𝐫
𝐫𝑣 = 𝜕𝑣 = 𝐣 − 2𝑣𝐤
PROCESS OF APPROXIMATING
SURFACE AREA
D S
Let 𝐷 = 𝑢, 𝑣 |𝑎 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 𝑏, 𝑐 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 𝑑 . Divide D into subrectangles

𝐷𝑖𝑗 . Let us choose 𝑢𝑖∗ , 𝑣𝑗∗ to be the lower left corner of 𝐷𝑖𝑗 .
SURFACE AREA
 Now consider surface S. The part 𝑆𝑖𝑗 that corresponds to 𝐷𝑖𝑗 is
called patch and has the point 𝑃𝑖𝑗 = 𝐫(𝑢𝑖∗ , 𝑣𝑗∗ ) as one of its corners.
S
𝐫(𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 + ∆𝑣𝑗 )
𝑃𝑖𝑗 = 𝐫(𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 )
𝐫(𝑢𝑖 + ∆𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 )
SURFACE AREA
 Construct vectors m and n where
m 1) m: from 𝐫(𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 ) to 𝐫(𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 + ∆𝑣𝑗 ), and
2) n: from 𝐫(𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 ) to 𝐫 𝑢𝑖 + ∆𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 .
n
Recall:  Here, 𝐦 = 𝐫 𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 + ∆𝑣𝑗 − 𝐫(𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 ),
and 𝐧 = 𝐫 𝑢𝑖 + ∆𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 − 𝐫(𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 ).
 The area of 𝑆𝑖𝑗 (denoted by ∆𝐴) can be
approximated by the area of the
parallelogram determined by vectors m
and n. Thus, ∆𝐴 ≈ 𝐦 × 𝐧 .
1
Area, 𝐴 = 2 × ( 𝐮 + 𝐮 ) × 𝐯 sin(𝜃)
= 𝐮 𝐯 sin(𝜃) = 𝐮 × 𝐯
SURFACE AREA
 Notice that m and n can be written as:
𝐫 𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 + ∆𝑣𝑗 − 𝐫(𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 ),
𝐦= ∙ ∆𝑣𝑗
∆𝑣𝑗
𝐫 𝑢𝑖 + ∆𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 − 𝐫(𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑗 )
𝐧= ∙ ∆𝑢𝑖
∆𝑢𝑖
 For better approximation, ∆𝑢 and ∆𝑣 should be small. As ∆𝑢 → 0, ∆𝑣 → 0, we
write
𝐫 𝑢,𝑣+∆𝑣 −𝐫(𝑢,𝑣), 𝜕𝐫
𝐦 = lim ∙ ∆𝑣 = ∆𝑣
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝐫 𝑢+∆𝑢,𝑣 −𝐫(𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕𝐫
𝐧 = lim ∙ ∆𝑢 = 𝜕𝑢 ∆𝑢
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢
𝜕𝐫 𝜕𝐫 𝜕𝐫 𝜕𝐫
Thus, ∆𝐴 = 𝐦 × 𝐧 = ∆𝑣 × 𝜕𝑢 ∆𝑢 = × 𝜕𝑢 ∆𝑣∆𝑢.
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝐫 𝜕𝐫
Lastly, the area of surface S is A(S) = lim σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝜕𝑣
× 𝜕𝑢 ∆𝐴𝑘
𝑛→∞
SURFACE AREA
 Definition: If a smooth parametric surface S is given by the
equation 𝐫 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐤, for all (𝑢, 𝑣)𝜖𝐷
then the surface area of S is
A(S) = ‫𝐴𝑑 𝑣𝐫 × 𝑢𝐫 𝐷׭‬
where
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐫𝑢 = 𝜕𝑢 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑢 𝐣 + 𝜕𝑢 𝐤,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐫𝑣 = 𝜕𝑣 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑣 𝐣 + 𝜕𝑣 𝐤.
Example 4
 The parametric representation of a sphere of radius 4 is given by
𝑥 = 4 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 4 sin 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , 𝑧 = 4cos(𝜑) , where
𝐷 = 𝜑, 𝜃 |0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 .
Find the surface area of the sphere.
Solution: Compute 𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃
2𝜋 𝜋
Area =‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 16 sin 𝜑 𝑑𝜑𝑑𝜃 = 64𝜋
Example 5
 The parametric representation of a cone is given by
𝑥 = 𝑢, 𝑦 = 𝑣, 𝑧 = 2 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 , where
𝐷 = 𝑢, 𝑣 | − 2 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 2, −2 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 2 .
Find the surface area of the cone.
SURFACE INTEGRALS
 Subdivide the surface S into
patches 𝑆𝑖𝑗 .
 We evaluate f at a point 𝑃𝑖𝑗∗
in each patch then multiply by
the area ∆𝑆𝑖𝑗
 We obtain the Riemann sum
σ𝑚 σ 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑗=1 𝑓(P *
ij )∆𝑆𝑖𝑗
SURFACE INTEGRAL
 The surface integral of f over the surface S is defined as
 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝑆׭‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = lim σ𝑚 𝑛 ∗
𝑖=1 σ𝑗=1 𝑓(𝑃𝑖𝑗 )∆𝑆𝑖𝑗
𝑚,𝑛→∞
= ‫𝑢 𝐫(𝑓 𝐷׭‬, 𝑣 ) 𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣 𝑑𝐴
Note: If 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 1, then 𝑓 𝐫 𝑢, 𝑣 = 1.
‫ 𝑆׭‬1𝑑𝑆 = ‫ 𝑆 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑣𝐫 × 𝑢𝐫 𝐷׭‬.
Example 6
 Compute the surface integral ‫ 𝑥 𝑆׭‬2 𝑑𝑆 where S is the surface of a
sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1. The parametric representation of the
sphere is given by
𝑥 = sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = sin 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , 𝑧 = cos(𝜑) , where
𝐷 = 𝜑, 𝜃 |0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 .
4𝜋
Answer = 3
Example 7
 Evaluate ‫ 𝑥( 𝑆׭‬+ 𝑦 + 𝑧) 𝑑𝑆 where S is the surface of the
parallelogram with parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑢 + 𝑣, 𝑦 = 𝑢 − 𝑣, 𝑧 =
1 + 2𝑢 + 𝑣, 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 2, 0 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 1.
 Answer: 11 14

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VECTOR CALCULUS

The curves we define when we fix one of

The slopes of the traces to 𝑧 = 10 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 at the point 1,2 are −4 and −8

◦ Example 3 Antiderivative=indefinite integral

Determine the following indefinite integral Notation: ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 ׬‬

Suppose f is defined on a closed interval [a, b],

◦ Example 6 Shorthand notation

 ‫ ׬‬sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶  1 + cot 2 𝜃 = csc 2 (𝜃)

 Hyperbolic cosine  Hyperbolic sine

 Example 1  Step 2: Use the formula ‫ 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑢 ׬‬− ‫𝑢𝑑𝑣 ׬‬

 Example 2  ‫ 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑣𝑑𝑢 ׬‬− ‫𝑢𝑑𝑣 ׬‬

 Example 3  Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

 Rational function  Partial fraction decomposition

 Difficult to integrate  Easy to integrate

 Step 2: Form the partial fraction decomposition by writing

 Step 3: Solve for A and B.

 Step 3: Solve for A, B and C (Student activity)

where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑚 are constants to be determined.

 Procedure: Suppose an irreducible factor (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) appears in the denominator of a

 Example 4 7𝑥 2 −13𝑥+13 5 2𝑥+1

Students should be able to

Sketch the region of the solid S enclosed between the surface

and suppose the surface 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 6 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦 ≥ 0.

Sketch the region of the solid S enclosed between the surface

• Now select a sample point 𝑥𝑖𝑗 ∗ ∗

The double integral of 𝑓 over the rectangle 𝑅 is Double

means we first integrate w.r.t 𝑦 and then w.r.t 𝑥. Similarly we get

where R is subdivided into two regions R1 and R2.

• bounded on the left by 𝑥 = 𝑎 and

• bounded on the left by 𝑥 = ℎ1 𝑥 and

over the following shaded region.

Then, sketch the lines

= ඵ 𝑧 𝑑𝐴 = ඵ 1 𝑑𝐴 = Area of 𝑅 Height of the solid = Area of 𝑅

 Used when the integrands are in the form of

A simple polar region in a polar coordinate system is a

The above region 𝑅 is enclosed by:

Note that 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃.

Equation Graph in 2D Graph in 3D

Equation Graph in 2D Graph in 3D

Use a double integral to find the volume of each solid

Students should be able to

• A single integral of 𝑓 𝑥 -curve

• A double integral of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 -surface

• A triple integral of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 G is a rectangular box

▪ is defined over a closed solid 𝐺 in an 𝑥𝑦𝑧 −coordinate system.

a) Sketch the solid G.

b) Find the Riemann sum of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 over G

Solution: Sample points = (1,0,1), (1,2,1), (1,0,2),

• Divide the solid 𝐺 into sub-boxes.

𝐺𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑖 × 𝑦𝑗−1 , 𝑦𝑗 × 𝑧𝑘−1 , 𝑧𝑘

and has volume ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧.

• Then we form the triple Riemann sum

Definition 1: The triple integral of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) over the region G is defined by

if this limit exists.

• Let 𝐺 be the rectangular box defined by

If 𝑓 is continuous over 𝐺 then

• ‫𝑥 𝑓𝑐 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 c a constant

• ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ‫𝑥 𝑔 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉

• ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 − 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 − ‫𝑥 𝑔 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉

• If the region G is subdivided into two subregions G1 and G2 then

• ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 + ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝐺׮‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉

Evaluate the triple integral

over the rectangular boxes 𝐺 = −1,2 × 0,3 × 0,2 .