The Operational Amplifier

Assessment Problems

AP 5.1 [a] Derive the expression for the output voltage using circuit analysis:
vo = (−Rf /Ri )vs = (−80/16)vs , so vo = −5vs ;

vs ( V) 0.4 2.0 3.5 −0.6 −1.6 −2.4;

vo ( V) −2.0 −10.0 −15.0 3.0 8.0 10.0;
Two of the values, 3.5 V and −2.4 V, cause the op amp to saturate.
[b] Use the negative power supply value to determine the largest input
voltage:
−15 = −5vs , vs = 3 V.
Use the positive power supply value to determine the smallest input
voltage:
10 = −5vs , vs = −2 V;

Therefore − 2 V ≤ vs ≤ 3 V.

AP 5.2 From Assessment Problem 5.1

vo = (−Rf /Ri )vs = (−Rx /16,000)vs = (−Rx /16,000)(−0.640)

= 0.64Rx /16,000 = 4 × 10−5 Rx .

Use the negative power supply value to determine one limit on the value of Rx :

4 × 10−5 Rx = −15 so Rx = −15/4 × 10−5 = −375 kΩ.

5–1
 5–2 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

Since we cannot have negative resistor values, the lower limit for Rx is 0. Now
use the positive power supply value to determine the upper limit on the value
of Rx :

4 × 10−5 Rx = 10 so Rx = 10/4 × 10−5 = 250 kΩ.

Therefore,

0 ≤ Rx ≤ 250 kΩ.

AP 5.3 [a] This is an inverting summing amplifier so

vo = (−Rf /Ra )va + (−Rf /Rb )vb = −(250/5)va − (250/25)vb = −50va − 10vb
Substituting the values for va and vb :
vo = −50(0.1) − 10(0.25) = −5 − 2.5 = −7.5 V.
[b] Substitute the value for vb into the equation for vo from part (a) and use
the negative power supply value:
vo = −50va − 10(0.25) = −50va − 2.5 = −10 V.

Therefore 50va = 7.5, so va = 0.15 V.

[c] Substitute the value for va into the equation for vo from part (a) and use
the negative power supply value:
vo = −50(0.10) − 10vb = −5 − 10vb = −10 V;

Therefore 10vb = 5, so vb = 0.5 V.

[d] The effect of reversing polarity is to change the sign on the vb term in
each equation from negative to positive.
Repeat part (a):
vo = −50va + 10vb = −5 + 2.5 = −2.5 V.
Repeat part (b):
vo = −50va + 2.5 = −10 V; 50va = 12.5, va = 0.25 V.
Repeat part (c), using the value of the positive power supply:
vo = −5 + 10vb = 15 V; 10vb = 20; vb = 2.0 V.

AP 5.4 [a] Write a node voltage equation at vn ; remember that for an ideal op amp,
the current into the op amp at the inputs is zero:
vn vn − vo
+ = 0.
4500 63,000
 Problems 5–3

Solve for vo in terms of vn by multiplying both sides by 63,000 and

collecting terms:
14vn + vn − vo = 0 so vo = 15vn .
Now use voltage division to calculate vp . We can use voltage division
because the op amp is ideal, so no current flows into the non-inverting
input terminal and the 400 mV divides between the 15 kΩ resistor and
the Rx resistor:
Rx
vp = (0.400.)
15,000 + Rx
Now substitute the value Rx = 60 kΩ:
60,000
vp = (0.400) = 0.32 V.
15,000 + 60,000
Finally, remember that for an ideal op amp, vn = vp , so substitute the
value of vp into the equation for v0
vo = 15vn = 15vp = 15(0.32) = 4.8 V.
[b] Substitute the expression for vp into the equation for vo and set the
resulting equation equal to the positive power supply value:
!
0.4Rx
vo = 15 = 5;
15,000 + Rx

15(0.4Rx ) = 5(15,000 + Rx ) so Rx = 75 kΩ.

AP 5.5 [a] Since this is a difference amplifier, we can use the expression for the
output voltage in terms of the input voltages and the resistor values
given in Eq. 5.22:
20(60) 50
vo = vb − va .
10(24) 10
Simplify this expression and subsitute in the value for vb :
vo = 5(vb − va ) = 20 − 5va .
Set this expression for vo to the positive power supply value:
20 − 5va = 10 V so va = 2 V.
Now set the expression for vo to the negative power supply value:
20 − 5va = −10 V so va = 6 V;

Therefore 2 ≤ va ≤ 6 V.
 5–4 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

[b] Begin as before by substituting the appropriate values into Eq. 5.8:
8(60)
vo = vb − 5va = 4vb − 5va .
10(12)
Now substitute the value for vb :
vo = 4(4) − 5va = 16 − 5va .
Set this expression for vo to the positive power supply value:
16 − 5va = 10 V so va = 1.2 V.
Now set the expression for vo to the negative power supply value:
16 − 5va = −10 V so va = 5.2 V;
Therefore 1.2 ≤ va ≤ 5.2 V.

AP 5.6 Ra = Rc = 1.5 Ω; Rb = 12 Ω.
Then,
1.5Rd − 1.5(12)
Acm = ;
1.5(1.5 + Rd

Rd (13.5) + 12(1.5 + Rd )
Adm = .
2(1.5)(1.5 + Rd )
Set the CMRR equal to 100 and solve for Rd :
Rd (13.5) + 12(1.5 + Rd )
Adm 3(1.5 + Rd )
CMRR = =
Acm 1.5Rd − 18
1.5(1.5 + Rd )
25.5Rd + 18
= = 100.
3Rd − 36
Therefore,

Rd = 13.18 kV.

Set the CMRR equal to −100 and solve for Rd :

25.5Rd + 18
CMRR = = −100.
3Rd − 36
Therefore,

Rd = 11 kV.

Thus,

11 kV ≤ Rd ≤ 13.18 kV.
 Problems 5–5

AP 5.7 [a] Replace the op amp with the more realistic model of the op amp from Fig.
5.18:

Write the node voltage equation at the left hand node:

vn vn − vg vn − vo
+ + = 0.
500,000 5000 100,000
Multiply both sides by 500,000 and simplify:
vn + 100vn − 100vg + 5vn − 5v0 = 0 so 21.2vn − vo = 20vg .
Write the node voltage equation at the right hand node:
vo − 300,000(−vn ) vo − vn
+ = 0.
5000 100,000
Multiply through by 100,000 and simplify:
20vo + 6 × 106 vn + vo − vn = 0 so 6 × 106 vn + 21vo = 0.
Use Cramer’s method to solve for vo :

21.2 −1
∆= = 6,000,445.2;
6 × 106 21

21.2 20vg
No = = −120 × 106 vg ;
6 × 106 0
No vo
vo = = −19.9985vg ; so = −19.9985.
∆ vg
[b] Use Cramer’s method again to solve for vn :

20vg −1
N1 = = 420vg ;
0 21
N1
vn = = 6.9995 × 10−5 vg ;
∆
vg = 1 V, vn = 69.995 µV.
5–6 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

[c] The resistance seen at the input to the op amp is the ratio of the input
voltage to the input current, so calculate the input current as a function
of the input voltage:
vg − vn vg − 6.9995 × 10−5 vg
ig = = .
5000 5000
Solve for the ratio of vg to ig to get the input resistance:
vg 5000
Rg = = = 5000.35 Ω.
ig 1 − 6.9995 × 10−5
[d] This is a simple inverting amplifier configuration, so the voltage gain is
the ratio of the feedback resistance to the input resistance:
vo 100,000
=− = −20.
vg 5000
Since this is now an ideal op amp, the voltage difference between the two
input terminals is zero; since vp = 0, vn = 0
Since there is no current into the inputs of an ideal op amp, the
resistance seen by the input voltage source is the input resistance:
Rg = 5000 Ω.
 Problems 5–7

Problems

P 5.1 [a] The five terminals of the op amp are identified as follows:

[b] The input resistance of an ideal op amp is infinite, which constrains the
value of the input currents to 0. Thus, in = 0 A.
[c] The open-loop voltage gain of an ideal op amp is infinite, which constrains
the difference between the voltage at the two input terminals to 0. Thus,
(vp − vn ) = 0.
[d] Write a node voltage equation at vn :
vn − 3 vn − vo
+ = 0.
3000 16,000
But vp = 0 and vn = vp = 0. Thus,
−3 vo
− = 0 so vo = −16 V.
3000 16,000
P 5.2 [a] Let the value of the voltage source be vs :
vn − vs vn − vo
+ = 0.
4000 16,000
But vn = vp = 0. Therefore,
12,000
vo = − vs = −4vs .
3000
When vs = −5 V, vo = −4(−5) = 20 V; (saturates at vo = 15 V)
When vs = −7 V, vo = −4(−7) = 28 V.
When vs = 5 V, vo = −4(5) = −20 V.
When vs = 7 V, vo = −4(7) = −28 V. saturates at vo = −15 V.
15
[b] −4vs = 15 so vs = = −3.75 V
−4
−15
−4vs = −15 so vs = = 3.75 V
−4
The range of source voltages that avoids saturation is
−3.75 V ≤ vs ≤ 3.75 V.
 5–8 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

6000
P 5.3 vp = (5) = 1.667 V = vn
6000 + 12,000

vn + 3 vn − vo
+ =0
3000 6000

2(166.7 + 5) + (1.667 − vo ) = 0

vo = 15 V

vo 15
iL = = = 1875 × 10−6
8000 8000

iL = 1875 mA

vb − va vb − vo
P 5.4 + = 0, therefore vo = 9vb − 10va .
2000 20,000

[a] va = 2 V, vb = 1 V, .·. vo = −11 V

[b] va = −1 V, vb = 0 V, .·. vo = 10 V
[c] va = 3 V, vb = 3.5 V, .·. vo = 1.5 V
[d] va = −2 V, vb = 1 V, .·. vo = 29 V
[e] va = 4 V, vb = 0 V, .·. vo = −40 V
[f ] If vb = 3 V, vo = 27 − 10va = ±16;

.·. va saturates from: − 1.1 ≤ va ≤ 4.3 V.

P 5.5 vo = −(1 × 10−3 )(15,000) = −15 V;

vo −15
.· . i o = = = −2.14 mA.
7000 7000

200 × 10−3
P 5.6 [a] ia = = 20 µA
10,000
v1 = −30 × 103 i2 = −3 V
0 − va
[b] = ia so va = −40,000ia
40,000
.·. va = −0.8 V
va va va − vo
[c] + + = 0;
40,000 30,000 20,000
.·. vo = 2.25va = −1.8 V
 Problems 5–9

−vo va − vo
[d] io = + = 230 µA
10,000 20,000
P 5.7 Since the current into the inverting input terminal of an ideal op-amp is zero,
the voltage across the 4 MΩ resistor is (4 × 106 )(6 × 10−6 ) = 24 V. Therefore
the voltmeter reads 24 V.

P 5.8 [a]

20,000 20,000
=6 Rin =
Rin 6
.· . Rin = 3.33 kΩ
15
[b] −6vin = 15 so vin =
−6
.· . Rin = −2.5 V;
15
−6vin = −15 so vin =
−6
.· . Rin = +2.5 V;

.· . −2.5 V ≤ vin ≤ 2.5 V

Rf
[c] − (2) = −15 so Rf = 25 kΩ;
3300
vo Rf 25,000
= = =8
vin Rin 3300
.·. So the gain is 8.

P 5.9 [a] The gain of an inverting amplifier is the negative of the ratio of the
feedback resistor to the input resistor. If the gain of the inverting
amplifier is to be 2.5, the feedback resistor must be 2.5 times as large as
the input resistor. There are many possible designs that use a resistor
value chosen from Appendix H. We present one here that uses 3.3 kΩ
resistors. Use a single 3.3 kΩ resistor as the input resistor. Then
 5–10 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

construct a network of 3.3 kΩ resistors whose equivalent resistance is

2.5(3.3) = 8.25 kΩ by connecting two resistors in parallel and connecting
the parallel resistors in series with two other resistors. The resulting
circuit is shown here:

[b] To amplify signals in the range −2 V to 3 V without saturating the op

amp, the power supply voltages must be greater than or equal to the
product of the input voltage and the amplifier gain.
−2.5(−2) = 5 V and − 2.5(3) = −7.5 V.
Thus, the power supplies should have values of −7.5 V and 5 V.
P 5.10 [a] Let v∆ be the voltage from the potentiometer contact to ground. Then
0 − vg 0 − v∆
+ = 0;
1000 50,000
−50vg − v∆ = 0, .·. v∆ = −50(40 × 10−3 ) = −2 V;
v∆ v∆ − 0 v∆ − vo
+ + = 0;
αR∆ 50,000 (1 − α)R∆
v∆ v∆ − vo
+ 2v∆ + = 0;
α 1−α
1 1 vo
 
v∆ +2+ = ;
α 1−α 1−α
" #
(1 − α)
.·. vo = −2 1 + 2(1 − α) + .
α
When α = 0.5, vo = −2(1 + 1 + 1) = −6 V.
When α = 1, vo = −2(1 + 0 + 0) = −2 V
.·. −6 V ≤ vo ≤ −1 V.
" #
(1 − α)
[b] −2 1 + 2(1 − α) + = −7;
α
α + 2α(1 − α) + (1 − α) = 3.5α;
.·. 2α2 + 1.5α − 1 = 0 so α∼
= 0.425.
 Problems 5–11

P 5.11 [a] Replace the combination of vg , 1.6 kΩ, and the 6.4 kΩ resistors with its
Thévenin equivalent.

−[12 + σ50]
Then vo = (0.20).
1.6
At saturation vo = −5 V; therefore
12 + σ50
 
− (0.2) = −5, or σ = 0.56.
1.6
Thus for 0 ≤ σ ≤ 0.56 the operational amplifier will not saturate.
−(12 + 13.6)
[b] When σ = 0.272, vo = (0.20) = −3.2 V.
1.6
vo vo
Also + + io = 0;
10 25.6
vo vo 3.2 3.2
.· . i o = − − = + mA = 445 µA.
10 25.6 10 25.6
P 5.12 [a] This circuit is an example of an inverting summing amplifier.
220 220 220
[b] vo = − va − vb − vc = −5 − 12 + 11 = −6 V
44 27, 5 80
[c] vo = −6 − 8vb = ±10
.·. vb = −0.5 V when vo = 10 V;
vb = 2 V when vo = −10 V
.·. −0.5 V ≤ vb ≤ 2 V
" #
Rf Rf Rf
P 5.13 vo = − (0.2) + (0.15) + (0.4)
4000 5000 20,000

−6 = −0.1 × 10−3 Rf ; Rf = 60 kΩ; .·. 0 ≤ Rf ≤ 60 kΩ

P 5.14 [a] Write a KCL equation at the inverting input to the op amp:
vd − va vd − vb vd − vc vd vd − vo
+ + + + =0
40,000 30,000 22,000 270,000 100,000
Multiply through by 100,000, plug in the values of the input voltages,
and rearrange to solve for vo :
!
−1 −5 −3 3 3
vo = 100,000 + + + +
40,000 30,000 22,000 270,000 100,000
vo = −3 V
 5–12 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

[b] Write a KCL equation at the inverting input to the op amp. Use the given
values of input voltages in the equation:
3−4 3−8 3 − vc 3 3
+ + + + =0
60,000 30,000 22,000 270,000 100,000
Simplify and solve for vo :
9 − 27 + 30 − 5vc + 4 + 6 − vo = 0 so vo = 22 − 5vc
Set vo to the positive power supply voltage and solve for vc :
22 − 5vc = 10 .·. vc = 2.4 V
Set vo to the negative power supply voltage and solve for vc :
22 − 5vc = −10 .·. vc = 6.4 V
Therefore,
2.4 V ≤ vc ≤ 6.4 V
3−4 3−8 3−6 3 3 − v0
P 5.15 [a] + + + + =0
40,000 30,000 22,000 270,000 Rf
3 − vo 3 − vo
= −6 × 10−5 so Rf =
Rf −6 × 10−5
For vo = 10 V, Rf = 116 kΩ
For vo = −10 V, Rf = 216 kΩ
Rf < 0 so this solution is not possible.
" #
10 − 3 10
[b] io = −(if + i20k ) = − + io = −0.11 µ A.
116,000 20,000
P 5.16 [a]

80,000 80,000
= 10 so Ra = = 8 kΩ
Ra 10
80,000 80,000
=4 so Rb = = 20 kΩ
Rb 4
80,000 80,000
=6 so Rc = = 13.33 kΩ
Rc 6
 Problems 5–13

[b] −[10(4) + 4vb + 6(−2)] = −28 − 4vb

16
−28 − 4vb = −12 so − 4vb = 16 thus vb = = −4 V
−4
40
−28 − 4vb = 12 so − 4vb = 40 thus vb = = −10 V
−4
Thus,
−10 V ≤ vb ≤ −4 V
voltage range where the op amp is in a linear operating region

P 5.17 We want the following expression for the output voltage:

vo = −(8va + 4vb + 10vc + 6vd ).

This is an inverting summing amplifier, so each input voltage is amplified by a

gain that is the ratio of the feedback resistance to the resistance in the
forward path for the input voltage. Pick a feedback resistor with divisors of 8,
4, 10, and 6 – say 120 kΩ:
" #
120k 120k 120k 120k
vo = − va + vb + vc + vd .
Ra Rb Rc Rd

Solve for each input resistance value to yield the desired gain:
.·. Ra = 120,000/8 = 15 kΩ Rc = 120,000/10 = 12 kΩ;
Rb = 120,000/4 = 30 kΩ Rd = 120,000/6 = 20 kΩ.
Now create the 5 resistor values needed from the realistic resistor values in
Appendix H. Note that Rf = 120 kΩ, Ra = 15 kΩ, and Rc = 12 kΩ are already
values from Appendix H. Create Rb = 30 kΩ by combining two 15 kΩ resistors
in series. Create Rd = 20 kΩ by combining two 10 kΩ resistors in series. Of
course there are many other acceptable possibilities. The final circuit is shown
here:

P 5.18 [a] The circuit shown is a non-inverting amplifier.

 5–14 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

[b] We assume the op amp to be ideal, so vn = vp = 2 V. Write a KCL

equation at vn :
2 2 − vo
+ = 0.
25,000 150,000
Solving,
vo = 14 V.

P 5.19 [a] This circuit is an example of the non-inverting amplifier.

[b] Use voltage division to calculate vp :
1000vs vs
vp = = .
1000 + 4000 5
Write a KCL equation at vn = vp = vs /5:
vs /5 vs /5 − vo
+ = 0.
1000 8000
Solving,
vo = 8vs /5 + vs /5 = 1.8vs .
[c] 1.8vs = 15 so vs = 8.33 V;

1.8vs = −15 so vs = −8.33 V.

Thus, −8.33 V ≤ vs ≤ 8.33 V.

68
P 5.20 [a] vp = vn = vg = 0.85vg
80
0.85vg 0.85vg − vo
.· . + = 0;
30,000 63,000
.·. vo = 2.635vg = 2.635(4), vo = 10.54 V

[b] vo = 2.635vg = ±12

vg = ±4.55 V, −4.55 V ≤ vg ≤ 4.55 V

0.85vg 0.85vg − vo
[c] + =0
30,000 Rf
!
0.85Rf
+ 0.85 vg = vo = ±12
30,000

.·. 1.7Rf + 51 = ±360; 1.7Rf = 360 − 51; Rf = 181.76 kΩ

 Problems 5–15

P 5.21 [a] From Eq. 5.18,

Rs + Rf vo Rf
vo = vg so =1+ = 10
Rs vg Rs
So,
Rf
=9
Rs
Thus,
Rf 100 × 103
Rs = = = 11.11 kΩ
9 9

[b] vo = 10vg
When vg = −3 V, vo = 10(−3) = −30 V.
When vg = 2 V, vo = 10(2) = 20 V.
The power supplies can be set at 20 V and −30 V.
P 5.22 [a] From the equation for the non-inverting amplifier,
Rs + Rf
= 2.5 so Rs + Rf = 2.5Rs and therefore Rf = 1.5Rs .
Rs
Choose Rs = 22 kΩ, which is a component in Appendix H. Then
Rf = (1.5)(22) = 33 kΩ, which is also a resistor value in Appendix H.
The resulting non-inverting amplifier circuit is shown here:
 5–16 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

[b] vo = 2.5vg = 16 so vg = 6.4 V.

vo = 2.5vg = −16 so vg = −6.4 V.
Therefore,
−6.4 V ≤ vg ≤ 6.4 V.
P 5.23 [a] This circuit is an example of a non-inverting summing amplifier.
[b] Write a KCL equation at vp and solve for vp in terms of vs :
vp − 5 vp − vs
+ =0
16,000 24,000
3vp − 15 + 2vp − 2vs = 0 so vp = 2vs /5 + 3
Now write a KCL equation at vn and solve for vo :
vn vn − vo
+ =0 so vo = 5vn
24,000 96,000
Since we assume the op amp is ideal, vn = vp . Thus,
vo = 5(2vs /5 + 3) = 2vs + 15
[c] 2vs + 15 = 10 so vs = −2.5 V
2vs + 15 = −10 so vs = −12.5 V
Thus, −12.5 V ≤ vs ≤ −2.5 V.
vp − va vp − vb vp − vc
P 5.24 [a] + + =0
Ra Rb Rc
Rb Rc Ra Rc Ra Rb
.· . v p = va + vb + vc
D D D
where D = Rb Rc + Ra Rc + Ra Rb
vn vn − vo
+ =0
10,000 50,000
!
50,000
+ 1 vn = 6vn = vo
10,000
6Rb Rc 6Ra Rc 6Ra Rb
.· . v o = va + vb + vc
D D D
By hypothesis,
6Rb Rc 6Ra Rc 6Ra Rb
= 2; = 4; =1
D D D
Then
6Ra Rb /D 4 Ra
= , so = 2Rc
6Rb Rc /D 2 Rb
 Problems 5–17

But from the circuit

Rb = 10 kΩ so Ra = 20 Rc
Similarly,
6Ra Rb /D 1 Rb
= so = 0.25
6Ra Rc /D 4 Rc
From the circuit
Rb 10
Rb = 10 kΩ Rc = = .
0.25 0.25
.·. Rc = 40 kΩ
Ra = 20Rc = 20 × 40 = 800 kΩ
[b] vo = 2(1) + 4(0.2) + 1(0.8) = 3.6 V
3.6
vn = vo /6 = ⇒ vp = 0.6 V
6
va − vp 1 − 0.6
ia = = ⇒ ia = 0.5 µA
800kΩ 800kΩ
vb − vp 0.2 − 0.6
ib = = ⇒ ib = −0.4 µA
10,000 10kΩ
vc − vp 0.8 − 0.6
ic = = ⇒ ic = 5 µA
40kΩ 40kΩ
P 5.25 [a] Assume va is acting alone. Replacing vb with a short circuit yields vp = 0,
therefore vn = 0 and we have
0 − va 0 − vo0
+ + in = 0, in = 0
Ra Rb
Therefore
vo0 va Rb
=− , vo0 = − va
Rb Ra Ra
Assume vb is acting alone. Replace va with a short circuit. Now
vb Rd
vp = vn =
Rc + Rd
vn vn − vo00
+ + in = 0, in = 0
Ra Rb
1 1 Rd v 00
  
+ vb − o = 0
Ra Rb Rc + Rd Rb
Rb Rd Rd Ra + Rb
    
vo00 = +1 vb = vb
Ra Rc + Rd Ra Rc + Rd
Rd Ra + Rb Rb
 
vo = vo0 + vo00 = vb − va
Ra Rc + Rd Ra
 5–18 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

Rd Ra + Rb Rb
 
[b] = , therefore Rd (Ra + Rb ) = Rb (Rc + Rd )
Ra Rc + Rd Ra
Ra Rc
Rd Ra = Rb Rc , therefore =
Rb Rd
Rd Ra + Rb Rb
 
When =
Ra Rc + Rd Ra
Rb Rb Rb
Eq. (5.22) reduces to vo = vb − va = (vb − va ).
Ra Ra Ra

P 5.26 [a] This is a difference amplifier circuit.

[b] Use Eq. 5.8 with Ra = 1 kΩ, Rb = 4 kΩ, Rc = 20 kΩ, Rd = 5 kΩ, and
vb = 5 V:
Rd (Ra + Rb ) Rb
vo = vb − va = 5 − 4va .
Ra (Rc + Rd ) Ra
5000(1000 + Rf ) Rf 1000 + Rf 2Rf Rf
[c] (5) − (2) = − =1− ;
1000(2000 + 5000) 1000 1000 1000 1000
Rf
1− = 5.4 so Rf < 0 which is not a possible solution.
1000
Rf
1− = −5.4 so Rf = 1000(6.4) = 6.4 kΩ.
1000
Rd (Ra + Rb ) Rb 120(24 + 75) 75
P 5.27 [a] vo = vb − va = (5) − (8)
Ra (Rc + Rd ) Ra 24(130 + 120) 24
vo = 9.9 − 25 = −15.1 V
v1 − 8 v1 + 15.1
[b] + =0 so v1 = 2.4 V
24,000 75,000
8 − 2.4
ia = = 233 µA
24,000
va 8
Rin a = = = 34.3 kΩ
ia 233 × 10−6
[c] Rin b = Rc + Rd = 250 kΩ
1000
P 5.28 vp = (−18) = −3 V = vn ;
6000

−3 + 18 −3 − vo
+ = 0;
1600 Rf

.·. vo = 0.009375Rf − 3.
 Problems 5–19

vo = 9 V; Rf = 1280 Ω;

vo = −9 V; Rf = −640 Ω;

But Rf ≤ 0, .·. Rf = 1.28 kΩ.

Rd (Ra + Rb ) Rb
P 5.29 vo = vb − va .
Ra (Rc + Rd ) Ra
Rd (Ra + Rb )
By hypothesis: Rb /Ra = 4; Rc + Rd = 470 kΩ; = 3;
Ra (Rc + Rd )
Rd (Ra + 4Ra )
.· . =3 so Rd = 282 kΩ; Rc = 188 kΩ.
Ra 470,000
Create Rd = 282 kΩ by combining a 270 kΩ resistor and a 12 kΩ resistor in
series. Create Rc = 188 kΩ by combining a 120 kΩ resistor and a 68 kΩ resistor
in series. Also, when vo = 0 we have
vn − va vn
+ = 0;
Ra Rb
Ra
 
.· . v n 1 + = va ; vn = 0.8va .
Rb
va − 0.8va va va
ia = = 0.2 ; Rin = = 5Ra = 22 kΩ;
Ra Ra ia
.·. Ra = 4.4 kΩ; Rb = 17.6 kΩ.

Create Ra = 4.4 kΩ by combining two 2.2 kΩ resistors in series. Create

Rb = 17.6 kΩ by combining a 12 kΩ resistor and a 5.6 kΩ resistor in series.
P 5.30 [a]

vp vp − vc vp − vd
3
+ 3
+ =0
25 × 10 40 × 10 25 × 103
 5–20 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

8vp + 5vp − 5vc + 8vp − 8vd

.· . =0
200 × 103
21vp − 5vc − 8vd = 0
vn − va vn − vb vp − vo
+ + =0
25 × 103 20 × 103 200 × 103
8vn − 8va + 10vn − 10vb + vn − vo
=0
200 × 103
19vn − 8va − 10vb − vo = 0

.·. vo = 19vn − 8va − 10vb

= 19[(1/4)vc + (3/8)vd ] − 8va − 10vb
= 19(5/4) + (9/4)] − 8va − 10vb
266
= 4
− 16 − 30
266−64−120 102
= 4
= 4

vo = 25.5 V
[b] vo = 5vc + 30 − 9 − 20 = 5vc + 1
±20 = 5vc + 1
.·. vb = −4.2 V and vb = 3.8 V
.·. −4.2 V ≤ vb ≤ 3.8 V

P 5.31 vp = Rb ib = vn ;

Rb ib Rb ib − vo
+ − ia = 0;
2000 Rf
!
1 1 vo
.· . R b ib + − ia = ;
2000 Rf Rf

Rf
 
.· . R b ib 1 + − Rf ia = vo .
2000

By hypopthesis, vo = 8000(ib − ia ). Therefore,

Rf = 8 kΩ (use 3.3 kΩ and 4.7 kΩ resistors in series);

8000
 
Rb 1+ = 8000 so Rb = 1.6 kΩ.
2000

To construct the 1.6 kΩ resistor, combine 270 Ω, 330 Ω, and 1 kΩ resistors in

series.
 Problems 5–21

αRg Rf Rf
 
P 5.32 [a] vp = vg vo = 1+ αvg − vg ;
αRg + (Rg − αRg ) R1 R1
vn = vp = αvg = (αvg − vg )4 + αvg ;
vn − vg vn − vo
+ =0 = [(α − 1)4 + α]vg ;
R1 Rf
Rf
(vn − vg ) + vn − vo = 0 = (5α − 4)vg
R1
= (5α − 4)(2) = 10α − 8.
α vo α vo α vo
0.0 −8 V 0.4 −4 V 0.8 0 V
0.1 −7 V 0.5 −3 V 0.9 1 V
0.2 −6 V 0.6 −2 V 1.0 2 V
0.3 −5 V 0.7 −1 V

[b] Rearranging the equation for vo from (a) gives

Rf Rf
   
vo = + 1 vg α + − vg .
R1 R1
Therefore,
Rf Rf
   
slope = + 1 vg ; intercept = − vg .
R1 R1
[c] Using the equations from (b),
Rf Rf
   
−6 = + 1 vg ; 4=− vg .
R1 R1
Solving,
Rf
vg = −2 V; = 2.
R1
(24)(26) + (25)(25)
P 5.33 [a] Adm = = 24.98
(2)(1)(25)
(1)(24) − 25(1)
[b] Acm = = −0.04
1(25)
 5–22 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

24.98
[c] CMRR = = 624.50
0.04
(3000)(6000) − (6000)Rx
P 5.34 Acm =
3000(6000 + Rx )

6000(3000 + 6000) + 6000(6000 + Rx )

Adm =
2(3000)(6000 + Rx )

Adm Rx + 15,000
=
Acm 2(3000 − Rx )

Rx + 15,000
.· . = ±1500 for the limits on the value of Rx .
2(3000 − Rx )

If we use +1500 Rx = 2994 Ω

If we use −1500 Rx = 3006 Ω

2994 Ω ≤ Rx ≤ 3006 Ω

P 5.35 It follows directly from the circuit that vo = −(60/10)vg = −10vg .

From the plot of vg we have vg = 0, t < 0
vg = t 0≤t≤2
vg = 4−t 2≤t≤6
vg = t−8 6 ≤ t ≤ 10
vg = 12 − t 10 ≤ t ≤ 14
vg = t − 16 14 ≤ t ≤ 18, etc.
Therefore
vo = −10t 0≤t≤2
vo = 10t − 20 2≤t≤6
vo = 40 − 10t 6 ≤ t ≤ 10
vo = 10t − 60 10 ≤ t ≤ 14
vo = 80 − 10t 14 ≤ t ≤ 18, etc.
These expressions for vo are valid as long as the op amp is not saturated.
Since the peak values of vo are ±9, the output is clipped at ±9. The plot is
shown below.
 Problems 5–23

6.2
P 5.36 vp = vg = 0.738vg = 2.952 cos(π/4)t V
8.4

vn vn − vo
+ =0
15,000 45,000

4vn = vo ; vn = vp

.·. vo = 11.808 cos(π/4)t V 0≤t≤∞

but saturation occurs at vo = ±10 V

 5–24 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

P 5.37 [a]

vn − va vn − vo
+ = 0;
R R
2vn − va = vo ;
va va − vn va − vo
+ + = 0;
Ra R R
1 2 vn vo
 
va + − = ;
Ra R R R
R
 
va 2 + − vn = vo
Ra
vn = vp = va + vg ;
.·. 2vn − va = 2va + 2vg − va = va + 2vg ;
.·. va − vo = −2vg (1).
R
 
2va + va − va − vg = vo ;
Ra
R
 
.· . v a 1 + − vo = vg . (2)
Ra
Now combining equations (1) and (2) yields
R
−va = −3vg ,
Ra
Ra
or va = 3vg .
R
va 3vg
Hence ia = = Q.E.D.
Ra R
 Problems 5–25

[b] At saturation vo = ± Vcc ,

.·. va = ± Vcc − 2vg (3)
and
R
 
.· . v a 1 + = ± Vcc + vg . (4)
Ra
Dividing Eq (4) by Eq (3) gives
R ± Vcc + vg
1+ = ;
Ra ± Vcc − 2vg
R ± Vcc + vg 3vg
.· . = −1= ,
Ra ± Vcc − 2vg ± Vcc − 2vg
(± Vcc − 2vg )
or Ra = R Q.E.D.
3vg
R1 vo
P 5.38 [a] vp = vs , vn = , vn = vp
R1 + R2
R1 + R2 R2
   
Therefore vo = vs = 1 + vs
R1 R1
[b] vo = vs
[c] Because vo = vs , thus the output voltage follows the signal voltage.
P 5.39

12 − 8
i1 = = 5 mA
7000
 5–26 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

i2 + i1 + 0 = 10 mA; i2 = 5 mA

vo2 = 8 + (300)5 × 10−3 = 15 V

12 − 15
i3 = = 1 mA
3000

vo1 = 12 + (1 × 10−3 ) × 400 ⇒ vo1 = 40.2 V

(320 × 10−3 )2
P 5.40 [a] p16 kΩ = = 6.4 µW.
(16 × 103 )
16
 
[b] v16 kΩ = (320) = 80 mV;
64
(80 × 10−3 )2
p16 kΩ = = 0.4 µW.
(16 × 103 )
pa 6.4
[c] = = 16.
pb 0.4
[d] Yes, the operational amplifier serves several useful purposes:
• First, it enables the source to control 16 times as much power
delivered to the load resistor. When a small amount of power controls
a larger amount of power, we refer to it as power amplification.
• Second, it allows the full source voltage to appear across the load
resistor, no matter what the source resistance. This is the voltage
follower function of the operational amplifier.
• Third, it allows the load resistor voltage (and thus its current) to be
set without drawing any current from the input voltage source. This
is the current amplification function of the circuit.

P 5.41 [a] Let vo1 = output voltage of the amplifier on the left. Let vo2 = output
voltage of the amplifier on the right. Then
−47 −220
vo1 = (1) = −4.7 V; vo2 = (−0.15) = 1.0 V;
10 33
vo2 − vo1
ia = = 5.7 mA.
1000
[b] ia = 0 when vo1 = vo2 so from (a) vo2 = 1 V.
Thus
−47
(vL ) = 1;
10
10
vL = − = −212.77 mV.
47
 Problems 5–27

P 5.42 [a] Assume the op-amp is operating within its linear range, then
8
iL = = 2 mA.
4000
For RL = 4 kΩ vo = (4 + 4)(2) = 16 V

Now since vo < 20 V our assumption of linear operation is correct,

therefore
iL = 2 mA.
[b] 20 = 2(4 + RL ); RL = 6 kΩ.
[c] As long as the op-amp is operating in its linear region iL is independent of
RL . From (b) we found the op-amp is operating in its linear region as
long as RL ≤ 6 kΩ. Therefore when RL = 6 kΩ the op-amp is saturated.
We can estimate the value of iL by assuming ip = in  iL . Then
iL = 20/(4000 + 16,000) = 1 mA. To justify neglecting the current into
the op-amp assume the drop across the 50 kΩ resistor is negligible, since
the input resistance to the op-amp is at least 500 kΩ. Then
ip = in = (8 − 4)/(500 × 103 ) = 8 µA. But 8 µA  1 mA, hence our
assumption is reasonable.
[d]

P 5.43 From Eq. 5.28,

!
vref 1 1 1 vo
= vn + + − .
R + ∆R R + ∆R R − ∆R Rf Rf

Substituting Eq. 5.30 for vp = vn :

 
1 1 1
vref vref R+∆R
+ R−∆R
+ Rf vo
=   − .
R + ∆R 1
(R − ∆R) R+∆R + 1
+ 1 Rf
R−∆R Rf
 5–28 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

Rearranging,

vo 1 1
 
= vref − .
Rf R − ∆R R + ∆R

Thus,
!
2∆R
vo = vref Rf .
R − (∆R)2
2

P 5.44 [a] Replace the op amp with the model from Fig. 5.18:

Write two node voltage equations, one at the left node, the other at the
right node:
vn − vg vn − vo vn
+ + = 0;
5000 100,000 500,000
vo + 3 × 105 vn vo − vn vo
+ + = 0.
5000 100,000 500
Simplify and place in standard form:
106vn − 5vo = 100vg ;

(6 × 106 − 1)vn + 221vo = 0.

Let vg = 1 V and solve the two simultaneous equations:

vo = −19.9844 V; vn = 736.1 µV.
Thus the voltage gain is vo /vg = −19.9844.
[b] From the solution in part (a), vn = 736.1 µV.
vg − vn vg − 736.1 × 10−6 vg
[c] ig = = ;
5000 5000
vg 5000
Rg = = = 5003.68 Ω.
ig 1 − 736.1 × 10−6
 Problems 5–29

[d] For an ideal op amp, the voltage gain is the ratio between the feedback
resistor and the input resistor:
vo 100,000
=− = −20.
vg 5000
For an ideal op amp, the difference between the voltages at the input
terminals is zero, and the input resistance of the op amp is infinite.
Therefore,
vn = vp = 0 V; Rg = 5000 Ω.

P 5.45 [a]

vn − 0.88 vn vn − vTh
+ + = 0;
1600 500,000 24,000
vTh + 105 vn vTh − vn
+ = 0.
2000 24,000
Solving, vTh = −13.198 V.

Short-circuit current calculation:

vn vn − 0.88 vn − 0
+ + = 0;
500,000 1600 24,000
.·. vn = 0.8225 V.
5–30 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

vn 105
isc = − vn = −41.13 A;
24,000 2000
vTh
RTh = = 320.9 mΩ.
isc

[b] The output resistance of the inverting amplifier is the same as the
Thévenin resistance, i.e.,
Ro = RTh = 320.9 mΩ.
[c]

330
 
vo = (−13.2) = −13.18 V.
330.3209

vn − 0.88 vn vn + 13.18
+ + = 0;
1600 500,000 24,000
.·. vn = 942 µV.
0.88 − 942 × 10−6
ig = = 549.41 µA;
1600
0.88
Rg = = 1601.71 Ω.
ig
 Problems 5–31

24,000
P 5.46 [a] vTh = − (0.88) = −13.2 V;
1600
RTh = 0, since op-amp is ideal.

[b] Ro = RTh = 0 Ω.
[c] Rg = 1.6 kΩ since vn = 0.
P 5.47 [a]

vn − vg vn − vo
+ = 0;
15,000 135,000
.·. vo = 10vn − 9vg .
Also vo = A(vp − vn ) = −Avn .
−vo
.· . v n = ;
A
10
 
·
. . vo 1 + = −9vg .
A
−9A
vo = vg .
(10 + A)
−9(90)(0.4)
[b] vo = = −3.24 V.
(10 + 90)
[c] vo = −9(0.4) = −3.60 V.
−9(0.4)A
[d] −3.42 = ;
10 + A
.·. A = 190.
 5–32 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

vn vn − vg vn − vo
P 5.48 [a] + + =0
20,000 760,000 180,000
or 43.22vn − 4.22vo = vg Eq (1)
vn vo − vn vo − 50,000(vp − vn )
+ + =0
15,000 180,000 8000
71vo − 2vn − 225 × 104 (vp − vn ) = 0
(vn − vg )(200)
vp = vg + = (0.737)vg + (0.263)vn
760
71vo − 2vn − 225 × 104 [(0.737)vg − (0.737)vn ] = 0

71vo + 1,638,200vn = 1,642,500vg Eq(2)

Let vg = 1 V and solve Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously:

vn = 2.15 mV and vo = 1.965 V
vo
.· . = 1.965
vg
[b] From part (a), vn = 2.15 mV.
vp = (0.737)(1000) + (0.263)(2.15) = 737.56 mV.
[c] vp − vn = 735.41 µV
(1000 − 2.15)10−3
[d] ig = = 4.989 µ A
200 × 10−3
vg vg − vo
[e] + = 0, since vn = vp = vg
20,000 180,000
vo
.·. vo = 1.965vg = 1.965
vg
vn = vp = 1 V; vp − vn = 0 V; ig = 0 A

P 5.49 The thermocouple produces the following voltages for the corresponding
temperatures:
50µV/◦ C × 200◦ C = 10mV
50µV/◦ C × 600◦ C = 30mV
Following the steps described in the Practical Perspective, we have:
VSL = 10mV, VSH = 30mV, VOL = 0V, VOH = 5V
.·. K = (5 − 0)/(0.03 − 0.01) = 250

.·. L = 0 − 250 × 0.01 = −2.5V

K = 1 + Rf /Rp , where Rp = R1 R2 /(R1 + R2 ), and, L = −(Rf /R2 )VR

 Problems 5–33

We have 2 knowns (K and L) and 4 unknowns (R1 , R2 , Rf , VR )

therefore we can choose two variables freely. Choose
Rf = 100kΩ, VR = 5V, and we obtain:
R2 = 200kΩ, and, R1 = 402.4Ω
P 5.50 The output voltage is Vo = −(RM /Rs )Vs + (1 + RM /Rs )Vr . We need
0 = −(60000/Rs )Vs + (1 + 60000/Rs )Vr
5 = −(30000/Rs )Vs + (1 + 30000/Rs )Vr
We directly find Vr = 10V, and choosing Vs = 12V, we find Rs = 12kΩ.
Note that, since no current is pulled from the voltage source Vr , it can be
easily generated from Vs using a simple voltage divider.
P 5.51 To find the necessary mapping, as described in the Practical Perspective:
VSL = 420mV, VSH = −420mV, VOL = 0V, VOH = 3.3V
.·. K = (3.3 − 0)/(−0.42 − 0.42) = −3.93
.·. L = 0 + 3.93 × 0.42 = 1.65V
Here, since K < 0, we need an inverting amplifier. However, we cannot
directly use a regular inverting op amp circuit, because it pulls current
from the input, and the measured voltage will be altered in this case.
Instead, we can use the circuit described in the Practical Perspective and
add an inverter (with gain −1) to the output as shown in the figure. In
this circuit, the sensor current enters the op amp positive input terminal
only, therefore, choosing an op amp with a very high input resistance, the
current pulled from the sensor will be minimal.

Choosing R3 = R4 = 100kΩ, we will have

!
Rf (R1 + R2 Rf
VO = − 1 + Vs + Vr
R1 R2 R2
| {z } | {z }
k L
We have 2 knowns (K and L) and 4 unknowns (R1 , R2 , Rf , VR ) therefore
we can choose two variables freely. Choose Rf = 100kΩ, VR = 3.3V, and
we obtain:
 5–34 CHAPTER 5. The Operational Amplifier

R2 = 200kΩ, R1 = 41.18kΩ

P 5.52 We have VN + Vr = 0, and Vr = 5V, therefore we get VN = −5V . Also,

Vo = Ir Rf , or, 10 V = 40µARf . We obtain Rf = 250kΩ.

P 5.53 [a] It follows directly from the solution to Problem 5.50 that
[R2 + 2RRf − R1 (R + Rf ) − RRf ]Rf vin
vo = .
R[R1 (R + Rf ) + RRf ]
Now R1 = R − ∆R. Substituting into the expression gives
(R + Rf )Rf (∆R)vin
vo = .
R[(R − ∆R)(R + Rf ) + RRf ]
Now let ∆R  R and get
(R + Rf )Rf ∆Rvin
vo ≈ .
R2 (R + 2Rf )
[b] It follows directly from the solution to Problem 5.50 that
approx value R[(R − ∆R)(R + Rf ) + RRf ]
.· . = .
true value R2 (R + 2Rf )
(R − ∆R)(R + Rf ) + RRf − R(R + 2Rf )
.·. Error =
R(R + 2Rf )
−∆R(R + Rf )
= .
R(R + 2Rf )
−∆R(R + Rf )
.·. % error = × 100.
R(R + 2Rf )

[c] R − ∆R = 9810 Ω .·. ∆R = 10,000 − 9810 = 190 Ω;

· (48 × 104 )(47 × 104 )(190)(15)

. . vo ≈ ≈ 6.768 V;
108 (95 × 104 )

−190(48 × 104 )(100)

[d] % error = = −0.96%.
104 (95 × 104 )