Warsaw University of Technology

Faculty of Automotive and Construction Machinery Engineering

Andrzej Reński
andrzej.renski@pw.edu.pl

VEHICLES
Steering systems

Warszawa 2023
STEERED WHEEL GEOMETRY
3D view of the right front
wheel
ε - camber angle,
σ - kingpin inclination
angle,
 - caster angle,
rz - kingpin offset at
ground,
r - transverse offset, scrub
r - caster offset
 STEERED WHEEL GEOMETRY
a b ε - camber angle,
σ - kingpin inclination angle,
 - caster angle,
r - kingpin offset, scrub radius
r - caster offset,
(B-A) - wheel toe-in,

l, r - toe-in angles

c

a - front veiw,
b - side view,
c - plan view
STEERED WHEEL GEOMETRY

r - negative kingpin offset, scrub

σ - kingpin inclination angle,
STEERED WHEEL GEOMETRY
ε - camber angle,
σ - kingpin inclination
angle,
- caster angle,
rz - kingpin offset at
ground,
r - transverse offset,
scrub
r - caster offset
 Aligning moment produced by forces X i Y

r
e

r
C C

Dx Dx s
 B
n n B1 Y
B B
A A B
r X
B1
Y e
X
s
r
 Tire-road
contact area
Tire side stresses

 - slip angle
Tire side stresses
Tire aligning moment

Deformation
Slip area
area
Tire aligning moment

Slip angle
 Aligning moment

r
e

r
C C

Dx Dx s
 B
n n B1 Y
B B
A A B
r X
B1
Y e
X
s
r

MXl = Xl (r + ey) MXr = Xr (r - ey)

MYl = Yl (r + s) Fy
MYr = Yr (r + s)

ey – lateral tyre B B’ Y
deformation ey
 Aligning moment produced by forces Z

r
e

r
C C

Dx Dx B2

n n B
B B
B2 A A B
r
q zr
q zl e
s
r

MZ = Z qZ
Aligning moment
produced by r
forces Z eye

Dx
n
B B
B2 A
r

q zl
exs

qZl = rz sin(φ+γ-δ) + ey cos(φ-δ) - ex sin(φ-δ)

MZl = Zl [rz sin(φ+γ-δ) + ey cos(φ-δ) - ex sin(φ-δ)]

 Aligning moment
produced by forces Z

r
C

Dx 
B2 ex
n B
A B
q zr
eey

r

qZr = rz sin(φ+γ+δ) – ey cos(φ+δ) - ex sin(φ+δ)

MZr = Zr [rz sin(φ+γ+δ) – ey cos(φ+δ) - ex sin(φ+δ)]
 ALIGNING MOMENT

Mst = - Mzwr

Mst =


 m v 2 l2  X   

cos  sin  + Z e x cos  − rz cos( +  ) sin 
Z
= 2    + r + s  cos  +


( )
2 l12 l12 + v 2 GS   y
k 
 ky  


Conclusions:
- Aligning moment increases with increase of steer angle.
- Tractive force (positive value of X) has a stabilizing effect.
- Braking force (negative value of X) has a destabilizing effect.
- Aligning moment increases with increase of velocity, fot the assumption made
here with its second power.
ALIGNING MOMENT

Mst  Mt
MH =
iuk

H = 1 iuk
ALIGNING MOMENT

center line

Mst + Mt
MH =
iuk

Mt = (Mt 0 + k  H ) sign  H
Steering gears

• Worm-and-sector
steering gear Rotational movement of drop
(Pitman) arm
• Worm and nut gear

• Rack and pinion Linear movement of rack

steering gear
 STEERING SYSTEM

Steering system of the commercial vehicle with dependent suspension:

1 – steering gear box, 2 – steering gear arm, Pitman arm, 3 – drag link, 4, 5 –
steering arm, 6 – tie rod, 7 – leaf spring
 Ackerman turning geometry
Wheels of the car rotate during turning without
lateral slip, when axis of all wheels intersect each
other in one point O.
𝑏 𝑏
𝑅+ 𝑅−
2
ctg𝛿𝑧 = 2 ctg𝛿𝑤 =
𝑙12 𝑙12

Relation between sterer

angles of the inner
wheel w and the steer
angle of the outer
wheel z:
b
ctg  z − ctg  w =
l12

This relationship cannot be exactly realized with a trapezoidal

steering linkages.
 STEERING SYSTEM

Steering systems of the passenger cars with independent suspension:

1 – steering arm, 2 – tie rod outside link, 3 – steering gear arm, 4 – steering gear
(worm-and roller – top, rack-and-pinion – bottom), 5 – tie rod center link
STEERING SYSTEM

Interaction of independent
suspension with steering
system:
a – front view; 1 - trajectory of
the outer joint of the wishbone,
2 – trajectory of the outer joint
of tie rod,
b – plan view
STEERING SYSTEM

Interaction of dependent
suspension with steering
system:
1 - trajectory of the wheel
center, 2 – trajectory of the end
joint of drag link
Steering gears

Worm-and-sector steering gear

Steering gears

Worm-and-sector steering gear (Fiat 126): 1 – steering gear shaft, 2 –

worm, 3 – sector gear, 4 – drop (Pitman) arm shaft, 5 – drop (Pitman)
arm, 6 – steering gear housing, 7 - clearance control screw
Steering gears

Worm and roler gear

 Steering gears

Worm and roler gear (Polonez): 1

 Steering gears

Worm and nut gear

Steering gears

Recirculating balls steering gear

Steering gears

Recirculating balls steering gear

 Steering gears

Rack and pinion steering gear

Steering gears

Rack and pinion steering gear

Rack and pinion steering gear
Rack and pinion steering gear
a b

Schemes of sites of rack and pinion steering gear under the drive unit (a)
and above (b)
Power steering - schematic diagram
Power
steering

Diagram of the hydraulic power steering cooperating with the rack and pinion steering
gear:
1 – rack and pinion steering gear, 2 – hydraulic actuator, 3 – hydraulic feed pump, 4 –
control valve, 5 – torsion bar
 Power steering

Rack and pinion steering gear with power assist (ZF Friedrichshafen AG):
1 – housing, 2 – rack, 3 – piston, 4 – pinion, 5 – housing of the steering valve conected to the input shaft, 6 – torsion bar, 7 – rotating
part of the valve connected to the pinion, 8 – transverse bar, 9 - supply channel, 10 – inflow steering groove, 11 - inflow control edge,
12 - axial channel, 13 - outflow steering groove, 14 - outflow control edge, 15 – ourflow channel, 16, 17 radial channels, 18 – pressure
regulator and check valve, 19 – pump, 20 - oil reservoir, ZL – left working chamber and ZR – right working chamber of the cylinder
Steering gears

Recirculating balls steering gear

 Power
steering
b

Recilculating balls steering gear with power assist

(ZF Friedrichshafen AG):
a – gear diagram: 1 - housing, 2 – nut/pistom, 3 – valve
rotating housing, 4 – screw thread, 5 – torsion bar, 6 –
output shaft, 7 – recirculating balls, 8 – inflow channel, 9 –
inflow steering grove, 10 – inflow steering edge, 11 – radial
channel, 12 – outflow steering grove, 13 – outflow steering
edge, 14 – outflow channel, 15, 16 – radial channels, 17 -
hydraulic stroke limiter, 18 – pressure regulator, 19 – check
valve, 20 – overflow valve, 21 – oil pump, 22 – oil reservoir,
ZL – left working chamber, ZR – right working chamber; a
b – control valve diagram, c – installation in the vehicle
Power steering

a b

Examples of steering systems with electric power steering (ZF Friedrichshafen AG)