STRENGTH OF SHIPS

The strength of a structure (material) is its ability to withstand (resist) the loads (forces and bending moments)
imposed on it.
Force, is a familiar concept, and evident from the words of push, pull and lift, widely used in everyday conversation.
Stress (due to the force) is defined as the force acting upon a unit area, depending upon the nature of the force
(tension, compression or sheer);
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 (𝛔) =
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚
Tension or tensile stress is the result of the forces in opposite directions tending to stretch the material.
Compression or compressive stress is the result of forces in opposite directions but to compress the material.
Strength is therefore is the ability of material to resist the level of stress it can carry.
Strength and stress have the same units, both are expressed in force per unit area, i.e., Newton/sq.m, ton/sq.m, kg-
f/sq.mm.
Strength of a material depends upon the type of the material. The higher the level of stress it can withstand (resist,
carry) without breaking (distortion), the stronger the material.
Tensile and compressive stresses
Whenever external loads are applied to material stresses are
created within the material. When an external load is
applied to a material in such a way as to cause an extension
of the material it is called a `tensile' load, whilst an external
load tending to cause compression of the material is a
`compressive' load.
When a tensile or compressive external load is applied to a
material the material will remain in equilibrium only so long
as the internal forces can resist the stresses created.
An external load W is applied to a piece of solid material of
cylindrical section. In the first case the load tends to cause
an extension of the material and is therefore a tensile load.
The applied load creates stresses within the material and these stresses are called `tensile’ stresses. In the second
case the applied load is compression and the consequent stresses within the material are called `compressive'
stresses.
Shearing stresses
A shearing stress is a stress within a material which tends to break or shear the
material across. The figure on the right side, illustrates shearing stresses which act
normally (vertically) to the axis of the material. When the direction of the shearing
stress is such that the section on the right-hand side of the material tends to move
downwards, as shown in Figure (a), the stress is considered to be positive, and
when the direction of a stress is such that the section on the right-hand side tends
to move upwards as shown (b), the shearing stress is considered to be negative.
Shearing stresses are resisted by the material but shearing will take place when the
shear stress reaches the ultimate shear strengths of the material.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Strain
Strain, is the distortion (deformation per unit length) resulting from stress and is usually expressed in cm/cm. It
includes distortion both up to the elastic limit and beyond through permanent distortion to the breaking point. These
qualities (stress-strain) are determined by a variety of tests. If a mild steel bar is placed in a testing machine and
the extensions (strains) are recorded for uniformly increasing loads (or stress), a graph is obtained similar to shown
below:

Up to the yield point, the material behaves elastically, its length increases (elongates when strained) proportionally
with the applied load/stress and returns to its original length when the load is removed.
A factor of safety is applied to this value to obtain the maximum allowable strength limit of the shipbuilding material
used in the construction.
A factor of safety of 4 is normally used in ship construction.

(230 N/mm2 = 23000 ton/m2)

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Beam theory
The bending of ships can be compared and equated to the bending of beams in many cases. This chapter shows the
procedures employed with beam theory. The problem of calculating the necessary strength of ships is made difficult
by the many and varied forces to which the ship structure is subjected during its lifetime. These forces may be
divided into two groups, namely statical forces and dynamical forces.
Bending moments in beams
The shear forces and bending moments created within a beam depend upon both the way in which the beam is
supported and the way in which it is loaded. The bending moment at any section within the beam is the total moment
tending to alter the shape of the beam as shown in following figures and is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments
of all loads acting between the section concerned and either end of the beam.

(-) Negative bending (+) Positive bending

moment moment

When bending moments are plotted on a graph, positive bending moments are measured below the beam and
negative bending moments above.
Stress due to the bending moment
In diagram 1, a simply supported beam shown loaded
at the centre. It deflects (or bends) under the load. Due
to the load shown, the fibres of the beam at the upper
surface will be shortened (under compression stress)
and the fibres on the lower surface will be elongated
(in tension, under tensile stress).
If the stress changes in magnitude, from compression to
tension along the height of the beam cross–section, there exist
a point (a line) along which the stress is zero. This line is called
the neutral axis. By definition, it is a line which passes through
the centroid of the cross section.
Bending stress
From classic bending theory the bending stress (σ) at any point
in a beam is given by:
𝐌
𝛔= 𝐱𝐲
𝐈
where M = applied bending moment.
y = distance of point considered from neutral axis.
I = second moment of area of cross-section of beam
about the neutral axis.
I is the moment of inertia or second moment of area of the
beam cross section. It actually is the resistance of the cross
section to bending. Therefore, the higher the moment of inertia
of the cross section, the lower the stress values will result in.
By definition, I, the second moment of area or moment of inertia of a section about an axis is the product of the area

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

and the square of the distance between the centroid of the area and the axis. I value of all geometric shapes can be
calculated.
Sheer stress due to bending
Due to the stresses occurring opposite but in
equal strength above and below the neutral axis,
causes another stress, along the neutral axis.
This is called horizontal sheer stress, and has its
maximum value at the neutral axis.

Ship stresses
The ship at sea or lying-in still water is subjected to a wide variety of stresses and strains. These stresses and strains
result from the action of forces from outside and within the ship.
Forces within the ship result from:
 structural weight,
 cargo,
 machinery weight and
 the effects of operating machinery.
Exterior forces include;
 the hydrostatic pressure of the water on the hull and
 the action of the wind and waves.
The ship must at all times be able to resist and withstand these stresses and strains throughout its structure.
The ship must therefore be constructed in a manner, and of such materials, that will provide the necessary strength.
The ship must also be able to function efficiently as a cargo-carrying vessel. The various forces acting on a ship are
constantly varying in degree and frequency and may initially be classified as:
 static and
 dynamic
Static forces are due to the differences in weight and buoyancy which occur at various points along the length of
the ship. Dynamic forces result from the ship's motion in the sea and the action of the wind and waves.
These static and dynamic forces create;
 longitudinal,
 transverse and
 local stresses in the ship's structure.
Longitudinal stresses are greatest in magnitude and result in bending of the ship along its length.

Shear forces and bending moments in still water conditions

In still water a ship will experience shearing forces and bending moments as a consequence of uneven distribution
of weight forces and buoyancy forces acting along its length.
Consider a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction having three holds of equal length. The light displacement
of the vessel is 9000 tonnes and it is floating on an even keel.
The vessel will displace a mass of water equal to the displacement of the vessel in the light condition. The total
weight force (Wf) acting downwards equals the total buoyancy force (Bf) acting upwards.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Since each of the holds are the same
length, the weight force attributable to
each hold will be the same, being 3000
tonnes for each. The volume (and hence
mass) of water displaced by each hold
will also be the same, 3000 tonnes. It can
be seen that the distribution of weight
force and buoyancy force exactly
matches throughout the length of the
vessel and in this condition the vessel’s
structure will experience no stress.
6000 tonnes of bulk cargo is now loaded
into No. 2 hold and is trimmed level.

The buoyancy force is evenly distributed

along the length of the vessel, since 5000
tonnes of water is displaced by each
hold, however, the distribution of the
weight force is not the same as can be
seen.

In numbers 1 and 3 holds there is an

excess of buoyancy force of 2000
tonnes, whereas in number 2 hold there
is an excess of weight force of 4000
tonnes. These excesses of weight forces
and buoyancy forces create the shearing
forces. The shearing forces are the
vertical forces that tend to cause the ship
to be sliced into different parts. Consider
what would happen to the vessel in
following figure if each hold could float
independently of the others.

It would be hoped that the vessel would

not shear at the bulkheads as illustrated;
the ship would experience bending
moments that in this instant would
cause the vessel to be sagged. The
opposite situation arises when a vessel
is loaded at the ends and less in the
amidships section, causing the vessel to
be hogged.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

A ship floating in still water has an unevenly distributed weight owing to both cargo distribution and structural
distribution. The buoyancy distribution is also non-uniform since the underwater sectional area is not constant along
the length.
How shearing force and bending moment occur when a ship is in calm (still) water?
When a ship is in calm (still) water the total upward (buoyancy) force is equal to the total weight force. But along
the length of the ship, the distribution of these forces is different and the local differences between the upward
buoyancy force and the local weight will cause vertical shearing forces that lead to longitudinal bending moments
along the length of the ship.
Below is an explanation of how bending moments and shearing forces are continuously changing.
As an example, a rectangular vessel is used which is divided into three compartments. (A, B, and C). In figures 1,
2, and 3 both outer compartments are filled with cargo. In figures 4 and 5, the inner compartment (B) is filled with
cargo. In figures 2 and 5 the vessel is on a wave top and figures 3 and 6 the vessel is in a trough. The upward
pressure (buoyancy force) keeps changing because the wave pattern is also changing: The downward forces
however stay the same. The up and downward forces per compartment are depicted as vectors.
The mean resultant per compartment is given as a vector on the line below.
The load curve gives the difference up-and downward forces per meter at each point on the base line. The sum of
the areas above the baseline and the areas below the baseline should be equal.
The shearing force curve given is the sum of the shearing forces on the right part produced by the left side, going
from left to right. If the direction of the force is changing, (from upward to downwards), the shearing force curve
will change from rising to falling or vice versa.
The shearing force curve has an extreme value at the points where the
direction of the force is changing. Converting the load curve to a shear force
𝐒𝐅 = ∫ 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
curve is called summing. The sum of the areas above the base line has to
equal the sum of the areas below the base line. The shearing forces are 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
expressed in tones.
The bending moment is determined by summing up the shearing forces 𝐁𝐌 = ∫ 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑆𝐹
going from left to right.
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD
Changes from rising to falling, or vice versa, the bending moment will bend at the bending point from “hollow” to
“round” or vice versa. When the shearing force curve crosses the baseline, the bending moment line will change
from rising to falling or vice versa.
The ship will take the shape of the bending moment line if this has only one extreme (maximum) value.
The situation in figures 1 and 2 is called” a hogging” condition and the situation in figures 3, 4, 5, and 6 is called
“a sagging” condition. Around the half height of the vessel there is a “neutral” zone. Here there are hardly any
tension or compression stresses. However, especially at the ends of the vessel, heavy horizontal shearing stresses
occur.
Total weight and total buoyancy are of course balanced, but at each section there will be a resultant force or
load, either an excess of buoyancy or excess of load. Since the vessel remains intact there are vertical upward
and downward forces tending to distort the vessel which are referred to as vertical shearing forces, since they
tend to shear the vertical material in the hull.
The ship will be loaded in a similar manner to the
beam shown below it, and will bend in a similar
manner because of the variation in vertical loading.
A vessel bending in this manner is said to be
'hogging'.
It can be seen that the upper fibres of the material
forming the deck of the ship would be in tension;
Conversely the lower fibres of the material forming
the bottom of the ship, will be in compression.
If it takes up the reverse form with excess weight
amidships is said to be 'sagging'. When sagging the deck will be in compression and the bottom shell in tension.
When laying in still water the vessel is subjected to bending moments, either hogging or sagging depending on the
relative weight and buoyancy forces, and it will also be subjected to vertical shear forces.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2fWWqUOFId8&ab_channel=MarineOnline
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rHlEXn37dVg&ab_channel=SergeyPetrov

Simple shear force and bending moment diagrams for box-shaped vessels
The values of shear force and bending moment can be easily calculated for any position within the box-shaped
vessel’s length. However, it should be evident that the maximum values of shear force will occur at the bulkhead
positions. Follow the example which details a method of calculating the values of loads, shear forces and bending
moments.
Question:
In the light condition a box-shaped vessel is 45 m in length, 8 m in breadth and floats at draught of 3.0 m in fresh
water. The vessel has three holds each 15 m in length. 90 tonnes of bulk cargo is loaded into number 2 hold and is
trimmed level. For the loaded condition construct the following:
a. load curve;
b. curve of shear forces,
c. curve of bending moments.
d. identify the positions where the maximum shearing forces and bending moments occur.
Values of shear forces and bending moments are to be calculated at 5 metre intervals starting from the after
perpendicular (AP) and at amidships (22.5 m foap).
1. Calculate the distribution of the lightweight displacement of the vessel.
ΔLight = L x B x d x ρ = 45 x 8 x 3 x 1 = 1080 t

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Being a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction the lightweight displacement evenly distributed;
𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎
= 𝟐𝟒𝐭/𝐦
𝟒𝟓
2. Calculate the distribution of all deadweight items (cargo)
𝟗𝟎
Cargo evenly distributed in No 2 hold; 𝟏𝟓
= 𝟔𝐭/𝐦
3. Calculate the load displacement and distribution of the buoyancy force
ΔLoad = ΔLight + ΔDeadweight = 1080 + 90 = 1170 t
𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟎
Being a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction the buoyancy force evenly distributed; 𝟒𝟓
= 𝟐𝟔𝐭/𝐦
4. Calculate the loads in each hold and plot the load curve.
Lightweight Deadweight Total Wf
Hold No. Bf (t/m) Load (t/m)
(t/m) (t/m) (t/m)
3 24 0 24 26 2 up
2 24 6 30 26 4 down
1 24 0 24 26 2 up

The load in tonnes per metre represents

the excess of buoyancy force or weight
force in each hold. The load curve is
shown in following figure.
Note:
Because total weight force equals total
buoyancy force, it follows that the
excesses of buoyancy force
(represented by the area above the base
line) and the excesses of weight force
(represented by the area below the base
line) must also be equal. This is always
the case. Note also that the unit of load
is tonnes/metre.
5. Produce the curve of shear forces
The shear force at any position is defined as being the algebraic sum of the loads acting to the left (or right) of the
position in question and is measured in tonnes.
Integrating the load curve will produce the curve of shear forces.
The maximum shear force values will arise at the positions where the loads change direction, being at the bulkhead
positions.
Consider the aforementioned definition of shear force. For our purposes this definition of shear force can be
modified to read as being the area under the load curve to the left of the point in question.
Therefore:
SF at AP = 0 tonnes (since there is no area to the left of the AP under the curve!)
Placing a sheet of paper over the curve and moving it to the right at 5 metre intervals, calculate the net area to the
left of the edge of the sheet for each point in question.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

SF at 5 m foap = 2 t/m x 5 m = 10 tonnes.
Now calculate the SF value at 10 m foap (by moving the paper further to the right and revealing more of the curve
to the left.
SF at 10 m foap = 2 t/m x 10 m = 20 tonnes.
SF at 15 m foap (Bulkhead 3/2) = 2 t/m x 15 m = 30 tonnes.
At 20 m foap there is area revealed above and below the baseline and this is treated as positive and negative as per
the load scale.

SF at 20 m foap = (2 t/m x 15 m) + (-4 t/m x 5 m) = 10 tonnes.

Continuing with this method gives:
SF at amidships (22.5 m foap) = (2 t/m x 15 m) + (-4 t/m x 7.5 m) = 0 tonnes
SF at 25 m foap = (2 t/m x 15 m) + (-4 t/m x 10 m) = -10 tonnes.
SF at 30 m foap (bulkhead 2/1) = (2 t/m x 15 m) + (-4 t/m x 15 m) = -30 tonnes
SF at 35 m foap = (2 t/m x 15 m) + (-4 t/m x15 m) + (2 t/m x 5 m) = -20 tonne
SF at 40 m foap = (2 t/m x 15 m) + (-4 t/m x 15 m) + (2 t/m x 10 m) = -10 tonnes
SF at 45 m foap = (2 t/m x 15 m) + (-4 t/m x15 m) + (2 t/m x 15 m) = 0 tonnes
(Obviously the SF at the FP is 0 tonnes.)

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Careful study of this method will lead to a more simplified approach with practice. The curve of shear forces can
now be plotted as shown in following figure:

6. Produce the curve of bending moments

The bending moment values are calculated in exactly the same way as the shear force values, by considering the
areas under the shear force curve to the left of the position in question.
The bending moment values are calculated as follows:
BM at AP = 0 tonnes (since there is no area to the left of the AP under the SF curve!)
Placing a sheet of paper over the curve and moving to the right as far as the first bulkhead position (Bulkhead 3/2),
calculate the areas as before.

BM 5 m foap = ½ x 5 m x 10 t = 25 t-m
BM 10 m foap = ½ x 10 m x 20 t = 100 t-m

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

BM 15 m foap (bulkhead 3/2) = ½ x 15 m x 30 t = 225 t-m

Once past bulkhead 3/2 it is

necessary to consider the area of a
trapezium formed by the area under
the shear force curve to the right of
the bulkhead as seen in following
figure.

Following figure shows the

plotted bending moment curve.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Summary:
The maximum shear force values occur at the positions where the direction of the loads change direction; at the
bulkheads being:
30 tonnes at 15 m foap (in line with bulkhead 3/2), and;
-30 tonnes at 30 m foap (in line with bulkhead 2/1)
The maximum bending moment value of (337.5 t-m) occurs at amidships (22.5 m foap), where the shear force
value is zero.
It should be noted that a point of inflexion of the bending moment curve will occur in any position where there is
a shear force maximum (being at the bulkhead positions in this example).
Question:
A box shaped vessel has length 80 m and breadth 10 m and is floating in the light condition at a draught of 3.0 m
in water RD 1.010. It is divided into four holds of equal length. Cargo is loaded as follows:
 No. 1 120 tonnes,
 No. 2 120 tonnes,
 No. 3 empty,
 No.4 160 tonnes.
Construct the curves of shear force and bending moment, calculating the maximum values and stating the positions
where they occur.
1. Calculate the distribution of the lightweight displacement of the vessel.
ΔLight = L x B x d x ρ = 80 x 10 x 3 x 1.010 = 2424 t
Being a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction the lightweight displacement evenly distributed;
𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟒
= 𝟑𝟎. 𝟑 𝐭/𝐦
𝟖𝟎
2. Calculate the distribution of all deadweight items (cargo)
𝟏𝟐𝟎
Cargo evenly distributed in No 1 hold; 𝟐𝟎
= 𝟔𝐭/𝐦
Cargo evenly distributed in No 2 hold is also 6 t/m
𝟏𝟔𝟎
Cargo evenly distributed in No 4 hold; 𝟐𝟎
= 𝟖 𝐭/𝐦
3. Calculate the load displacement and distribution of the buoyancy force
ΔLoad = ΔLight + ΔDeadweight = 2424 + 120 + 120 + 160 = 2824 t
𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟒
Being a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction the buoyancy force evenly distributed; 𝟖𝟎
= 𝟑𝟓. 𝟑 𝐭/𝐦
4. Calculate the loads in each hold and plot the load curve.
Lightweight Deadweight Total Wf
Hold No. Bf (t/m) Load (t/m)
(t/m) (t/m) (t/m)
4 30.3 8 38.3 35.3 3 down
3 30.3 0 30.3 35.3 5 up
2 30.3 6 36.3 35.3 1 down
1 30.3 6 36.3 35.3 1 down

The load curve:

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

5. Produce the curve of shear forces
Calculate values at 10 metre intervals using the procedure previously described.
SF at AP = 0 tonnes
SF at 10 m foap = (-3 t/m x 10 m) = -30 tonnes
SF at 20 m foap (bulkhead 4/3) = (-3 t/m x 20 m) = -60 tonnes
SF at 30 m foap = -60 t + (5 t/m x 10 m) = -10 tonnes
SF at 40 m foap (bulkhead 3/2 and amidships) = -60 t + (5 t/m x 20 m) = 40 tonnes
SF at 50 m foap = 40 t + (-1t/m x 10 m) = 30 tonnes
SF at 60 m foap (bulkhead 2/1) = 40 t + (-1 t/m x 20 m) = 20 tonnes
SF at 70 m foap = 20 t + (-1 t/m x 10 m) = 10 tonnes
SF at 80 m foap (FP) = 20 t + (-1 t/m x 20 m) = 0 tonnes

It can be seen that the position of zero shear force lies in hold no. 3 and the value of the bending moment must be
calculated for this position as it will be a maximum value. The position of this maximum value could be estimated
from the shear force curve (about 32 m foap) but it is more accurate to calculate it by using the similar triangles
created by the shear force values for the bulkhead positions 4/3 and 3/2 as shown in following figure.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Let the position be ‘x’ metres from bulkhead 4/3 where the total hold length is 20 metres.
In the similar triangles:
𝐱 (𝟐𝟎 − 𝐱)
=
𝟔𝟎 𝟒𝟎
⸫ x = 12 m
The position of zero shear force is at 32 m foap. It is essential for examination purposes that this method be used to
calculate this position.
6. Produce the curve of bending moments
Calculate values at 10 metre intervals including that for 32 m foap using the procedure previously described.
BM at AP = 0 t-m
BM 10 m foap = ½ x 10 m x (-30) t = -150 t-m
BM 20 m foap (Bulkhead 4/3) = ½ x 20 m x (-60) t = -600 t-m
BM at 30 m foap = -600 t-m + Area trapezium 20 m to 30 m foap

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Calculating these values is tedious and a large-scale graph of the shear force curve will make life a lot easier.
Remember that it is just a matter of calculating the area to the left of the position in question each time.
The bending moment curve:

Summary:
The maximum shear force values are as follows:
-60 tonnes at 20 m foap (in line with bulkhead 4/3), and;
40 tonnes at 40 m foap (in line with bulkhead 3/2)
The maximum bending moment value of –960 t-m occurs at 32 m foap, where the shear force value is zero.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A box-shaped barge of uniform construction is 32 m long and displaces 352 tonnes when empty, is divided
by transverse bulkheads into four equal compartments. Cargo is loaded into each compartment and level
stowed as follows:
 No. 1 hold – 192 tonnes
 No. 2 hold – 224 tonnes
 No. 3 hold – 272 tonnes
 No. 4 hold – 176 tonnes
Construct load and shearing force diagrams, before calculating the bending moments at the bulkheads and
at the position of maximum value; hence draw the bending moment diagram.

Calculation of the still water bending moment (SWBM) by Murray’s method

Let;
WF represents the moment of the weight forward of amidships.
BF represents the moment of buoyancy forward of amidships.
Let;
WA represents the moment of the weight aft of amidships.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

BA represents the moment of the buoyancy aft of amidships.
W represents the ship’s displacement.
then:
Still Water Bending Moment (SWBM) = WF – BF
= WA - B A
This equation can be accurately evaluated by resolving in detail the many constituent parts, but Murray’s method
may be used to give an approximate solution with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes.
The following approximations are then used:
𝐖𝐅 + 𝐖𝐀
𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐌𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐌𝐖) =
𝟐
This moment is calculated using the full particulars of the ship in its loaded condition.
𝐖
𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐁𝐮𝐨𝐲𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐌𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐌𝐁) = 𝐱 𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐋𝐂𝐁 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐬
𝟐
An analysis of a large number of ships has shown that the Mean LCB of the fore and aft bodies for a trim not
exceeding 0.01L can be found using the formula:
Mean LCB = L x C
where L is the length of the ship in metres, and the value of C can be found from the following table in terms of the
block coefficient (CB) for the ship at a draft of 0.06 L.

The Still Water Bending Moment Amidships (SWBM) is then given by the formula:
SWBM = MW – MB
or
𝐖𝐅 + 𝐖𝐀 𝐖
𝐒𝐖𝐁𝐌 = − 𝐱𝐋𝐱𝐂
𝟐 𝟐
where the value of C is found from the table above.
If the Mean Weight Moment is greater than the Mean Buoyancy Moment
then the ship will be hogged, but if the Mean Buoyancy Moment exceeds
the Mean Weight Moment, then the ship will sag. So:
If MW > MB then ship hogs
If MB > MW then ship sags

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Consider the first question:

Mean Weight Moment = 360 x 15 + 225 x 3.75 = 6243.75 t-m

Mean Buoyancy Moment = 390 x 15 + 195 x 3.75 = 6581.25 t-m
SWBM = MW – MB = 6581.25 – 6243.75 = 337.5 t-m
Since MB > MW then ship sags.
Lightweight Deadweight Total Wf
Hold No. Bf (t/m) Load (t/m)
(t/m) (t/m) (t/m)
3 24 0 24 26 2 up
2 24 6 30 26 4 down
1 24 0 24 26 2 up

Reference to the table above, for hold 1 the total weight force (TWf) is equal to the product of the length of the hold
(15 m) and total weight force/m calculated for the hold (24 t/m).
Wf (1) = 15 x 24 = 360 t.
Wf (2) = 15 x 30 = 450 t.
The total buoyancy force for hold all holds are the same because the vessel is floating at the same common draft.
Bf (1,2,3) = 15m x 26 t/m = 390 t.
To apply Murray’s method to calculate the TBM amidships, we need to calculate the Weight Moments and
Buoyancy Moments with respect to amidships fore and aft bodies separately than take the Mean Values (MWM and
MBM).
The vessel is symmetric with respect to amidships. So, we need to consider either for body or aft body and take
moment of the weight forces and buoyancy forces with respect to amidships.
Fore body is composed of number 1. Hold and half of 2. Hold. In the sketch above weight and buoyancy forces are
calculated and shown for each part separately.
SWBM = MW – MB
Calculated MWM and MBM values 6243.75 t-m and 6581.25 t m respectively and the difference, TBM amidships,
is 337.5 t-m.
Since MBM > MWM the ship is in SAGGING condition. This is the verification that TBM is the same as the value
determined by constructing shear force and bending moment curves.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

 w(x); weight distribution
b(x); Buoyancy distribution
Q(x); Shear force
M(x); Bending moment

Buoyancy Curves
A buoyancy curve shows the longitudinal distribution of buoyancy and can be constructed for any wave formation
using the Bonjean Curves.
How to construct buoyancy curve?
Bonjean curves are drawn to give the
immersed area of transverse sections to any
draft and may be used to determine the
longitudinal distribution of buoyancy. For
example, following figure shows a
transverse section of a ship and other figure
shows the Bonjean Curve for the same
section. The immersed area to the water line WL is represented on the Bonjean
Curve by ordinate AB, and the immersed area to waterline W1L1 is represented by
ordinate CD.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Wave effect;

Buoyancy Curve
when a wave crest
is amidships
Buoyancy Curve
when a wave trough is
amidships

Buoyancy Curve
in still water

Length overall (LOA)

Bending moments in seaway

How shearing force and bending moment occur when a ship in a seaway? (Wave bending moment)
So far only the causes of longitudinal bending in still water (or the harbour condition) have been discussed. A well-
loaded ship subjected to minimal stress in still water will encounter cyclical longitudinal bending when encountering
waves at sea. The extreme case scenario occurs at sea when the ship encounters waves where the wavelength is
equal to the ship’s length and either of the following occurs:
 the ship is caused to sag when the trough is
amidships and the wave crests are at the ends, or;
 the ship is caused to hog when the wave crest is
amidships and the troughs are at the ends.

Unlike bending in still water, the bending due to waves

alone will alternate in direction as the wave passes along the
length of the ship. The absolute worst-case scenarios
assumed by loading programme manufacturers by necessity

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

must be one of the following depending on
how the ship is loaded at the time the
loading programme is being used for stress
calculations:
 an initially sagged ship in still water
encountering a ‘sagging wave’ at
sea, or;
 an initially hogged ship in still
water encountering a ‘hogging
wave’ at sea.

When a ship is in a seaway the waves with

their troughs and crests produce a greater
variation in the buoyant forces and therefore
can increase the bending moment, vertical shear force, and stresses.
The total bending moment that occurs amidships is calculated by Murray’s Method.
Murray's Method is used to find the total longitudinal bending moment amidships on a ship in waves and is based
on the division of the total bending moment into two parts:
a. the Still Water Bending Moment, and
b. the Wave Bending moment.
The Still Water Bending Moment is the longitudinal bending moment amidships when the ship is floating in still
water.
When using Murray's Method, the wave bending moment amidships is that produced by the waves when the ship
is supported on what is called a `Standard Wave'. A Standard Wave is one whose length is equal to the length of
the ship (L), and whose height is equal to 0.607 √L where L is measured in metres. See following figure.
The Wave Bending Moment is then found using the formula:
WBM = b x B x L2.5 x 10-3 t-m
where B is the beam of the ship in metres and b is a constant based on the ship’s block coefficient (CB) and on
whether the ship is hogging or sagging. The value of b can be obtained from the following table.

Question:
The length LBP of a ship is 200 m, the beam is 30 m and the block
coefficient is 0.750. The hull weight is 5000 tonnes having LCG 25.5 m from amidships. The mean LCB of the fore
and after bodies is 25 m from amidships. Values of the constant b are: hogging 9.795 and sagging 11.02.

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Given the following data and using Murray’s method, calculate the longitudinal bending moments amidships for
the ship on a Standard Wave with: (a) the crest amidships and (b) the trough amidships. Use the following figure to
obtain solution.

Item Weight LCG from amidships

No. 1 hold 1800 t 55.0 m aft
No. 2 hold 3200 t 25.5 m forward
No. 3 hold 1200 t 5.5 m forward
No. 4 hold 2200 t 24.0 m aft
No. 5 hold 1500 t 50.0 m aft
Machinery 1500 t 7.5 m aft
Fuel oil 400 t 8.0 m aft
Fresh water 150 t 10.0 m forward

Item Weight LCG from amidships Moment

No. 1 hold 1800 t 55.0 m aft 99000
No. 2 hold 3200 t 25.5 m forward 81600
No. 3 hold 1200 t 5.5 m forward 6600
No. 4 hold 2200 t 24.0 m aft 52800
No. 5 hold 1500 t 50.0 m aft 75000
Machinery 1500 t 7.5 m aft 11250
Fuel oil 400 t 8.0 m aft 3200
Fresh water 150 t 10.0 m forward 1500
Hull 500 t 25.5 m 127500
16950 t 458450 t-m

𝐖𝐅 + 𝐖𝐀 𝟒𝟓𝟖𝟒𝟓𝟎
𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐌𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐌𝐖) = = = 𝟐𝟐𝟗𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝐭 𝐦
𝟐 𝟐
𝐖 𝟏𝟔𝟗𝟓𝟎
𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐁𝐮𝐨𝐲𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐌𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐌𝐁) = 𝐱 𝐋𝐂𝐁 = 𝐱 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝐭 𝐦
𝟐 𝟐
SWBM = MW – MB = 229225 -211875 = 17330 t-m (hogging) because MW > MB
WBM = b x B x L2.5 x 10-3
WBM hogging = 9.795 x 30 x 2002.5 x 10-3 = 166228 t-m

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

WBM sagging = 11.02 x 30 x 2002.5 x 10-3 = 187017 t-m
TBM hogging = WBM hogging + SWBM hogging = 166228 + 17350 = 183578 t-m
TBM sagging = WBM hogging - SWBM hogging = 187017 – 17350 = 169667 t-m
Answer (a) with crest amidships, the Total Bending Moment, TBM is 183 578 tonnes metres.
Answer (b) with trough amidships, the Total Bending Moment, TBM is 169 667 tonnes metres.
The greatest danger for a ship to break her back is when the wave crest is at amidships, or when the wave trough is
at amidships with the crests at the stem and at the bow.
In the previous example the greatest BM occurs with the crest amidships. Consequently, this ship would fracture
across the upper deck if the tensile stress due to hogging condition became too high.

Bending stress calculation

Remember that from classic bending theory the bending stress (σ) at any point in a beam is given by:
𝐌
𝛔= 𝐱𝐲
𝐈
where M = applied bending moment.
y = distance of point considered from neutral axis.
I = second moment of area of cross-section of beam about the neutral axis.
If applied to ship, the (longitudinal) bending stress at any point along the length of the ship is calculated by using
the same formula:
𝐓𝐁𝐌
𝛔= 𝐱𝐲
𝐈
where TBM = applied total bending moment.
Question:
Load curve of a box-shaped vessel is given in the figure below.
a. Construct the SF and BM curves of the vessel. Indicate the maximum values of SF and SWBM on related
curves.
b. If the calculated WBM hogging is 19000 t-m and WBM sagging is 21500 t-m, calculate the TBM at
amidships.
c. Based on the given midship section sketch, calculate the max. stress levels at the deck and at the bottom of
the vessel. (σdeck and σbottom)
d. Are those stress levels at deck and bottom of the vessel are safe or unsafe for this loading condition?
(σmax=11000 t/m2) If unsafe, calculate the maximum allowable total bending moment (TBM).

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

 SWBM sagging
= 8000 t-m

b. TBM sagging = 21500 + 8000 = 29500 t-m

TBM hogging = 19000 – 8000 = 11000 t-m
𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝐜. 𝛔𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐤 = 𝐱 𝟓. 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝐭/𝐦𝟐
𝟏𝟎. 𝟐

𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝛔𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦 = 𝐱 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟎. 𝟖 𝐭/𝐦𝟐
𝟏𝟎. 𝟐
d. Since σdeck and σbottom are above the allowable stress levels (11000 t/m2), this loading condition is unsafe.
𝐌
𝐞. 𝛔𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐤 = 𝐱 𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐤
𝐈
𝛔𝐱𝐈 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐
𝐌𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 = = = 𝟐𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟔. 𝟗 𝐭𝐦
𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐤 𝟓. 𝟐

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

Loading Programme Situation 1

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD
Loading Programme Situation 2

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD
Loading Programme Situation 3

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD

MTME 211 Structure and Stability of Ships Barış Özsever, PhD