Forensic 6 Module - Jjba

Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED
COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
WEEK 1 INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC BALLISTICS
A scientific study of firearm identification with the use of laboratory examination. The course
emphasizes the history, important dates, and personalities in the study of ballistics, the study
of firearms, ammunition, projectiles, gunpowder, and primer through the use of forensic
ballistics laboratory equipment. It also deals with the principles of firearm identification and the
preparation of reports for legal proceedings in the solution of cases involving firearms.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
LEGAL DEFINITION
 It is the microscopic examination of fire cartridge cases and bullets together with the
recording and presentation using photography of what is revealed by the microscope.
TECHNICAL DEFINITION
 It refers to the science of firearms identification which involves the scientific

examination of ballistic exhibits, such as:
a. Fired bullets
b. Fired shells
c. Firearms; and
d. Allied matters, used in a crime
CLASSICAL DEFINITION
 It is a scientific study of the propulsion and motion of projectiles such as bullets, artillery
shells, rockets, and guided missiles. Also includes the study of the destructive action of
such projectiles.
SIMPLE DEFINITION
 The science of the motion of projectiles.
BALLISTICS
 Science deals with the study of the motion of projectiles.
The Greek word, “Ballo” or “Ballein” - to throw.
PROJECTILE- refers to the bullet/ slug/ pellet/ flechette that passes through the barrel of FA.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS- the science of firearms identification through the ammunition
fired through them.
FORENSIC- as applied to ballistics or any other subjects suggests a relationship to a court
of justice and legal proceedings.
|1
Prepared by: Januaryn Jose B. Aydinan
-Derived from “Forum” - a public place wherein people gather for a
discussion of a subject in issue.
MOTION- refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile inside and outside the barrel.
TYPES OF MOTION
1. Direct Motion- the forward movement of the projectile with the action of expansive force or
gases.
2. Rotary Motion- the turning of the bullet inside and outside the barrel with the action of the
rifling.
3. Translational Motion- the movement of the projectile after hitting the target.
1. Yaw – the unstable rotating motion of the projectile.

2. Gyroscopic Action – refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attains its highest
momentum for stability in flight penetrating power.
3. Key Hole Shot – bullet hitting the target, not nose-on.
4. Tailwag – the wobbling of the end of the projectile before it picks up a smooth fight path.
5. Ricochet – a bullet tends to glance off an object or to skip, like a flat stone thrown out over
a water surface.
COMMON TERMS IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
 Ballistics - Scientific study of the motion of projectiles; often used as a generic term for
the study of bullets from the time they are shot until they impact a target.
 Bullet - The projectile that is expelled from a rifled firearm (as opposed to slug).
 Cartridge - A complete unfired round of ammunition consisting of a cartridge case,

projectile (bullet), primer, and smokeless powder.
 Cartridge case - The container that holds the cartridge components; usually made of
brass, nickel, or steel.
 Comparison microscope - Two microscopes joined by an optical bridge, which allows

the viewing of two samples side by side; it is the primary tool of the firearms examiner.
 Firing pin/striker - The working component of a firearm that contacts the ammunition.
 Groove - The interior portion of a rifled barrel that is cut to form the rifling; the grooves
may vary in number, size, and direction of the spiral by manufacturer and/or model.
 Individual characteristics - Marks present on fired ammunition components that are

unique to a particular firearm and distinguish it from all other firearms of the same type;
these marks are produced by the random imperfections or irregularities of the firearm
|2
surfaces; they are incidental to manufacture and/or caused by use, corrosion, or
damage.
 Land - The interior portion of a rifled barrel between two grooves
 Magazine - A container for cartridges that has a spring and follower to feed those
cartridges into the chamber of a firearm; the magazine may be detachable or an integral
part of the firearm.
 Pistol - A handgun; the most common is a semi-automatic pistol, which uses a

magazine and ejects fired cartridge cases automatically.
 Primer - The chemical composition that, when struck by a firing pin, ignites the
smokeless powder.
 Revolver - A handgun that has a rotating cylinder to hold cartridges for firing; cartridge
cases are not automatically ejected when fired.
 Rifling - Grooves in the interior of a firearm barrel to impart spin to a bullet; improves
flight characteristics and increases accuracy.
 Shot - Round pellets are used as projectiles in shotshells or cartridges.
 Shotgun - A shoulder-fired firearm normally with a smooth barrel.
 Shotshell - Shortening of "shotgun shell"; a complete unfired round of ammunition
consisting of a shotshell casing, projectile(s) (shot/slug), wadding, primer, and
smokeless powder.
 Shotshell casing - The container that holds the shotshell components; usually made of
plastic, with a thin brass base.
 Slug - A term applied to a single shotshell projectile.
 Striations - contour variations, generally microscopic, on the surface of an object caused
by a combination of force and motion where the motion is approximately parallel to the
plane being marked.
 Smokeless powder - The chemical composition that, when ignited by a primer,
generates gas; the force of the gas propels the projectile(s).
 Striation - The usually microscopic markings on the surface of a fired ammunition
component caused by a combination of force and motion; these marks can contain
class and/or individual characteristics.
 Wadding - Paper or other material in a shotshell that forms a seal between the
smokeless powder and the shot.
|3
WEEK 2 BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
1. INTERIOR (INTERNAL) BALLISTICS

- Refers to the properties and attributes of the projectile (bullet) while inside the gun.
- This extends from the "breach" to the "muzzle" of the gun.
This includes the following:

a. Firing pin hitting the primer
Defects in FA that cause misfire:
1. Broken firing pin
2. Lose firing pin
3. Lacking strength in firing pin (especially homemade guns)
MISFIRE- failure of the cartridge to explode
b. Ignition of the priming mixture

Probable defects in the contents of the primer cup
1. Wet priming mixture
2. Anvil is not properly fixed (slanting position)
3. No vent or flash hole (factory defect)
4. No priming mixture (factory defect)
HANGFIRE- the delay of explosion
c. Combustion of the gunpowder
A. Primer crushed the priming mixture against the anvil

B. Ignition of priming mixture and primer flash
C. Enters the vent or canal
D. Primer flash ignites the gunpowder and combustion happens
Note:
If the priming mixture is defective, no explosion
If the priming mixture is live and gunpowder is defective or wet, only the priming
mixture will explode
 This results in the slow exit of the bullet in the barrel or stuck up.
To propel the bullet, priming mixture and gunpowder must explode simultaneously
d. Expansion of heated gas

- The gas expands in different directions that tend the bullet and shell to separate.
The shell due to the tremendous pressure inside will also expand towards the wall of the
chamber by force.
|4
Individual Characteristics Found in the Chamber
1. Irregularities- created during manufacture such as spiral cutting of the grooves.

2. Scratches- caused by tools used in the manufacture of the chamber
3. Roughness- not polished well.
4. Imperfection- caused by the drill blade and beyond the control of man.
e. Pressure developed
 When a heated gas created by the burning gunpowder is developed, tremendous
pressure is produced in the chamber of the FA.
Example: CALIBER .357 = the chamber pressure is 46,000 per square inch.
BREECHFACE MARKS – occurs when the shell is separated from the bullet, the shell
will be pushed back to the breech face leaving such marks.
f. Energy generated
ENERGY- refers to the fatal equivalent of a bullet.
In the horizontal flight, of the bullet, most FA’s have KNOCKING EFFECT that causes a target
person to be thrown to the ground.
g. Recoil of the gun

RECOIL- is the rearward movement of the gun caused by an equal and opposite
reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the bullet after the explosion.
KINETIC ENERGY PRINCIPLE= in every action, there is a corresponding opposite reaction.

COMPENSATOR/MUZZLE BRAKE- a gadget that is attached to the muzzle of the gun to
reduce coil.8
h. Velocity of the bullet

 The Speed of the bullet inside depends on the amount of gunpowder inside the shell.
Ballistics data is used to load the proper amount of gunpowder in every ammunition.
Example: Cal .357 = 1,775 feet per second

Cal .45 = 845 feet per second
Thus, Cal .357 is more powerful than Cal .45
i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
 This happens only to Rifled – bore barrels. This has gyroscopic stability.
In a smoothbore barrel, the bullet will just move forward with no gyroscopic stability.
GYROSCOPIC STABILITY- the stability of the bullet within the effective range due to
the twist of the rifling.
j. Engraving on the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

 When the bullet is rotating inside the barrel, it leaves grains from the lead bullet.
|5
METAL FOWL- refers to the metal strips left by the bullet inside. These could be
removed with the use of a steel brush.
GRAPHITE- a lubricant used to prevent the adherence of Metal Fowl.
k. Case cools, shrinks to the nearly original size, allowing the case to be ejected
2. TRANSITIONAL BALLISTICS also known as INTERMEDIATE BALLISTICS

- The study of a projectile’s behavior from the time it leaves the muzzle until the
pressure behind the projectile is equalized.
- It lies BETWEEN internal ballistics and external ballistics.
3. EXTERIOR (EXTERNAL) BALLISTICS

- Refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has left the gun muzzle.
It involves the ff:

a. Muzzle Blast- the sound created at the muzzle end of the gun by the reason of the
sudden escape of the expanding gas when it comes to instant contact with the air in the
surrounding atmosphere at muzzle point.
Muzzle flash- the light or flame associated with the round being fired.
b. Muzzle energy- this is the potential force that any bullet might exert at any particular
point in its trajectory.
 It is expressed in foot-pound, a term derived from the force exerted by the weight of one
pound when dropped at a height of one foot.
c. Trajectory- the actual pattern or the curved path of the bullet in flight.
Stages of trajectory
1. Straight horizontal line
2. Parabola like flight
3. Vertical drop
DRIFT
 It refers to the lateral deviation of the bullet’s trajectory from the vertical plane
through the axis of the bore caused by the rotation of the projectile.
d. Range- the straight distance between the muzzle and the target.
1. ACCURATE RANGE- the distance within which the shooter has control of his shots.
2. EFFECTIVE RANGE- the distance at which the projectile can be expected to be
lethal.
3. MAXIMUM RANGE- the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.
POINT-BLANK RANGE
 A shot is fired so close to the target that no sighting is necessary for effective aiming.
|6
e. Velocity- the rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time. (FEET/SEC.)
f. Air Resistance (Drag) - the force of the air encountered by the bullet while in flight.
 AERODYNAMIC DRAG- the dragging of the bullet downward due to air resistance.
 BALLISTIC PENDULUM- the declaration of the bullet in flight to gravity.
 INERTIA- allows a body at rest to remain at rest a body in motion remain in motion.
 YAWING- the unstable movement of the bullet in flight such as wobbling or tumbling
before hitting the target.
 KEYHOLE SHOT- caused by yawing of bullet resulting to hitting of target sideways
resulting to oval-like entry o bullet.
g. Pull of gravity- the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth center due to its
weight.
h. Penetration- the entry of the bullet on target.
4. TERMINAL BALLISTICS
- The study of the behavior/impact/effect of a projectile when it hits its target. It is often
referred to as stopping power when dealing with a human or other living targets.
- Deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the
projectile's flight.
Important Factors:
a. Terminal Accuracy- the size of the bullet grouping on the target.
b. Terminal Energy- the potential force that any bullet might exert at any particular
point in its trajectory/upon striking the target.
c. Terminal Velocity- speed of the bullet inside the target.
d. Terminal Penetration- depth of an entry of the bullet on the target.
Note:
When a projectile hits its target, the terminal ballistics, a phenomenon that occurs may
be one or a combination of the following:
1. Indentation
2. Penetration
3. Perforation
4. Ricochet
5. Fragmentation
6. Detonation and other related blast phenomena
7. Combustion and incendiary effects.
RICOCHET- a bullet tends to glance off an object or to skip, like a flat stone thrown out over a
water surface.
|7
REMINDER
Interior, Exterior, Transitional, and Terminal Ballistics all deal with the study of the motion of
projectiles.
Special branches under Terminal Ballistics:
5. SHOT BALLISTICS- refers to the study of shots from smoothbore firearms like shotguns
and muskets.
 SHOTGUNS discharge single but usually multiple shots/pellets in a single fire.
 MUSKET is another smooth-bore firearm that discharges a single ball in one firing.
Shot wads- can be at the distance of 5-8 yards. These wads are very important in the
identification of:
1. Gauge of weapon
2. Make of ammunition
RANGE BETWEEN SHOTGUN AND THE TARGET:

1. 1-3 FEET = wound is about 1.5 – 2 inches in diameter. Scorching, Tattooing,
Singeing, may be observed.
2. BEYOND 3 FEET = shot begins to spread out.
3. 4 FEET = wound will appear as a central hole with small perforations around.
4. BEYOND FEET = shots continue to spread out and produce a mass of small
perforations with no central wound.
MUZZLE IMPRINT appears with smudges of gunpowder with cherry-red discoloration.
6. WOUND BALLISTICS- is the study of the effects of a projectile on a target and the
conditions that affect them. Primarily concerned with the nature and medical fragments.
3 Basic Kinds of Gunshot Wound (GSW) distinguished by the proximity of the

weapon causing them:
1. Contact- gun muzzle is pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body
2. Close Discharge- 6” to 2 ft.
3. Distance discharge- over 2 or 3 ft.
BULLET WOUND PHENOMENON
The entry wound is generally clean, round holes slightly smaller than the bullets that caused
them; as the bullet travels through the body it produces a shock wave, which damages the
tissue around its path. This is known as “TISSUE QUAKE”.
|8
Contact wound (soft tissue)

 The abrasion ring, and a very clear muzzle imprint, are seen in this contact range
gunshot wound.
The physical effects that indicate a contact shot may include:

1. Ripping and tearing of cloth
2. Burning and/or singeing of cloth
3. Melted tips of artificial fibers
4. Heavy vaporous lead (smoke) deposits around a suspected bullet hole
7. FORENSIC BALLISTICS
- The science of Firearm Identification using the ammunition fired through them.
-This is the real branch of science which the police use as their guide in the field
investigation.
Divisions:
1. FIELD INVESTIGATION- refers to the work of an investigator on the field.
2. TECHNICAL EXAMINATION- refers to the examination/comparison conducted by the
Firearm Examiner.
3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS- the presentation of the “Ballistic Report” on firearms, bullets,
shells, and allied exhibits in court.
Firearm Examiner (Ballistician) – person, whose knowledge in firearms identification is

accepted by the court and other investigations.
Expert – as used in court includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on the ground of
specialized knowledge, training, and experience.
COMPUTATIONS/CONVERSION OF CAL - MM and MM – CAL
1. Cal to mm (x 25.4) 2. Mm to Cal (x .03937)

Cal .38 – mm 5.56 mm - Cal
.38 x 25.4 = 9.642 or 9mm 5.56 x 0.03937 = .2178972 or .22 Caliber
Note:
After computing, always go to the nearest Caliber (just like No. 1)
EQUIVALENTS OF CALIBERS
1. Caliber .45 = 11 mm
2. Caliber .38 = 9 mm
3. Caliber .32 = 7.65 mm
4. Caliber .320 = 7.63 mm
5. Caliber .25 = 6.35 mm
6. Caliber .22 = 5.56 mm
|9
DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF CALIBER MEASUREMENTS:
1. American System (2 digits) – expressed in hundredths of an inch such as

Cal.45, .38, .25, .30
2. English System (3 digits) – expressed in thousandths of an inch like Cal.357, .380, .223
3. Continental/European System – expressed in millimeters such as 9mm, 5.56mm, 7.62mm
| 10
WEEK 2. ASSESSMENT
Please provide the information below and follow the instruction/s.
Name : ________________________ Section : ____________________
Date : ________________________ Signature : ____________________
1. DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING TERM AND IDENTIFY THE REASON WHY IT HAPPEN:
A. INDENTATION:
B. PENETRATION:
C. PERFORATION:
| 11
WEEK 3 FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
 In its narrowest meaning, it is the science by which one can determine whether or not a
particular bullet was fired from a particular gun.
FIREARM
 Is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles using the expansive fore of gases
coming from burning gunpowder.
 Technically, it is a weapon consisting essentially of a metal tube that fires a projectile by
using the force of an explosive propellant.
Legal Definition: (Sec. 877 of the RAC and Sec. 290 of NIRC)
 Firearm refers to any handheld or portable weapon, whether a small arm or light
weapon, that expels or is designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile, or any projectile,
which is discharged using the expansive force of gases from burning gunpowder or
another form of combustion or any similar instrument or implement. For purposes of this
Act, the barrel, frame, or receiver is considered a firearm. (Sec. 3 Par l of RA 10591)
AIR RIFLE - A type of weapon designed to shoot pellets using compressed air.
HISTORY OF THE FIRST FIREARM
 The first firearms that developed were small arms in the form of miniature artillery
weapons and were at first called hand cannons.
These are classified as follows:
1. THE HAND CANNON

- Seem to have appeared about 1350 and consisted of a simple iron tube with a stock.
- The tube had a hole at the rear end, the touchhole, and a little extension or pan to
hold a small amount of powder, known as priming charge.
2. THE MATCH-LOCK ARMS

 Appeared about 1485, these were simple improvements of the hand cannon. They
utilized a lever, spring, and trigger to hold the burning match and bring it in contact with
the powder in the pan when firing the gun.
3. WHEELLOCK – Developed about 1500

- Wheelock, wheel-lock, or wheel lock is a mechanism for firing a firearm. It was the
next major development in firearms technology after the matchlock and the first self-
igniting firearm.
| 12
- The mechanism is so-called because it uses a rotating steel wheel to provide ignition.
Wheel-lock Rifle, Ca. 1680-90
 John Michael Maucher (German, 1645-1701)
4. THE FLINT-LOCK ARMS

- Introduced about 1630, the flint-lock rapidly replaced earlier firearm-ignition
technologies, such as the matchlock and wheel-lock mechanisms. It continued to be
in common use for over two centuries, replaced by percussion cap and later,
cartridge-based systems in the early-to-mid 19th century.
Percussion Muzzle Loading Rifle Pattern

 In 1807, a Scotch minister, the Reverend Alexander John Forsyth, patented a
chemical compound consisting mainly of mercury fulminate, which would explode on
being struck.
 Percussion firing requires the use of an explosive that will detonate when struck
by a sharp blow.
TWO GROUPS OF FIREARMS
1. LONG ARMS OR SHOULDER ARMS

a) RIFLE
- This is a type of weapon normally designed to be fired with the support of the shoulder.
- Named because the grooving inside the barrel is known as RIFLING.
b) MUSKET
- Long smooth bored firearm that is designed to fire a single round lead ball.
- Muzzleloading firearms.
c) SHOTGUN
- Long smooth bored firearms having a barrel of 25-30 inches long and designed to
shoot several lead pellets in one charge.
TERMS RELATED TO SHOTGUN
Choke
- It refers to the partial constriction of the bore near the muzzle end of
the gun to hold the shots together over a longer distance.
True Cylinder
- When the diameter of the barrel is the same throughout the barrel.
Paradox Gun
- A shotgun having the last few inches of the muzzle rifled so that it will
impart a spin to the patented slug that is used with it when to be
desired to fire a large single projectile instead of a charge of shot.
d) CARBINE (cal .30)

| 13
- A short-barreled rifle having a barrel not longer than 22 inches.
2. HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS
- It is a firearm designed to be held in the hand when used.
- Portable handguns appeared only in the early years of the 16th century.
a) SEMIAUTOMATIC PISTOL
- A repeating firearm requiring a separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired.
- It is a handgun whose chamber is integral with the barrel.
- A handgun that is magazine fed.
b) REVOLVER
- A firearm with a cylinder having several chambers so arranged as to rotate around an
axis and be discharged successively by the same firing mechanism.
TYPES OF REVOLVER
1. Solid frame (Samuel Colt 1835) “Swing out” type – the cylinder is mounted on a pivot
that is coaxial with the chambers and the cylinder swings out and down.
2. “Top break” type (UK) – In a top break revolver, the frame is hinged at the bottom front of
the cylinder. Releasing the lock and pushing the barrel down brings the cylinder up this
exposes the rear of the cylinder for reloading.
3. Fixed cylinder designs – this model used a loading gate at the rear of the cylinder that
allowed one cartridge at a time to be accessed for loading.
TYPES OF REVOLVER ACCORDING TO OPERATION

1. Single-action revolvers
 Require manual cocking of the hammer before sufficient force on the trigger releases
the firing mechanism. Pulling the trigger releases the hammer, driving the firing pin to
detonate the cartridge.
2. Double Action Revolvers
 Are similar to single-action revolvers with the following exceptions:
 Called "double-action" because the trigger performs two actions.
a) The trigger cocks the hammer and
b) It releases the hammer
Note: The word “handgun” specifies both pistol and revolver but the two are very different
weapons.
FIREARM NOMENCLATURES (HANDGUNS)
Parts of a Pistol
 Slide ► Breech face
 Barrel ► Ejector
 Extractor ►Firing Pin Aperture
 Trigger ► Extractor
 Safety ► Ejection Port
| 14
 Trigger guard
Parts of a Revolver
 Cylinder  Breech face
 Trigger  Firing Pin
 Hammer  Side plate screw
 Barrel
THE THREE MAIN PARTS OF REVOLVER and PISTOL
REVOLVER – Cal .38 PISTOL – Cal .45

1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly
2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Slide Assembly
3. Frame or receiver 3. Frame or receiver
 The automatic pistol, besides having the main parts and detailed parts it has also the
so-called auxiliary parts (accessories) which must all be removed first before
disassembly of the weapon can be accomplished.
 Barrel bushing
 Slide stop pin
 Recoil spring
 Recoil spring guide
 Recoil plug
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
A) According to Gun Barrel Internal Construction
1. SMOOTH-BORE FIREARMS
- Firearms that have no rifling inside the gun barrel.
Ex. Muskets
2. RIFLED-BORE FIREARMS
- Firearms that have rifling inside the gun.
Ex. Pistols, revolvers, and other weapons
B) According to Calibre of Projectiles Propelled
1. ARTILLERY
- Those types of firearms propel projectiles one (1) inch and more in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas
2. SMALL ARMS
- Those types of firearms propel projectiles less than one (1) inch in diameter.
Ex. Machine guns, Shoulder arms, and Handguns
C) According to Mechanical Construction

| 15
1. Single-shot Firearm
- Type of firearm designed to only one shot for every loading.
Ex. Single-shot pistol, Rifle, and Shotgun
2. Repeating Arms
- Fire several shots in one loading.
- A rifle that has several cartridges stored in some form of a magazine.
Ex. Automatic pistols, Rifles, Revolvers, Shotguns
3. Automatic Loading Type

- After the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding of the chamber takes place.
- Those that discharge one cartridge with each pull of the trigger and that continue to
fire as long as the trigger is held back.
Ex. Rifles, Machineguns
4. Bolt Action Type

- Reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.
Bolt Action Rifle
-A firearm that is manually loaded by the reciprocation and engagement of a bolt.
5. Lever Action
- A design wherein the breech mechanism is cycled by an external lever generally
below the receiver.
6. Slide Action
- An action which features a movable forearm that is manually actuated in motion
parallel to the barrel by the shooter. Also known as PUMP ACTION.
7. Semiautomatic Type
- A firearm requiring a separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired.
8. Machinegun Type
- A firearm with a rifled barrel firing rifle ammunition and capable of fully automatic fire.
9. Sub-machinegun Type
- Synonym “machine pistols” is a firearm with a rifled barrel firing pistol ammunition.
10. Shotguns
- From the standpoint of operation, shotgun mechanisms parallel those of rifles. The
major difference between the two types of guns is the barrel.
- It is a smooth-bored firearm; it has no rifling grooves cut into the barrel.
UNUSUAL OR MISCELLANEOUS TYPE

 Those type of firearms that are unique in mechanism and
construction.
a) Gas guns
- Used for firing tear gas and other forms of disabling gas.
b) Traps
- These are designed to the set in the woods and left where animals will encounter them.
They may fire a bullet or a poisoning charge, depending on their construction.
c) Cane gun, knife pistols, etc
| 16
- Also known as freakish device
- Many devices primarily designed for another purpose will have a gun mechanism
incorporated n them.
d) Tools
- There are many numbers of tools using cartridges that are designed to drive studs,
punch holes, or cutting tables. Such tools may be encountered in the investigation of
an accident.
e) Zip Guns
- These may be in any form since the name has been applied to all homemade guns.
f) Flare Guns
- Used in cases such as for sending signals and enabling to see enemies in the dark.
g) Harpoon Guns
- Barbed spear in hunting large fish.
h) Multi-barreled Guns
- Having three or four barrels mounted in one receiver.
i) Liberator
- Made by the US government for use in occupied countries of Europe during the recent
war and fired .45 ACP cartridges, single shot, and smooth bore.
GUSTAV GUN
-Largest gun in the world
GATLING GUN
- The world's first genuinely effective rapid-fire weapon, although it was not a true
machinegun. Invented by American Richard Gatling in 1862.
MAXIMUM MACHINE GUN

- Developed by Hiram Maxim – the world’s first true machinegun.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS AS TO POWER ACCORDING TO RA 8294
1. LOW POWERED FIREARMS

- Includes rimfire handguns, .380 or .32, and another firearm of similar fire powder.
2. HIGH POWERED FIREARMS
- Includes those with bores bigger in diameter than .38 caliber and 9mm such as
caliber .40 .41 .44 .45 and also lesser caliber firearms but consider powerful such as
caliber .357 and caliber .22 centerfire magnum and other firearms with fire magnum and
other firearms with firing capability of fully automatic and by the burst of two (2) or three
(3).
| 17
WEEK 3. ASSESSMENT
Name : ________________________ Section : ____________________
Date : ________________________ Signature : ____________________
1. What is the importance of firearm identification?
2. Knowing the different kinds/classifications of the firearm. Is it possible to identify the

classification of the firearm if a bullet is found at the crime scene? Why and how?
| 18
WEEK 4 AMMUNITION / CARTRIDGES
 LEGAL DEFINITION
 It shall refer to as a “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
revolvers, and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or another missile may
be fired using gunpowder or other explosives.
 TECHNICAL DEFINITION
 The term ammunition refers to a group of cartridges or a single unit cartridge –
meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder,
and primer.
 DEFINITION ACCORDING TO RA 10591

 Ammunition refers to a complete unfixed unit consisting of a bullet, gunpowder,
cartridge case, and primer or loaded shell for use in any firearm. (Sec. 3,Par b
Ra10591)
FIXED AMMUNITION
- Self-contained ammunition in which the propellant, projectile, and primer are held
together by a cartridge case.
SEMI FIXED AMMUNITION
- Artillery ammunition with separate components.
AMMUNITION
- Collective term for all types of ammunition. In the widest sense of the word, it covers
anything that can be used in combat that includes bombs, missiles, warheads, and mines
(landmine, naval mines, and anti-personnel mines)
ORIGIN:
The 16th century – cartridge was discovered.
 The earliest small arms cartridge consisted of a pre-measured charge of powder

wrapped in paper.
 The cartridge was derived from the Latin word "Charta" which means paper. The
French word “cartouche” meaning a roll of paper.
 In this mid-19th century, paper cartridges were manufactured by Ely Brothers, the
famous London ammunition firm.
GENERAL TYPES OF AMMUNITION
1. DUMMY AMMUNITION
- A carefully made replica of a cartridge usually made of steel and discreetly
dimensioned to be used by weapons instructors inspectors and repairmen when
checking if weapons are functional.
| 19
2. BLANK CARTRIDGE
- A type of cartridge for a firearm that contains gunpowder but no bullet or shot.
Uses of blank ammo:

 Blanks are commonly used when the sound and flash of gunfire is needed such as in:
 Military training maneuvers
 In movies that require gunfights
 Starter’s pistol
 Launching rifles grenades
3. LIVE AMMO
- The real ammunition is composed of a complete unit of the unfired cartridge.
4. DRILL AMMO
- Completely inert and without an explosive propellant; used in military training to
practice loading and manipulation of firearms.
CASELESS AMMUNITION
 Is firearm ammunition that aims to eliminate the metal case that typically holds the
primer or igniter and the gunpowder that propels the bullet
 The components are from left to right, a) the solid propellant, b) the primer, c) the
bullet, d) and a plastic cap that serves to keep the bullet centered in the propellant
block.
PARTS OF AN AMMUNITION / CARTRIDGE

1. Bullet
2. Gun Powder
3. Cartridge Case
4. Primer
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES
I. According to the type of firearms wherein used

a) Revolver Cartridges – used in revolvers
b) Pistol Cartridges – used in pistols
c) Rifle Cartridges – used in rifles
d) Shotguns – used in shotguns
II. According to the location of primer

1. Pinfire cartridge - (obsolete)
- Any point the pin hit will explode.
2. Center-fire
- Priming powder is located at the center.
3. Rim-fire
- The primer is located at the base point.
| 20
III. According to Rim Diameter
1. Rimmed Type
- The diameter of the rim is greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge
case.
Ex: Cal .38 and Cal .22
2. Semi-Rimmed Type
- The diameter of the rim is slightly greater than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case.
Ex: Cal .25, .32 auto, super .38
3. Rimless Type
- The diameter of the rim is equal to the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
Ex: Cal 5.56, .30, 9mm, .45
4. Rebated Type
- The diameter of the rim is smaller than the body of the cartridge case.
Ex: Cal 8mm x 59
5. Belted Type
- There is a protruding metal around the body of the cartridge case near them.
IV. According to power (based on velocity)
1. Low-power cartridge
- Fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity of fewer than 1,850 fps
2. High-power cartridge
- Fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity between 1,925 & 2,500 fps
3. High-intensity cartridge
- Has a muzzle velocity of more than 2,500 fps
TERMS RELATED TO CARTRIDGE MALFUNCTIONS:
MISFIRE – total failure of a cartridge to discharge

HANGFIRE – delayed explosion of the cartridge
SHELF LIFE OF CARTRIDGE
More than 20 years - components or parts used are commercially virgins. If proper storage is
done, ammunition may reach up to 40 years.
IGLOO – the process of military storage of ammunition or arms. Done by making a concrete
bunker with walls about a foot thick and then covered. Ammo may reach 40 years without
degradation.
SHOTGUN SHELL
 Consists of a brass head with which is fixed a stout paper tube that constitutes the
walls of the case. All shotgun cartridges have a rim of larger diameter around
the extreme edge of the base. Shotgun cartridge cases are now also made entirely
of metal, either zinc aluminum or brass.
| 21
SHOTGUN AMMUNITION
SHOTSHELL – a cartridge containing projectile(s) designed to be fired in a shotgun. The

cartridge body may be metal, plastic, or paper.
SHOT – typically lead or steel; spherical pellets loaded in a shotshell; size shot range from
0.08 inches to .36 inches in diameter.
WADDING – plastic cup which holds the shot
PARTS OF SHOTGUN AMMUNITION
1. Shots
2. Shell Case
3. Wad
4. Gun Powder
KINDS OF SHOTS / PELLETS
1. Buckshot – consists of lead balls

2. Slug – single slug with angled grooves cut into its side to spin it. This refers to a Sabot slug.
3. Tungsten-iron Shot – formed from powdered tungsten and iron, blended and pressed into
a pellet.
4. Flechette Shot – a cluster of sturdy steel needles with tiny fins at their base to stabilize
them in a flight.
TYPES OF SHOTS
1. Soft or Drop Shots – made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small amount of arsenic
has been added to make it take on the form of spherical drop as it falls down the shot tower.
This type gets easily deformed or flattened, and they lose their velocity quicker and low
penetrating power.
2. Chilled or Hard Shot – with a small amount of antimony mixed with lead to increase
hardness. Does not deform easily, has better patterns, less string, and more uniform velocity
penetration.
3. Coated or Plated Shot – also called "lubaloy" shot. It is a chilled shot coated with thin
copper through an electroplating design for greater strength and elasticity, greater resistance
to deformation and lading, and better pattern.
4. Buck Shot – a large lead shot for use in shotguns.
THE RIFLED SLUG
 Shotshells can also be loaded with one single projectile called a “Slug”.
SHOT WADS – At a distance of 5 to 8 yards or more from the place of firing in the
approximate direction of fire, one can sometimes find wads.
| 22
V. BULLETS
Bullet
 A metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile from a firearm using the expansive
force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
 A solid projectile propelled by a firearm and is normally made from metal (usually lead).
A bullet (in contrast to a shell) does not contain explosives and damages its target by
imparting its kinetic energy upon impact.
 Derived from the French word “boulette” which roughly means “little ball”.
Buckshot – largest size of shot

Birdshot – smallest size of shot
NOTE:
Bullets in modern concepts are projectiles from rifled firearms, which are cylindrical.
The core of the slug is an alloy of lead, antimony, and sometimes tins.
CLASSIFICATION / TYPES OF BULLETS
A. Based on Composition
 Bullet composition refers to the materials used in the fabrication of a bullet.
1. LEAD BULLETS / NON-JACKETED BULLETS
- The most common material used in the manufacture of the non-jacketed bullet is
lead.
- Usually, an alloy of lead and antimony is added to give the bullet some additional
hardness.
2. JACKETED BULLETS
- A laminate of material with the harder jacket covering a core typically made of lead.
 This jacket material differs from the thin copper plating seen on the copper-
washed bullets. The jacket material cannot be easily removed.
 The most common bullet jacket material is copper. These can sometimes be
plated with nickel to give the bullet a silver finish but the jacket can also be made
of several other materials such as aluminum or steel.
TYPES OF JACKETED BULLET
1. Full metal jacket

- Encloses the entire bullet, except the base. These bullets are also known as full
jacketed, full patch, full metal case, and ball ammunition.
| 23
2. Totally-metal-jacketed bullets
- Jacketed bullets that have no opening in jacket material. These bullets are called
totally-metal-jacketed bullets (TMJ) or encapsulated bullets.
3. Semi-jacketed
- Partially encloses the bullet except an exposed soft point or a hollow point.
- Jacketed bullets may also contain something other than a lead or steel core. Some
may contain small lead pellets, plastic, or maybe even a silicone rubber material.
REMINGTON ACCELERATOR “SABOT” ENCLOSED BULLET

 Plastic sleeve or adaptor surrounding a sub caliber bullet that allows it to be fired in a
larger caliber firearm. The projectile never directly touches the barrel and the sabot
typically falls away after firing.
Note:
The primary function of the jacket in a bullet is to prevent adherence of metal (lead)
inside the gun barrel.
Leading – adherence to lead in the bore of the gun.
 Other purposes of jacket:
1. To keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when strikes the target.
2. To prevent damage while inside the weapon.
3. To control expansion.
Mushrooming – is the controlled expansion of a bullet upon

impact with a target. The bullet is designed to significantly
increase in diameter upon impact.
B. Based on Color and Finish
1. Armor-piercing bullets
- Are designed to pierce metal. They usually contain a
hardened core (tungsten chrome steel).
BLACK
2. Frangible bullets
- Are designed to disintegrate upon impact with a hard
surface to minimize ricochet.
| 24
3. Incendiary bullets
- Contains a phosphorous or other material that ignites upon impact starting a
fire. Used for targets such as aircraft and/or gasoline depot.
BLUE
4. Tracer bullets
- Contains burning compounds in the base usually filled
with a mixture of magnesium powder, barium nitrate,
and metallic salts which set fire when the bullet is
projected to permit observation of bullet flight.
Red Tip Orange Tip
5. Wadcutter Shapes
- A cylindrical bullet design having a sharp shouldered nose intended to cut
target paper cleanly to facilitate easy and accurate scoring.
b) Semi-wadcutter
 A bullet designed with a truncated nose and sharp shoulder.
6. Metal point bullets (capped bullets)
| 25
 Consists of a standard lead bullet with a harder metal jacket over the nose to enhance
bullet penetration.
7. Pointed types
 Spitzer bullets – have a sharp point and a long ogive.
 Conical bullets/Conoidal bullets – have a cone shape.
 Hollowpoint bullet – designed to fragment into little pieces, thus taking out different
parts inside the target.
C. According to use
1. Ball Bullets – those that have soft cores inside a jacket and are used against
personnel only.
2. Armor-Piercing Bullets – those that have steel cores and are fired against vehicles
and other armored targets and general. Jacketed designs where the core material is a very
hard, high-density metal such as tungsten, tungsten carbide, depleted uranium, or steel. A
pointed tip is often used, but a flat tip on the penetrator portion is generally more effective
3. Tracer Bullets – those that contain a compound at its base which is set on fire when
the bullet is projected. The flash of smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to be
seen, especially at night time. This type of bullet is primarily used for target acquisition. These
have a hollow back, filled with a flare material. Usually, this is a mixture of magnesium
perchlorate, and strontium salts to yield a bright red color, or Barium Nitrate, although other
materials providing other colors have also sometimes been used. Tracer material burns out
after a certain amount of time. Such ammunition is useful to the shooter as a means of
verifying how close the point of aim is to the actual point of impact, and for learning how to
point shoot moving targets with rifles.
4. Incendiary Bullet – those that contain a mixture, such as phosphorus or other

material that can be set on fire by impact. They are used against targets that will readily burn
such as aircraft or gasoline depots. These bullets are made with an explosive or flammable
mixture in the tip that is designed to ignite on contact with a target. The intent is to ignite fuel or
munitions in the target area, thereby adding to the destructive power of the bullet itself.
5. Explosive (fragmentary) Bullets – those types of bullets that contain a high charge
explosive. Because of their small size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in
small arms ammunition.
6. Rubber bullets, plastic bullets, and beanbags- less lethal, or less than lethal are
designed to be non-lethal, for example for use in riot control. They are generally low velocity
and are fired from shotguns, grenade launchers, paintball guns, or specially-designed firearms
and air gun devices.
7. Blank Bullet- wax, paper, plastic, and other materials are used to simulate live
gunfire and are intended only to hold the powder in a blank cartridge and to produce noise.
The 'bullet' may be captured in a purpose-designed device or it may be allowed to expend
| 26
what little energy it has in the air. Some blank cartridges are crimped or closed at the end and
do not contain any bullets.
BULLET BASE CONSTRUCTION
1. Solid base bullet – composed of one material with no jacketing (lead).

2. Open base – jacketed bullet with the core exposed.
3. Jacketed solid base – jacketed bullet with the core enclosed.
4. Gas check bullet – composed of a lead bullet with a shallow copper alloy cup fitted to
the base.
5. Boat Tail/pointed – a specific design of bullet having a tapered or a truncated conical
base.
- the tapered cone of the boat tail provides increased stability
throughout its flight
Lead alloy or so-called “cop killer” – bullets use specially-made alloys as hard or harder
than lead to penetrating any body armor
Terminologies related to bullets
Shocking Power – The power of the bullet that results in instantaneous death.
Knocking Power – The power of the bullet that delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that
puts the victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted is not fatal.
| 27
WEEK 4. ASSESSMENT
Name : _______________________ Section : ____________________
Date : ________________________ Signature : __________________
1. What is the reason why the location of primer and type of rim is important in firearm
identification?
2. As a criminology student, explain the use of lead bullets and jacketed bullet.
Elaborate on your answer.
| 28
WEEK 5 CARTRIDGE CASE AND PRIMER
Cartridge case
 A tubular metallic or nonmetallic container that holds together the bullet,
gunpowder, and primer.
 The portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic
firearm during firing and remains at the scene of the crime.
 Are typically made from brass (a combination of 70% copper and 30% zinc), nickel-
plated brass, or aluminum.
Nickel-plated brass – is shiny and silver in color.
Aluminum cases – are lighter in weight than brass cases and have a dull silver color.
.
FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASES:
 Holds the bullet gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
 Serves as the waterproof container of the gun powder
 Prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case
(serves as a “gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel).
PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE
1. Rim – serves the purpose of limiting the forward travel

of cartridges into their chambers.
2. Primer Pocket
 Holds primer securely in a central
position.
 It also provides solid support for primer
anvils, without which the latter could not
be fired.
3. Vents or Flash Holes

 It is the hole in the web or bottom of the
primer pocket through which the primer
flash provides ignition to the powder
charge.
 It is the “opening or canal” that
connects the priming mixture with gun
powder.
| 29
4. Head & Body – constitute the corks that plug the breech of the barrel against the escape of
the gas.
5. Neck – the part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet. Usually in bottleneck
type of shell not with the straight type.
6. Cannelures – these are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the
necks and bodies of the cases at the location of the bases of the bullet to prevent the bullet
from being pushed back or loosened.
7. Crimp – the part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It aids in
holding the bullet in place and it offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck.
8. Base – the bottom portion of the case which holds the primer which contains the priming
mixture and the shell head which contains the headstamp, caliber, and the year of
manufacture
9. Shoulder – the portion which supports the neck which is evident in a bottleneck type.
10. Extracting Groove – the circular groove near the base of the shell designed for the
automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.
Headstamp
 Numerals, letters, and symbols are stamped into the head of a cartridge case or
shotshell to identify the manufacturer, caliber, gauge, or give additional information.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE CASE BASED ON SHAPE AND HEAD

FORM
 Based on Shape
a) Straight – always in pistol/revolver ammunition.
b) Tapered – “obsolete”
c) Bottleneck Cartridge
 A cartridge case having a min diameter and a distinct angular shoulder stepping down
to a smaller diameter at the neck position of the case.
 Typically associated with rifle ammunition.
 Are designed to have a larger volume in the case to hold more gunpowder. This helps
rifle cartridges to achieve higher velocities than handgun cartridges.
| 30
CARTRIDGE CASE MANUFACTURE

 Cartridge cases fall into two broad categories:
1. Metallic
- Metallic cartridges are used in rifles and handguns and are composed completely of
metal. The raw material is brass (copper, zinc, ratio of 70:30). In brass mills, the
standard name for this alloy is cartridge brass.
2. Shotshell cases
- Are most often hybrids, combining a small amount of metal with paper or plastic.
Note:
Cartridge cases of all types are made by a machine operation known as “drawing”.
Drawing – is the process of making cartridge cases by punching discs from a sheet of brass
and then making these discs out into tubes closed to one end.
PRIMER
Primer
- Portion of the cartridge which consists of brass or a gliding metal cup.
- Smallest part of the cartridge.
- The cup contains a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compounds which when
struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite. Such action is called “percussion”.
Alexander John Forsyth
 Credited with being the first to conceive the idea of using detonating compounds for
igniting powder charges in small arms by “percussion” and in 1807, he obtained a
patent for this idea.
TYPES OF MODERN CENTERFIRE PRIMERS
1. Boxer Type
ANVIL
- Invented by Col. Edward Munier Boxer.
- May be identified by the fact that the anvil is a
separate piece of metal in the primer.
- This type may also be called the SEPARATED ANVIL
TYPE.
- The anvil is an integral part of the primer assembly.
- There is only one flash hole and this is the center of
the primer cup.-
-Can be reloaded.
2. Berdan Type
- Invented by Col. Hiram Berdan.
- The anvil is part of the cartridge case.
- It has two or three holes that are not centered in the
case’s base.
- Not generally reloaded
| 31
MAJOR COMPONENTS INSIDE THE PRIMER

1. Initiator (Lead Styphnate)
 Set off with a sharp blow when the firing pin strikes the primer cup.
2. Oxidizer (Barium Nitrate)
 Gives up its oxygen readily. The oxygen is needed to burn the fuel.
3. Fuel (Antimony Sulfide)
 Burns the gunpowder at a very high rate that results in the propulsion of bullets.
PARTS OF A PRIMER
1. Primer Cup - Refers to the container of the

priming mixture that is made up of brass, gilding
metal, or copper.
2. Priming Mixture - Refers to the highly sensitive
chemical mixture contained in the primer cup.
3. Anvil - The portion of the primer against which the
priming mixture is crushed by a blow from the firing
pin.
4. Disc - Piece of small paper or disc of tin foil is pressed over the priming mixture.
COMPOSITION OF THE PRIMING MIXTURE

Priming compounds are divided into two classes:
1. Corrosive
- One of the chemicals in corrosive primers is potassium chlorate, which in the ignition,
produces potassium chloride. Potassium chloride draws moisture from the air, and this
moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.
Ingredients: a) Potassium chlorate – 45%
b) Antimony sulfide – 23%
c) Fulminate of mercury – 32%
2. Non-corrosive
- Advances in “primer” chemistry over the years have produced new compositions in
which the potassium chlorate has been eliminated by the substitution of other chemicals.
- These newer primers arise of the non-corrosive type and have practically replaced the
corrosive type.
Ingredients: a) Barium nitrate – 45%
b) Antimony sulfide – 23%
c) Fulminate of mercury – 32%
Corrosion – the chemical wear and tear of the inside of a gun barrel due to rust formation or
chemical reactions by the products of combustion after firing.
Erosion – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to
mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.
| 32
WEEK 6 GUNPOWDER AND EXPLOSIVES
Gunpowder (whether black powder or smokeless powder)

 A substance that burns very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a propellant in
firearms.
Note: The Chinese were believed to be the first to invent black powder sometime in the 9th
century during the Han Dynasty.
Wu ching tsun – the unrecognized inventor of gunpowder.

Constantine Anklitzen a.k.a. “Berthold” (14th century)
 German monk credited for the application of gunpowder in propelling a missile.
Roger Bacon (13th century)
 English monk, credited for the invention of gunpowder (black powder).
Paul Vielle (1886)
 Invented smokeless gunpowder with nitrocellulose, a single base propellant
which was called Poudre B (composition of either and alcohol).
Alfred E. Nobel
 Developed smokeless gunpowder and he called it Ballistite, a double base
propellant.
Frederick Abel & James Dewar (1890)

 Obtained a patent of modifying smokeless gunpowder, they called it Cordite.
TWO TYPES OF GUNPOWDER
1. Black Powder - is a pyrotechnic composition, an explosive mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and

potassium nitrate(also known as saltpeter or saltpeter) that burns rapidly, producing
volumes of hot solids and gases which can be used as a propellant in firearms and fireworks.
The term "black powder" was coined in the late 19th century to distinguish prior gunpowder
formulations from the new smokeless powders and semi-smokeless powders. (Semi-
smokeless powders featured bulk volume properties that approximated black powder in
terms of chamber pressure when used in firearms, but had significantly reduced amounts of
smoke and combustion products; they ranged in color from brownish tan to yellow to white.
Most of the bulk semi-smokeless powders ceased to be manufactured in the 1920s.)
- Oldest propellant
The pervasive formula for early propellants was a simple mechanical mixture of
charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate, known as a black powder.
-Most dangerous explosive to handle and store because it is easily ignited upon by
heat, friction, flame, or spark.
| 33
Composition:
1. Potassium Nitrate (saltpeter) – 75%
2. Charcoal – 15%
3. Sulfur – 10%
Disadvantages:
1. It produces a large volume of white smoke.
2. Fouls the bore of firearms after relatively few shots.
3. It readily attracts moisture, hence, “keep your powder dry”.
Advantages:
1. When ignited it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air.
2. In burning, it gives off a large volume of gas.
3. A considerable heat is evolved.
2. Smokeless Gunpowder - These are commonly nitrocellulose-based. The development of

smokeless powders, such as Cordite, in the late 19th century, created the need for a spark-
sensitive priming charge, such as gunpowder.
Types of smokeless powder include Cordite, Ballistite, and, historically, Poudre B. They are
classified as single-base, double-base, or triple-base powders. The smokeless powder
consists of nitrocellulose (single-base powders), frequently combined with up to 50 percent
nitroglycerin (double-base powders), and sometimes nitroglycerin and nitroguanidine
(triple-base), corned into small spherical balls or extruded into cylinders or flakes using
solvents such as ether. Other minor ingredients, such as stabilizers and ballistic modifiers, are
also added. Double-base propellants are common in handgun and rifle ammunition. Triple-
base propellants are more common in artillery guns.
The reason that they are smokeless is that the combustion products are mainly gaseous,
compared to around 55% solid products for black powder (potassium carbonate, potassium
sulfate, etc).
THREE MAIN CLASSES OF SMOKELESS POWDER
1. Single Base Propellant

- Nitrocellulose is the only energetic material. Contains only pure nitro-glycerine
gelatinized with nitrocellulose.
2. Double Base Propellant
- Contains nitro-glycerine and nitrocellulose mixed with other materials. Such as
Vaseline phthalate esters, centralite and inorganic salts.
3. Triple Base Propellant
- Contains three principal ingredients
a) Nitrocellulose
b) Nitro-glycerine
c) Nitro guanidine
| 34
Note: Triple base smokeless powders are used only as propellants in artillery ammunition.
Types/Forms of Gunpowder
 Flake Propellant
 Tubular or Cylindrical
 Flattened Ball Propellant
 Ball Propellant
EXPLOSIVES
An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of
potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by
the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An explosive charge is a measured quantity
of explosive material, which may either be composed solely of one ingredient or be a mixture
containing at least two substances.
The potential energy stored in an explosive material may, for example, be
 chemical energy, such as nitroglycerin or grain dust

 pressurized gas, such as a gas cylinder, aerosol can, or BLEVE (Boiling Liquid
Expanding Vapor Explosion)
 nuclear energy, such as in the fissile isotopes uranium-235 and plutonium-239
Explosive materials may be categorized by the speed at which they expand. Materials that
detonate (the front of the chemical reaction moves faster through the material than the speed
of sound) are said to be "high explosives" and materials that deflagrate are said to be "low
explosives". Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that
can be initiated by a relatively small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives and
materials that are relatively insensitive are secondary or tertiary explosives.
A wide variety of chemicals can explode; a smaller number are manufactured specifically to be
used as explosives. The remainder is too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, or
prone to decomposition or degradation over short periods.
In contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding.
| 35
WEEK 6. ASSESSMENT
Name : _______________________ Section : __________________
Date : ________________________ Signature : __________________
1. Identify the parts and Elaborate the function of the following:

a. case
b. primer
2. Explain the importance of gunpowder in crime scene investigations involving shooting

incidents.
| 36
WEEK 7 PRINCIPLES OF FIREARMS EXAMINATION
Introduction
The basis for firearms identification is founded on uniqueness: upon close examination,
virtually all objects can be distinguished from one another, and the same is true for firearms.
Fortunately for criminal investigators, the uniqueness of each firearm transfers to the cartridge
case and bullet whenever the weapon is fired. This has been proven through physical sciences
including physics, metallurgy, metallography, and materials science.
The firearm's surfaces (firing pin/striker, breach, barrel, etc.) that contact the softer
cartridge case and bullet contain random, unique, microscopic irregularities that make it
different from other firearms - even those of the same model. These differences can be used to
identify or eliminate a weapon as being used in a crime if a cartridge case or bullet is
recovered at the crime scene. This is done by comparing the markings made on the cartridge
cases or bullets when fired, using the firearms examiner's key tool: the comparison microscope.
In conjunction with this, the examiner can explain how firearm functions and what safety
features a firearm might have. This can have an impact on investigations of suicides,
unintentional shootings, and accidental firearm discharge.
Why and when is firearms evidence examined?

Firearms evidence can usually be found at any crime scene where a weapon has been
fired. These include crimes such as murders, armed robberies, and aggravated assaults.
According to crime statistics from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), in 2011 firearms
were used in 68 percent of murders, 41 percent of robbery offenses, and 21 percent of
aggravated assaults in the US.
When evidence such as shotshell casings, cartridge cases, bullets, and slugs is found
at a crime scene—or recovered from victims, buildings, furniture, vehicles, trees, etc.—an
examiner can analyze it to determine the type of firearm used. The examiner can also compare
shotshell casings, cartridge cases, and bullets from different crime scenes to determine if a
common firearm was used.
When a firearm is recovered, the examiner can either identify or eliminate it as the
firearm used in the crime, provided that (1) it still fires and (2) there is evidence such as a
cartridge case or bullet for comparison. If the firearm is identified as the one used in the
shooting, the examiner will measure the trigger pressure, determine if the weapon functions
properly and ensure that the safety features are working, which can support or eliminate
potential defenses such as accidental discharge.
In addition to obvious types of firearms evidence, the evidence left behind could include
gunshot residue and powder burns. Examiners can use this evidence to determine distances
involved in shootings so they can reconstruct the incident. This can be used to support or
refute an account of the shooting.
| 37
WEEK 8 Types of Firearm Action
Introduction to Firearm Actions
All types of firearms have actions and sights, and they may have safeties or magazines.
Types of Actions
Firearms can be classified by their action type. The action of a firearm is made up of parts that
load, unload, fire, and eject the shotshell or cartridge. Actions are either single-shot or
repeating styles. Single-shot firearms must be reloaded each time the firearm is fired.
Repeating firearms have extra cartridges or shotshells ready in a magazine, cylinder, or extra
barrel.
Action: The part of a firearm that loads, fires, and ejects a cartridge. Includes lever action,
pump action, bolt action, and semi-automatic. The first three are found in weapons that fire a
single shot. Firearms that can shoot-multiple rounds ("repeaters") include all these types of
actions,but only the semi-automatic does not require manual operation between rounds. A truly
"automatic" action is found on a machine gun.
1. Bolt Action
Bolt-action rifle
A bolt-action firearm operates like opening and closing a door bolt. The bolt solidly locks into
the breech, making it accurate and dependable.
To open the action, lift the handle up and pull it to the rear.
If the firearm is loaded, the cartridge or shotshell will be ejected as you pull the bolt to the
rear. To make sure it’s unloaded, open the action, and check both the chamber and the
magazine for cartridges or shotshells.
You can store a bolt-action firearm safely by storing the bolt separately from the firearm.
| 38
2. Lever Action
Lever-action rifle
The lever-action firearm has a large metal lever located behind the trigger. This handle usually
forms the trigger guard as well.
To open the action, push the lever downward and forward, which extracts the cartridge case
from the chamber and ejects it. If a magazine holds extra cartridges, another is immediately
ready to be loaded into the chamber.
It’s often difficult to tell whether a lever-action firearm is loaded. To unload, push the lever
downward and forward repeatedly until no more cartridges are ejected. To make sure it's
unloaded, open the action, and check both the chamber and the magazine for cartridges.
Most models also have an exposed hammer, which can be dangerous.
Always use extra caution to keep your hands away from the trigger while working the lever
action.
3. Pump Action
Pump-action shotgun
The pump-action firearm is fast and smooth. It allows the shooter to re-cock the firearm without
taking his or her eye off the target. The pump action also is referred to as “slide action” or
“trombone action.”
To open the action, slide the forestock to the rear, which extracts the cartridge or shotshell
from the chamber and ejects it. Sliding the forestock toward the muzzle closes the action and
readies another cartridge or shell for loading. A pump-action firearm will open only after it’s
fired or if a release lever is pressed and the forestock is pulled to the rear.
To make sure it's unloaded, open the action, and check both the chamber and the magazine
for cartridges or shotshells.
| 39
4. Semi-Automatic (or Autoloading) Action
Semi-automatic rifle
As each shot is fired manually, the case of the cartridge or shotshell is ejected automatically
and the chamber is reloaded automatically.
To open the action, you must pull back the bolt’s operating handle (on a rifle or shotgun) or
the slide (on a pistol). Most semi-automatics, when the bolt or slide is pulled back, will lock in
the open position if the magazine is empty. If the firearm does not lock open, it means that a
cartridge or shotshell from the magazine has gone into the chamber, making the firearm ready
to fire. A few semi-automatics do not lock open and must be held open to check the chamber.
To unload, first remove the magazine, and lock the action open. Then make sure it’s
unloaded—check both the chamber and the magazine for extra cartridges or shells.
When closing the action for loading, pull back to unlock the bolt or slide and then let go,
allowing it to travel forward on its own. Do not guide it forward with your hand because it may
not seat properly.
On a semi-automatic, the trigger must be pulled each time a shot is fired. This makes the
semi-automatic different from the fully automatic firearm, which fires continuously as long as
the trigger is held down. The fully automatic firearm may not be used for hunting or sport
shooting.
5. Break (or Hinge) Action

Break-action rifle and handgun
The break-action firearm operates on the same principle as a door hinge. Simple to load and
unload, a hinge action is often chosen as a hunter’s first firearm.
To open the action, point the barrel(s) at the ground. A release is pressed, and the stock
drops downward. This allows the cartridges
or shotshells to eject or to be removed
manually if the firearm is loaded.
Hinge-action firearms have a separate
barrel for each shot rather than a magazine.
Most models have one or two barrels, but
some have up to four.
Some models also have an exposed
hammer(s), which can be dangerous.
| 40
WEEK 9 MIDTERM EXAM WEEK
| 41
WEEK 10 TWO GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS TO BE CONSIDERED

REGARDING BALLISTICS EXAMINATION
This topic contains the basis for firearms identification. In identification, you must have
something to compare with. In firearm identification the ballistic evidence gathered from the
crime scene must be identified to pinpoint the origin or manufacturer of such evidence. In this
week you will learn about the Class and Individual characteristics of firearms.
1. Class Characteristics
 Intentional or design characteristics that would be common to a particular group or
family items.
 Characteristics that are determinable even before the manufacture of the firearms.
 These are factory specifications and within the control of man.
 These serve as the basis for identifying a certain group or class of firearms
The following are class characteristics of firearms that can be determined in fired
bullets:
 Bore diameter – this can be measured from land to land
 Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm
Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm consist of the following items:
 Number of lands and grooves- the number of raised and depressed portions in the
bore
 Width of lands and grooves
 Depth of grooves
 Direction of twist – rifling either twist to the right or the left.
 Pitch of rifling – this is also called the degree of rifling twist. It simply refers to the
distance (measured either in inches or centimeters) traveled by the lands and
grooves to complete a single rotation (360 degrees).
All class characteristics are measurable
- Caliber - Direction of Twist

- Number of Lands and Grooves - Depth Grooves
- Width of Lands and Grooves - Pitch of Rifling
| 42
Class characteristics ACCORDING TO TYPES OF RIFLING:
1. Steyr type
 4 lands, 4 grooves right-hand twist, and lands and grooves are of equal width. (4–R
–G=L)
2. Smith and Wesson Type
 5lands and grooves, right-hand twist and lands and grooves of equal width. (5-R-
G=L)
3. Browning Type
 6 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow lands, and broad grooves. (6-R-G-2x)
4. Colt Type
 6 lands and grooves, left twist, narrow lands, and broad grooves. (6-L-G-2x)
5. Webley Type
 7 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow lands, and broad grooves. (7-R-G3x)
6. Winchester Type
 6RG3X (six lands and grooves twist to the right, groove width is three times wider
than the land.)
7. Carbine Type
 4RG2X which means there are 4 lands and grooves that twist to the right but the
grooves are twice wider than the lands.
8. Army Type
 4 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow land, and broad grooves (4-R-G3x).
2. Individual Characteristics
 Also called accidental characteristics.
 When a firearm is manufactured, the individual parts are made with tools that are in a
constant state of change.
 As a result, no two guns will leave the same marks on the ammunition components.
 Separate a single item from a large of items.
 Considered “fingerprints” in that they are unique to that item.
 This is caused by randomness like cutting, grinding, and shearing on a microscope level.
Sources of individual characteristics of firearms:
a) The wear and tear of the tools used in the manufacture of the firearm.
b) The action of oxidation.
c) The care of the firearm by the holder.
d) The use of the firearm by the holder.
| 43
WEEK 10: ASSESSMENT
Name : ________________________ Section : ____________________

Date : ________________________ Signature : ____________________
Compare and contrast Individual Characteristic and Class Characteristics
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
| 44
WEEK 11 ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES RELATED TO
FIREARMS
History Rifling
Early firearms had smooth barrels and fired projectiles with no significant spin. These
projectiles had to be stable shapes, such as finned arrows or spheres, to minimize tumbling
during flight. However, spherical bullets do tend to rotate randomly during flight, and the
Magnus effect means that even a relatively smooth sphere will curve when rotating on any axis
not parallel to the direction of travel (see knuckleball for an example of intentional random
tumbling.)
Rifling imparts a spin to the projectile, which stabilizes it and prevents it from tumbling.
This does two things; first, it increases the accuracy of the projectile by eliminating the random
drift due to the Magnus effect, and second, it allows longer, heavier bullets to be used from the
same diameter barrel, increasing range and power. In the 18th century, the standard infantry
arm was the smoothbore musket; by the 19th century, rifled barrels became the norm,
increasing the power and range of the infantry weapon significantly. Most modern pistols,
revolvers, rifles, and some shotgun barrels have what are called rifling in their barrels.
Rifling consists of grooves cut or formed in a spiral nature, lengthwise down the barrel
of a firearm. Rifling is placed in the barrels of firearms to impart a spin on the bullets that pass
through it. Because bullets are oblong objects, they must spin in their flight, like a thrown
football, to be accurate. Looking down the barrel of a firearm you might see rifling like that
depicted on the right. This image shows a pattern of rifling containing six grooves with a right
twist. In firearm examiner lingo we refer to the rifling as lands & grooves. The lands are the
raised areas between two grooves. A rifling pattern of eight grooves also has eight lands.
Firearms can be manufactured with any number of lands and grooves in their
barrels. They can also spiral either left or right. A few of the more common rifling patterns are
4/right, 5/right, 6/right, 6/left, 8/right, and 16/right.
When barrels are manufactured, they start as a solid rod of steel. A hole is drilled
down the center of the rod and the rifling is then placed in the barrel.
Manufacturing of Firearm Barrels
STEPS:
1. Drilling the Hole

- This operation results in drilling deep accurate rough holes longitudinally uniform in
diameter from one end of the barrel to the other.
| 45
2. Reaming the Hole
- This operation removes some of the scars and scratches left by the drilling
operation. The hole is reamed carefully to the exact bore diameter.
3. Cutting or Putting the Rifling

- Firearm barrels have grooves cut or pressed, in the bore which produces RIFLING.
- These grooves are cut in a spiral pattern.
- Between the grooves are raised areas. These are called lands.
 In firearm examiner lingo, rifling refers to the LANDS and GROOVES. The lands are the
raised portion between two grooves, while the grooves are the depressed portion.
RIFLING METHODS
a) Broach Rifling
A tool having a series of cutting edges of slightly increasing height is used to cut
the spiral grooves in a barrel. All grooves are cut with a single pass of the broach. The
modern broach method of rifling uses a hardened steel rod with several cutting rings
spaced down the rod. Like the one shown below. Broaches can be over 16 inches long
and because they have several cutting rings, they are referred to as gang broaches.
b) Button Rifling
A hardened metal plug with a rifled cross-section
configuration. It is pushed or pulled through a drilled
and reamed barrel to form the spiral grooves to the
desired depth and twist.
c) Hammer Forging
The newest mechanical method of rifling barrels is accomplished through a process
called hammer forging. Hammer forging produces a type of rifling called polygonal
rifling. A hardened steel mandrel is produced with the shape of the rifling formed on
its outer surface. The mandrel is inserted into a barrel blank and the outer surface of
the barrel is machine hammered. The hammering forces the barrel material down
against the mandrel and the inner surface of the barrel takes on the shape of the
mandrel. The mandrel is then removed from the barrel and the outer surface of the
| 46
barrel is cleaned up. Just as in the other types of rifling, polygonal rifling can have
different patterns. The most common polygonal patterns are 6/right and 8/right. This
form of rifling is used by Glock, Steyr, IMI, and a few other manufacturers.
d) Hook Cutter
A cutting tool that has a hook shape and only cuts one groove at a time.
e) Scrape
A cutting tool that cuts two opposing grooves at a time.
f) . Electrochemical Rifling
In a process that eliminates the conventional machining of metal, rifling is formed

by wet-etching the interior of a barrel under an electric current. The metal inside the
barrel is eaten away or dissolved to create grooves in the barrel. An electrode
(cathode) that has metal strips in the shape of the rifling is placed in the barrel (anode)
and the assembly is submerged in a salt solution. An electric current is applied and the
electrode is moved down the length of the barrel and twisted to create spiral-shaped
grooves. As the current travels from the barrel to the electrode metal are removed by
electrolysis thus forming the grooves in the barrel. This process creates rifling in the
barrel very quickly and does not require consumable tooling.
4. Lapping
- It follows after the rifling operation is completed.
- This is the smoothening of the inner surface of the gun barrel. Polishing the inside
of the barrel like a mirror with a polishing compound.
5. Chambering
- The final step is chambering or cutting away the breech end of the barrel where the
cartridge or shotgun shell is to fit.
TYPES OF RIFLING
1. Cut Rifling – made by a broach cutter or button which produces rifling with sharp edges.
Bore – refers to the cylindrical passage of a barrel through which the bullets travel.
| 47
2. Polygonal Rifling – lands, and grooves having a rounded profile. This type of rifling is
produced with Hammer Forging.
| 48
WEEK 11. ASSESSMENT
Name : ________________________ Section : ____________________

Date : ________________________ Signature : ____________________
Research on what is the best type of rifling used in firearms and elaborate. Write your
findings here.
| 49
WEEK 12 CRIME SCENE PROCEDURE FOR SHOOTING INCIDENT
INTRODUCTION
Firearms evidence is usually encountered in crimes against persons such as homicide, assault,
and robbery; but may also be found in other crimes such as burglary, rape, and narcotics
violations.
While comparisons of bullets and cartridge cases to specific firearms are the most common
examinations requested, other examinations are possible such as distance determinations
based on powder residue or shot spread; examination of firearms for functioning or
modification; sequence of shots fired and trajectories; list of possible weapons used; serial
number restoration and ownership tracing.
Evidence of firing or handling a firearm may be detected through the analysis of gunshot
residue collected from a person’s hands or other body surfaces.
A. EVIDENCE FIREARMS-HANDLING AND SAFETY
The location and condition of firearms and related evidence at a crime scene should be
diagramed and photographed before recovering and securing. Although physical evidence is
important, safety must be the first consideration. Each situation should be evaluated before
deciding to unload an evidence firearm. (Caution, treat a firearm at all times as if it were
loaded). If the weapon is a type that can be safely transported in a loaded condition, this can
be done. However, depending on the circumstances it may be unnecessary or unwise to
transport a loaded firearm. It should then be unloaded, with care taken to preserve all types of
possible evidence. This evidence includes fingerprints, blood, hair or fibers, cylinder "halos",
and debris in the barrel and/or cylinder. The weapon should be handled in those areas least
likely to retain latent fingerprints such as knurled or checkered areas.
B. UNLOADING REVOLVERS
Before moving the cylinder it should be marked to indicate its position as found. This can be
done by two pen or scribe marks on the top of the cylinder along each side of the top strap of
the frame. The position of each cartridge/case in the cylinder should be recorded in field notes
as diagram below. All cartridges/cases removed should be handled to preserve possible
fingerprints. Each cartridge case should be packaged separately and referenced to the
information in the field notes. Do not mark the actual cartridge/case.
| 50
EXAMPLE NOTES
Chamber Position Condition Cartridge Headstamp
---------------------- --------------- ---------------------------
1 Fired U.S.C. Co.
2 Fired REM-UMC
3 Fired WRA
4 Misfired D.C. Co.
5 Loaded WESTERN
6 Loaded PETERS
C. UNLOADING SINGLE SHOT OR AUTOLOADING FIREARMS
Before securing the firearm as evidence make a record of the position, as found, of any safety,
cocking indicator, loaded chamber indicator, selector, or other control feature. With the firearm
pointed in a safe direction, remove the magazine. Next, clear the chamber by slowly drawing
back the slide/bolt handle. With the slide/bolt to the rear, examine the chamber visually to
ensure that no cartridge is in the chamber. Separately package the firearm, any detachable
magazine, and/or extracted cartridges/cases. Again, take care to preserve any possible
fingerprints or trace evidence. Do not remove cartridges from the magazine, or mark the
cartridges/cases directly.
D. TRACE EVIDENCE AND FINGERPRINTS

Examine the weapon for possible trace evidence such as blood, hair, fibers, tissue, or paint
that may be relevant. If in doubt, do not dust for prints. Submit in-person to the laboratory and
request that the firearm is processed for prints.
E. TRANSPORTATION TO LABORATORY
Personal delivery is preferred. A loaded handgun may be transported in a specially

| 51
constructed box that has a means of securely holding the firearm and has a metal plate
blocking the muzzle. If the firearm is to be sent by mail it must be unloaded and securely
packaged.
F. NOTE-TAKING AND EVIDENCE MARKING
Sketch the area which shows the location of each evidence item collected. The sketch should
contain location measurements that reference each evidence item to a fixed object or a
reference point. Photographs should be used to supplement notes and sketches, but not as a
substitute for them. For later identification, the serial number of a firearm should be recorded.
Some older rifles and shotguns, however, may not have a serial number. If the firearm is
marked for identification by scribing, the marks should be placed in a location where they will
not damage the appearance or value of the firearm.
G. BULLETS EMBEDDED IN WOOD OR PLASTER

Do not attempt to dig a bullet out. Remove by cutting out a portion of the tile material in which
the bullet is embedded. Send the piece of material containing the bullet to the laboratory.
H. REMOVAL OF AN EVIDENCE BULLET FROM THE BODY OF A DECEASED PERSON
X-ray the body first. Ask the doctor not to use forceps, but, if possible, to use his fingers or
rubber-tipped forceps to remove bullets. Bloody bullets should be washed in running water
without scrubbing. Do not wash a projectile if trace evidence might be present such as may
occur in a ricochet or deflection. If a bullet is washed do not use a brush or other item for
cleaning. After washing it is IMPERATIVE bullets be dried before packaging. Dry the bullets by
blotting (not rolling) with a soft dry facial or toilet tissue. Sealing a bloody or wet bullet in an air-
tight package can cause corrosion of identifiable detail on the bullet. Wrap in soft tissue paper
and seal in a labeled paper envelope or box. Package each bullet separately. DO NOT MARK
the bullet or allow it to be marked. Mark the sealed container with a description of the bullet
and all other pertinent data. You may wish to sketch the bullet for your records. If you wish
consultation on these procedures as they relate to your specific case, call the local
criminalistics laboratory.
I. FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES, WADS, AND PELLETS
CARTRIDGE CASES: It may be possible to determine the position of a shooter by the location
of ejected cartridge casings. Sketch with ACCURATE measurements of the location of fired
cartridge cases. Again, package each item separately and mark the packages with the
pertinent information.
SHOT WADS: When a shotgun is fired, the wads travel along with, or behind, the shot charge
for a short distance. In those cases involving close shots, wadding may be found in either the
victim's body or in his clothing. Follow the same packaging procedure as for bullets.
| 52
SHOT PELLETS: For pellets embedded in the wood, plastic, etc., handle in the same manner
as bullets
embedded in solid objects. If it is not possible to submit the material in which pellets are
embedded, pellets may be dug out, taking care not to mutilate them any more than is
necessary. In the removal of pellets from the body of a deceased person, x-rays can help
locate the pellets. Use special care in recovering pellets so that there will not be undue
damage to them. Rubber-tipped forceps should be used. After washing, wrap collected pellets
in soft tissue paper and place them in a labeled pillbox, or small envelope.
LOADED SHELLS OR CARTRIDGES: Collect and submit to the laboratory all ammunition
associated with a case. It can be used for test firing and distance determinations. Exactly
duplicating the ammunition used may be critical. Document where such ammunition was found.
If the number of cartridges is relatively few, they can be handled in the same manner as fired
bullets. Large quantities should be placed in a cardboard box or wooden container. Label, seal
and deliver to the laboratory.
J. DISTANCE DETERMINATIONS
In some cases, such as suicides and alleged struggles for the gun, the distance between the
muzzle of the gun and the victim may become an issue and it will be desirable to examine
garments for powder residue and other indications of close firing. For protection in transporting,
the clothing of the victim should be rolled (after air-drying) with paper on each surface.
Package separately so that the area surrounding the bullet hole does not rub against other
clothing or objects. When bullets have passed through garments into the body, a clear
photograph of the bullet hole positions in the victim is desirable. Include a ruler in all
photographs. Submit the firearm and the unfired ammunition associated with the incident. The
use of
identical ammunition is an essential part of firing distance determinations.
Further information on firearms evidence can be obtained from the local criminalistics
laboratory serving your agency.
K. RECOGNITION OF EVIDENCE
- The process of applying keen observation in search of physical evidence at the crime
scene for proper identification.
L. COLLECTION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

- The process of gathering physical evidence at the crime scene. Photograph and
sketch the physical evidence before collecting them from the crime scene and maintain
records to when, where, who, what, and how the evidence was recovered. Great care
should be exercised when collecting physical evidence.
Be sure not to MAC the very nature of the evidence

M – Mutilate
A – Alter/Adulterate
C – Contaminate
| 53
M. SPECIMEN SUBJECT FOR PROCESSING /RECOVERY FROM THE
CRIME SCENE:
a) Firearms
b) Ammunition
c) Ammunition Components, such as:
 Bullet  Propellant
 Pellet  Wads
 Cartridge Cases  Bullet fragment
 Primer  Another related
specimen
| 54
WEEK 12. ASSESSMENT
Name : ________________________ Section : ____________________

Date : ________________________ Signature : ____________________
Explain why forceps should not be used in recovering bullets from the body of a victim
instead of rubber tip forceps.
Explain the steps in manufacturing firearms barrels.
| 55
WEEK 13 MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS AND FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES.
Marks Found on Fired Bullets
 A bullet is slightly larger in diameter than the bore diameter of the barrel in which it is
designed to be fired. As a result, a rifled barrel will impress a negative impression of
itself on the sides of the bullet.
IMPRESSED TOOLMARK
 Features are produced when a tool contacts an object with enough compressive
force that it leaves an impression.
STRIATED TOOLMARK
 Features are produced when a tool contacts an object with lateral force and
motion.

a) Land Marks – depressed portion found on fired bullet caused by the land.
b) Groove Marks – raised or elevated portion caused by the grooves.
 Land and groove marks together are called Rifling Marks. These are striations found
on the periphery/bearing or cylindrical surface of the fired bullets.
 Rifling is a series of helical grooves in the interior of the barrel which cause the bullet
to spin and make it more stable (like a spiral on a football).
c) Skid Marks – this happens when the bullet enters the rifled bore from a stationary position
and is forced abruptly into the rifling, its natural tendency is to go straight forward before
entering the regular rifling twist.
- These markings are more pronounced in the revolver and caused due to worn-out barrels.
d) Slippage/Stripping Marks – these are marks found on bullets fired from a worm-out barrel
and only barrels.
e) Shaving Marks – most commonly found on bullets fired from a revolver due to a poor
alignment of the cylinder with the bore.
| 56
Marks Found on Fired Cartridge Case
1. Firing Pin Impression – the indentation in the primer of a centerfire cartridge case caused
when it is struck by the firing pin.
2. Breechface Markings – negative impression of the breech face of the firearm found
generally on the base or the head of the cartridge case after firing.
3. Chamber Marks – marks upon a cartridge case by the chamber wall as a result of any or
call of the ff:
a) Chambering
b) Expanding during firing
c) Extraction
4. Extractor Marks – marks produced upon a cartridge case from contact with the extractor.
- These are usually found on or just ahead of the rim.
- These are usually found on shells fired from pistols, rifles, shotguns, and machineguns.
5. Ejector Marks – a part of the firearm that is designed to expel the cartridge case from
the action of the firearm.
6. Shear Marks or the Secondary Firing Pin Marks – found in the primer near the firing pin
mark.
7. Firing Pin Drag Marks – it is caused by the protruding nose of the firing pin.
Other Marks Found on Fired Shells:

1. Pivotal Marks
2. Magazine Lip Marks
3. Breach Closure or Anvil Marks
| 57
WEEK 13. ASSESSMENT
Name : ________________________ Section : ____________________

Date : ________________________ Signature : ____________________
Explain the importance of marks found on fired bullets and fired cartridge cases.
| 58
WEEK 14 EJECTION PATTERN
A. CARTRIDGE CASE EJECTION PATTERN TESTING
The location of the shooter in a shooting incident is critical information that an investigator
needs for scene reconstruction of a shooting event. However, this becomes challenging when
the shooter’s location during an incident is not available or unknown. In such circumstances,
investigators can make use of physical evidence available in the scene to help determine the
shooter’s approximate location with empty case location of ground (spent cartridges) being one
such relevant evidence. This is important in investigating a shooting incident to determine the
position of the shooter and to collaborate with other evidence.
The cartridge case ejection pattern test is used to define how a particular firearm arrays the
fired cartridges cases ejected from it during the firing process under specific test conditions.
Such tests are usually conducted on a firing range (as shown) under a specific set of
conditions. However, it may be necessary in certain cases to conduct the test under conditions
as close as possible to the conditions at the actual shooting scene. Such conditions as gun
height, angle, surface the cartridge cases land on, etc. may have great bearing upon the
pattern displayed.
| 59
WEEK 15 GUNSHOT RESIDUE ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
Gun Shot Residue, or simply GSR, is a means of testing for the presence of certain materials
on the hands and clothing of a subject in hopes of determining that this individual may have
discharged a firearm. The concept is an old one and dates back many years. Advances in
testing technology make this examination much more specific than it was some 30-40 years
ago.
Gunshot residue (GSR) analysis is a standard method to determine if a firearm has been used.
Particles for GSR analysis typically range from 0.5 to 10 microns. Often the primer particles
containing lead (Pb), barium (Ba), and antimony (Sb) are detected and analyzed using EDS in
a scanning electron microscope. Titanium (Ti) and zinc (Zn) are becoming more common as
lead-free ammunition. To be statistically valid, imaging and analysis are automated to process
multiple samples in an SEM.
WHAT IS GSR?
Gunshot residue contains burned particles (potassium nitrite) and some unburned particles
(potassium nitrate), and for decades criminal investigators collected these particles by applying
melted paraffin wax to a subject’s hands. Upon removal of the wax cast, a reagent containing
diphenylamine and sulfuric acid was applied to the cast. The development of blue specks was
indicative of the presence of nitrates.
But in the 1970s the courts took the position that the presence of nitrates in the environment
was a common occurrence, and the dermal nitrate test was no longer a valid means to
determine that the subject had fired a gun.
PRIMER RESIDUE
When a gun is fired, the gunshot residue particles - small particles produced during the
gunpowder explosions - are emitted from the back of the weapon and the muzzle. These
particles fly onto the skin and clothing of the person holding the gun. They contain elements
that result from the propellant and primer decomposing, as well as from the bullet (which
normally contains a large amount of lead), bullet coating or jacket, cartridge components, and
previous residues in the barrel. Characteristic elements include antimony (Sb), lead (Pb),
barium (Ba), and, for special types of ammunition, titanium (Ti), and Zinc (Zn). These cannot
be completely removed by normal washing or cleaning, and samples of the particles can be
taken from suspects with adhesive collection devices for further investigation.
| 60
Two Types of Gunshot Residue
1. GSR deposited on victim, clothing, or target that follows the path of the bullet.
2. GSR deposited on the shooter’s hands primarily from the primer.
TRACE EVIDENCE
Locard’s Principle – when two objects come into contact, exchange of material takes place.
Common areas of trace evidence:

1. Hands – most common
2. Face
3. Clothing
4. Objects near the place of incident
Shapes of trace evidence:

1. They are generally spherical
2. Particles show overall cracking characteristics
3. Edges are straight or jagged to partially round
Collection of Plumes:
PLUMES – refer to the gunpowder residue that exits on all openings of the firearm after
discharge.
Types of Collection:
1. Cotton Swabs – with the use of cotton with 5% nitric acid solution, particles may be
collected.
2. Adhesive Stubs – used for scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis.
Evaluation of crime scene (Relative to GSR)

1. Time factor is the most important consideration in dealing with GSR evidence.
2. The standard time frame is 3-6 hours from the time of shooting BUT in some cases,
it may persist much longer.
3. Careful preservation of clothing should be made.
4. The traditional belief to remove GSR on hands is by application of Vinegar.
Chemical Testing of GSR

1. Diphenylamine Test – detects the presence of nitrates and nitrites,
2. Sodium Rhodizonate Test – specific for lead (Pb)
- Vaporous lead is usually found closer than arm’s length.
3. Walker Test – Used by the investigator to detect the Range.
4. Modified Griess Test – Specific for partially burned and unburned gunpowder
particles, most specifically, nitrites found in the partially burned gunpowder.
| 61
5. Lunge Reagent – the chemical used to indicate the presence of Nitrocellulose.
Methods of Examination of GSR
1. NAA = Neutron Activation Analysis

2.
3. ICP-MSP = Inductively Coupled Plasma – the most efficient method
employed in the analysis of GSR, computerized.
4.
5. GFAAS = Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy – used
in the analysis of inorganic materials in primer residues such as Ba and S
THREE METHODS FOR TESTING GSR: (actually a color test)
1. Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)

2. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS)
3. Scanning Electron Microscopy /Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (SEM/EDX)
 For these methods, samples must be obtained from the skin surfaces of a
shooter’s hand at the scene.
 Barium, antimony, and lead are the traces of metals being detected
originating from the primer of the cartridge.
ATOMIC ABSORPTION
 Uses nitric acid swab to test for the presence of lead, barium, and
antimony
 Simple, low cost, reliable results
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

 Coupled with x-ray analysis, test for the presence of different particles with
characteristic morphology.
 Tests for Lead, Antimony, and Barium particles.
 AA and SEM cannot place the gun in the suspect’s hands. Both tests can
only show that the suspect was “close” to a weapon during discharge.
NOTE: The lack of GSR does not mean the suspect was not the shooter, nor does the
presence of GSR mean the suspect was the shooter.
GSR ELEMENTS
The major primer elements are:
1. Lead (Pb)
2. Antimony (Sb)
3. Barium (Ba)
 All three must be present in 1 particle to be considered specific for GSR
| 62
Results of GSR Hand Tests

Negatively results may be caused by:
1. Washing the hands
2. Shooter may have been wearing gloves
3. Lead-free ammunition
 A rifle or shotgun may not deposit GSR on hands
DERMAL NITRATE OR PARAFIN TEST

 Is NO LONGER USED and is generally considered unreliable in GSR
testing because of its no specificity. The main problem was recently realized cosmetics
and other everyday preparations as well as being present in cigarettes and cigars so
that the value of a swab as a positive indication of recent gun handling is lost.
 This kind of test was developed by TEODORO GONZALES of Mexico in
1993.
| 63
WEEK 15. ASSESSMENT
Name: ________________________ Section : ____________________

Date: ________________________ Signature : ____________________
Look for the law or any jurisprudence stating that the dermal nitrate test/
paraffin test is unreliable as evidence here in the Philippines. Write your findings here.
What is the importance of the cartridge case ejection pattern?
| 64
WEEK 16 SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT USED IN FIREARMS

IDENTIFICATION
1. Bullet Comparison Microscope

- is used to determine the similarities and dissimilarities of evidence and test evidence.
- With this microscope, the firearm examiner can take photomicrographs of his
observation and findings under the eyepiece of the comparison microscope.
Col. Calvin H. Goddard, MD – 1st to own Bullet Comparison Microscope in 1925.

- Father of Modern Ballistics
Two Positions in Comparing Evidence & Test Bullet
A. Intermarriage – half of the evidence & test bullet is projected.

a) At the same time – clock positions
b) At the same direction – left or right
c) At the same magnification –the same size when viewed (small vs. small;
bigger vs. bigger)
d) At the same image – Landmarks vs. Landmarks
e) At the same level or plane – refers to height elevation of stage plate
B. Juxtaposition - the critical side-by-side examination of evidence and test bullet/shell.
Juxtapose – means putting two things together to emphasize their contrast between them.
2. Stereoscopic Microscope
-This is generally used in the preliminary examinations of fired bullets and fired
shells to class characteristics for orientation purposes.
- It can be used also in the close-up examination of tampered serial numbers. No
photomicrograph can be taken in this equipment.
Cherubin d’Oreans – invented the 1st Stereoscopic Style Microscope with two eyepieces in
1671.
Honorato S. Greenough (1890) – introduced a “novel” design that led him to become the
Forefather of Modern stereoscopes.
Francis Herbert Wenham (19th) of London – designed the first successful stereomicroscope.
This was introduced in the US and was named Cycloptic in 1957.
| 65
3. Comparison Projector 6 (CP-6)
- Similar to the Comparison Microscope, but this equipment is capable of comparing two
fired bullets and shells with a large screen.
William Howard Livens – Engineer and British Army was the inventor.
4. Bullet Recovery Box

- used in test firing to acquire test shells and bullets for comparison. The same caliber or
brand of ammunition should be used and manufactured in the same year.
Original Design (Square)
a) Length = 8ft or 96 in
b) 1ft or 12 x 12 in on each side
c) ¼ in thick
d) 1/8 in thick = tip
Modern Design (Tube)

a) Length = 92 inches
b) Diameter of body = 18 inches
c) Thickness of iron used = 1/8 inch
d) Frontal ring = 20 inches
5. Measuring Projector 6 (MP-6)

- used in determining the width of lands, the width of grooves, diameter, and twist of
fired bullets.
6. Vernier Caliper
- Generally used to know the caliber of FA, bullet, and shell.
Caliper is used to determine the:

a) Bullet diameter
b) Rim diameter
c) Shell mouth diameter
d) Bore diameter
e) Shell length
f) Barrel length
7. Micrometer (C-clamp like)

- Similar in use with Caliper.
- Derived from Greek words Micros (small) and Metron (to measure).
- This instrument then is used to measure small things and small distances.
- This is an enhancement of the Vernier Caliper.
William Gascoine (17th) – 1st ever inventor
| 66
Jean Laurent Palmer (1848-France) – inventor of Palmer, which is used in measuring
handled objects. It was introduced in Spain and was called Tornillo de Palmer.
8. Analytical or Torsion Balance

- Determines the weight of the fired bullet, shots/pellets to know its caliber, type, and
make of FA used.
- Measurements are expressed in Grains or Grams.
Note:
If the bullet is shaved, it must be noted for its weight will differ from the
standard.
9. Taper Gauge
- Used to determine the bore diameter of FA or Caliber.
Comparison: Ring measurer, used in determining the right measurement for welding,
graduation, and personalized rings.
10. Onoscope
- This is a small instrument used in the examination of the interior surface of the
barrel.
- It has a tiny lamp at its end and is being inserted in the barrel to detect irregularities
and imperfections, roughness, and scratches.
11. Helixometer
- This measures Pitch of Rifling, which refers to a complete turn (360°) of a bullet
inside the barrel.
Procedure: This instrument is used by inserting the telescope and aligning it with the axis of
the bore.
12. Chronograph
- This measures the speed of the bullet or muzzle velocity of the bullet.
Alfred Lee Loomis (1918) – inventor
Before Chronograph, Boulenge Chronograph was invented but was not much
reliable/accurate.
13. Electric Gun Marker

- Used in marking fired bullets, shells, and FA’s submitted for examination.
- This is being plugged into a female outlet.
- Used only when there is a power supply.
| 67
14. Shadowgraph
- Used in orientation / preliminary examination of fired bullets and shells with the use of
series of microscopic lenses of different magnifications.
- This instrument contains a large circular ground glass that is about 14 in where the
observation and comparison of the characteristics are done.
- This can also take photomicrographs.
15. Stylus – A pointed instrument used to mark:

1. Fired bullets
2. Fired shells
3. Firearms
4. Metallic fragments
-This must be solid and harder metal than the evidence to be marked.
-This is used in manually engraving the initials and date.
16. Integrated Ballistics Identification System
17. Fuming Cabinet

- Is used in a fumigation process to develop latent prints from FA’s allegedly used in a
crime.
| 68
WEEK 17
THE PROBLEMS IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
Eight Problems Involved in Firearms Identification
1. Given a Bullet
- To determine the caliber, type, and possible make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Given a Fired Cartridge Case

- To determine the caliber, type, and possible make of firearm from which it was fired.
3. Given Two or More Fired Bullets

- To determine whether or not the fired bullet were fired from the same firearm.
4. Given Two or More Fired Cartridge Cases

- To determine whether or not the fired bullet were fired from the same firearm.
5. Given a Firearm and Fired Bullet

- To determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
6. Given a Firearm and Fired Cartridges Case

- To determine whether or not the fired cartridge case was fired from the suspected
firearm.
7. Firearm, Ammunition, Shot Pattern & Victim’s Clothing

- To determine the approximate distance at which the shot was discharged.
8. Shot Pellets and Wads

- To determine the approximate size of shots and gauge of the gun.
| 69
WEEK 17. ASSESSMENT
Name: ________________________ Section : ____________________

Date: ________________________ Signature : ____________________
Explain the importance of comparing test bullet and evidence bullet in juxtaposition.
What is to be determined when two or more fired cartridge cases are found at the crime
scene?
| 70
REFERENCE:
Physical Evidence Bullet. California Department of Justice. Retrieved from: https://www.crime-

scene-investigator.net/CAfirearms.pdf.
Richard N. Ernest. Cartridge Case Ejection Pattern Testing. http://www.e-

gunlab.com/srv_ccept.shtml
Bandula Nishshanka and Chris Shepherd (2020). A Forensic-Based Empirical Study to

Analyze the Empty Case Ejection Patterns Type 56 Assault Rifle. Retrieved from
https://juniperpublishers.com/jfsci/pdf/JFSCI.MS.ID.555864.pdf
Jobbins (2021) Gunshot Residue (GSR) Analysis. Retrieved from:

https://www.nanoscience.com/applications/forensics/gsr-analysis/
Don Penven (2013) Gun Shot Residue Testing: Is it Still a Viable Form of Physical Evidence?
Retrieved from: https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/gsrstillviable.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothbore, retrieved on August 5, 2021
A simple guide to Firearms Examination 2021. Retrieved from

http://www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/firearms/principles.html.
Explosives 2021. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive, retrieved on August

11, 2021
Alfie P. Sarmiento (2021) Reviewer in Firearms Id. Retrieved from:

https://pdfcoffee.com/reviewer-in-fb-ap-sarmiento-pdf-free.html
Roxbonilla08 (2021) Compilation of Criminalistics. Retried from: https://qdoc.tips/compilation-

of-criminalisticsdocx-2-pdf-free.html
Association of Firearm & Tool Mark Examiners. Retrieved from:

https://afte.org/uploads/documents/AFTE_Glossary_Version_6.110619_DRAFT_.PDF
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/tarlac-state-university/criminology/inbound-
7605125511683923391/11379110
https://en-academic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/5860327
mfpeckley.yolasite.com/resources/REVIEWER%20IN%20FORENSIC%20BALLISTICS.doc
https://www.hunter-ed.com/national/studyGuide/Semi-Automatic-or-Autoloading-
Action/201099_92823/
| 71

Forensic 6 Module - Jjba

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Forensic 6 Module - Jjba

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

WEEK 1 INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC BALLISTICS

 It refers to the science of firearms identification which involves the scientific

1. Yaw – the unstable rotating motion of the projectile.

COMMON TERMS IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

 Cartridge - A complete unfired round of ammunition consisting of a cartridge case,

 Comparison microscope - Two microscopes joined by an optical bridge, which allows

 Individual characteristics - Marks present on fired ammunition components that are

 Land - The interior portion of a rifled barrel between two grooves

 Pistol - A handgun; the most common is a semi-automatic pistol, which uses a

WEEK 2 BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

1. INTERIOR (INTERNAL) BALLISTICS

This includes the following:

b. Ignition of the priming mixture

c. Combustion of the gunpowder

A. Primer crushed the priming mixture against the anvil

d. Expansion of heated gas

Individual Characteristics Found in the Chamber

1. Irregularities- created during manufacture such as spiral cutting of the grooves.

g. Recoil of the gun

KINETIC ENERGY PRINCIPLE= in every action, there is a corresponding opposite reaction.

h. Velocity of the bullet

Example: Cal .357 = 1,775 feet per second

j. Engraving on the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

2. TRANSITIONAL BALLISTICS also known as INTERMEDIATE BALLISTICS

3. EXTERIOR (EXTERNAL) BALLISTICS

It involves the ff:

Special branches under Terminal Ballistics:

RANGE BETWEEN SHOTGUN AND THE TARGET:

MUZZLE IMPRINT appears with smudges of gunpowder with cherry-red discoloration.

3 Basic Kinds of Gunshot Wound (GSW) distinguished by the proximity of the

BULLET WOUND PHENOMENON

Contact wound (soft tissue)

The physical effects that indicate a contact shot may include:

Firearm Examiner (Ballistician) – person, whose knowledge in firearms identification is

1. Cal to mm (x 25.4) 2. Mm to Cal (x .03937)

DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF CALIBER MEASUREMENTS:

1. American System (2 digits) – expressed in hundredths of an inch such as

WEEK 3 FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

HISTORY OF THE FIRST FIREARM

These are classified as follows:

1. THE HAND CANNON

2. THE MATCH-LOCK ARMS

3. WHEELLOCK – Developed about 1500

4. THE FLINT-LOCK ARMS

Percussion Muzzle Loading Rifle Pattern

TWO GROUPS OF FIREARMS

1. LONG ARMS OR SHOULDER ARMS

TERMS RELATED TO SHOTGUN

d) CARBINE (cal .30)

TYPES OF REVOLVER ACCORDING TO OPERATION

THE THREE MAIN PARTS OF REVOLVER and PISTOL

REVOLVER – Cal .38 PISTOL – Cal .45

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS

A) According to Gun Barrel Internal Construction

C) According to Mechanical Construction

3. Automatic Loading Type

4. Bolt Action Type

UNUSUAL OR MISCELLANEOUS TYPE

MAXIMUM MACHINE GUN

CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS AS TO POWER ACCORDING TO RA 8294

Name : ____ Section :