Animal Health and Welfare Module 1

GLOSSARY FOR ANIMAL HEALTH
Abscess A circumscribed collection of purulent exudate frequently associated with

swelling and other signs of inflammation.
Acute An acute illness is one that has quickly become severe and dangerous.
OPP: chronic
Airsacculitis Inflammation of air sac
Allergy Hypersensitivity caused by exposure to a particular antigen(allergen)
resulting in a marked increase in reactivity to that antigen on subsequent
exposure, sometimes resulting in harmful immunologic consequences.
Allergic; adj
Alopecia Loss of hair
Anemia A condition in which animal has too few red blood cells (RBCs) in its
blood, making animal look pale and feel weak.
(To be precise, it is any condition in which the number of RBCs/mm 3, the
amount of hemoglobin in 100 mL of blood, and/or the volume of packed
RBCs/100mL of blood are less than normal)
Anorexia Loss of appetite
Antibiotic It means a soluble substance derived from a mold or bacterium that kills
or inhibits the growth of other microorganisms. It is used for producing an
antibiotic drug(preparation). E.g. Penicillin.
Antigen Any substance that, as a result of coming in contact with the body,
induces a state of sensitivity or immune responsiveness. The body then
usually produces antibodies to fight the antigens.
Arthritis Inflammation of a joint or a state characterized by inflammation of the
joints
Articular Joint or relating to a joint
Ascites Accumulation of serous fluid (body fluid) in the peritoneal cavity.
SYN: hydroperitoneum, hydroperitonia
Asymptomatic Without symptoms, or producing symptoms
Autolysis Enzymatic digestion of cells (especially dead or degenerate) by enzymes
present within them (autogenous).
Bacillary It means symptoms/disease is caused by bacteria
Blister A fluid-filled, thin-walled structure under the epidermis or within the
epidermis. (A small circumscribed elevation of the skin containing fluid.)
Brusa of Fabricius An organ peculiar to birds. It connected with producing antibody-forming
cells. It is places dorsal position of the cloaca. It is active in young birds.
Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 1
It atrophies after about 6 months.
Buccal Pertaining to, adjacent to, or in the direction of the cheek.
Caecum/cecum A small bag which is part of the intestine, between the small and the large
(pl. caeca/ ceca) intestine. SYN: the appendix
Caesarean section A medical operation in which an opening is cut in a female animal’s body
in order to take out a baby.
Calcification A condition that lime or other insoluble calcium salts is deposited on the
damaged tissue
Carrier A person who or animal that harbors a specific infectious agent in the
absence of discernible clinical disease and serves as a potential source of
infection.
Caseation A form of coagulation necrosis in which the necrotic tissue resembles
chees and contains a mixture of protein and fat that is absorbed very
slowly; occurs particularly in tuberculosis.
Caseous Pertaining to or manifesting the gross and microscopic features of tissue
affected by caseation
Cesticide Medicines for killing cestodes
Chronic Lasting for a long time; difficult to cure or get rid of
Cloven-hoofed They have two fingers (hoofs) on their foot of even-toed ungulate. It
include cattle, goat, sheep, pig, camel and African water buffalo etc.
Coma Deep unconscious state, usually lasting a long time and caused by serious
illness or injury
Conjunctiva The mucous membrane investing the anterior surface of the eyeball and
the posterior surface of the lids.
Conjunctivitis Inflammation of conjunctiva
Constipation The condition of being unable to get rid of waste material from the
intestines easily.
Convulsion A sudden shaking movement of the body that cannot be controlled
Cornea The transparent (clear) layer which covers and protects the outer part of
the eye.
It covers the part of pupil and iris. Corneal; adj.
Crepitus Cracking; the quality of a fine bubbling sound (rale) that resembles noise
heard on rubbing hair between the fingers.
SYN; crepitation
Coronet The uppermost part of hoof. It combines hoof and the leg covered with
hair.
Crust A hard outer layer or covering: cutaneous crusts are often formed by dried
serum or pus on the surface of a ruptured blister or pustule.
SYN; scab
Cyanosis A dark bluish or purplish discoloration of the skin and mucous membrane
due to deficient oxygenation of the blood.
Cyanotic Relating to or marked by cyanosis
Dehydration The condition that too much water is lost from body
Depression Dejection, not energetic
Deprivation Absence, loss, or withholding of something needed.
Dermatitis Inflammation of skin : a skin condition in which the skin becomes red,
swollen and sore
Differential Diagnosis The determination of which of two or more diseases with similar
symptoms is the one from which the patient is suffering, by a systemic
comparison and contrasting of the clinical findings
Disease This is disturbance of structure and normal function of an organism
Ecthyma A pyogenic infection of the skin characterized by adherent crusts beneath
which ulceration occurs; the ulcers may be single or multiple, and heal
with scar formation.
Edema (edematous) An accumulation of an excessive amount of watery fluid in cells,
(oedema/oedematous) intercellular tissues or the spaces inside the body and makes it swell
Emaciation Becoming abnormally thin from extreme loss of flesh
Endemic Regularly found in a particular place or among a particular group of
people and difficult to get rid of
Endocarditis Inflammation of endocardium(the innermost membrane of the heart)
Enzootic SYN endemic
Entero-, Enter- The intestine.
Epidermis The outer layer of the skin
Epididimytis Inflammation of epididymis (the organ connected to testis, which has a
function that it makes sperm mature.)
Erosion A shallow ulcer
Eructation SYN belching: The voiding of gas or of a small quantity of acid fluid
from the stomach through the mouth.
Eruption A breaking out, especially the appearance of lesions on the skin
Exacerbation Increased severity of a disease or any of its signs or symptoms
Exfoliate To remove dead cells from the surface of skin in order to make it
smoother
Exfoliation; noun
Extraintestinal Extra: “outside of ”, therefore it means outside of intestines
Exudate Any fluid or semisolids that has exuded out of a tissue or its capillaries,
more specifically because of injury or inflammation
Fasciolocide Medicines for killing trematodes
Fibrin One kind of protein (filamentous protein). In some cases, it is connected
with inflammation. It oozes from blood vessel on surface of inflamed
organs.
Fibrinopurulent Purulent; inflamed organ/tissue is accompanied with pus
It means that the inflammation is characterized by accumulation of fibrin
and pus on/in inflamed organs and tissue.
Fibrinous Pertaining to or composed of fibrin
Focal 1. Denoting a focus
2. Relating to a localized area.
Focus The center, or the starting point, of a disease process
Galactic Pertaining to milk; promoting the flow of milk
GIT Gastrointestinal tract: the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
Granuloma Nodular inflammatory lesions, usually small or granular, firm, persistent,
and containing compactly grouped modified phagocytes
Gurgling Added abnormal sound like water is in respiratory tract
Haemoglobin(Hb, The red respiratory protein of erythrocytes, which as oxyhaemoglobin
Hgb) (HbO2) transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues where the oxygen
is readily released and HbO2 becomes Hb.
Haemoglobinaemia The presence of free haemoglobin in the blood plasma, as when
(Hemoglobinemia) intravascular (within the blood vessels) hemolysis (destruction of RBCs)
occurs.
Excess of the concentration of haemoglobin in the blood plasma due to
liberation of it from destroyed RBC owing to intravascular hemolysis.
Haemoglobinuria The presence of haemoglobin in the urine. When present in sufficient
(Hemoglobinuria) quantities, they result in the urine, being colored in shades varying from
light reddish-yellow to fairly dark red.
Haemorrhage 1. An escape of blood from the intravascular space.
(Hemorrhage) 2. To bleed
Haemorrhagic Relating to or marked by haemorrhage(to bleed)
(Hemorrhagic)
Haemopoiesis The process of formation and development of the various types of blood
(Hemopoiesis) cells and other formed elements.
Hepatitis Inflammation of liver
Hydropericardium An accumulation of body fluid in the pericardial sac
Hydroperitoneum SYN: ascites
Hydrostatic Relating to the pressure of fluids or to their properties when in
equilibrium(a state of balance)
Hydrothorax Increased fluid in the pleural space (inside the thoracic cavity) ; can cause
respiratory distress
Hyper- Prefix denoting excessive, above normal. OPP hypo-
Hyperemic Denoting hyperemia (bloodshot/congestion)
Hypersensitivity Abnormal sensitivity, a condition in which there is an exaggerated
response by the body to the stimulus of a foreign agent.
Hypo- Prefix denoting deficient, below normal. OPP hyper-
Hypoproteinaemia Abnormally small amount of total protein in the blood plasma. It causes
edema due to change of balance connected with osmotic pressure of blood
plasma.
Inappetence Loss of appetite
Incoordination An inability to coordinate muscle activity during voluntary movement;
most often results from disorders of the cerebellum(the part of the brain at
the back of the head that controls the activity of the muscles) or the
posterior columns of the spinal cord; may involve the limbs, head, or
trunk.
Infectivity The capacity to become established in the tissue of the host
Infertility Diminished or absent ability to produce offspring
Inflammation A local reaction to injurious irritant (foreign substances or physical energy
etc.) on the tissue has distribution of capillary vessels. In that reaction,
inflamed tissue gets reddened and hot due to enlarged capillary vessels
caused by some substances released from cells. It has also pain and
swelling. Though inflammation is local defense reaction basically,
however, if tissue gets injured by inflammation, it can get loss of function.
Finally, inflammation leads the tissue to restoration.
Interdigital space The middle space of hooves in a leg of cloven-hoofed animal.
Intermittent fever Fever that rise and fall repeatedly at regular intervals.
Internal laying Egg material drops off to peritoneal cavity abnormally without being
received by funnel after ovulation.
Intervertebral joint Joint of back bones
Intradermal(ID) SYN intracutaneous. Within the substance of the skin, particularly the
dermis.
Intramammary(IMM Within the mammary gland
)
Intramuscular(IM) Within the substance of a muscle
Intravascular Inside blood vessels
Isotonic Having equal tension; denoting solutions possessing the same osmotic
pressure; more specifically, limited to solution in which cells neither swell
nor shrink.
Jaundice A yellowish staining of the skin, mucosa or deeper tissues, and excretions
with bile pigments (bilirubin), resulting from increased levels in the blood
plasma.
Keratitis Inflammation of the cornea.
Kerato-conjunctivitis Inflammation of the conjunctiva and of the cornea.
Lacrimation The secretion of tears, especially in excess
Lameness Unable to walk well because of an injury to the leg or foot
Larynx The area at the top of the throat that contains the vocal cords.
Lesion Damage to the skin or part of the body caused by injury or body illness
Lethargy The state of not having any energy or enthusiasm for doing things.
Leukoderma An absence of pigment, partial or total, in the skin or surface of tissue
Listlessness Having no energy or enthusiasm
Lobe One of the subdivisions of an organ or other part. (A part of organ in the
body, especially the lungs or brain etc.) In the lung, lobe consists of
aggregate of lobules.
Lobule Subdivision of a lobe
Mesenteric Relating to the mesentery (membrane fixing abdominal organs inside
abdominal cavity)
Metritis Inflammation of the uterus
Miliary Marked by the presence of nodules of millet seed size on any surface.
Mixed infection When more than one micro agent is present
Molluscicides Medicines for killing snails
Morbidity The ratio of sick:well people/animal in a community
Mortality (rate) An estimate of the proportion of the population that dies during a
specified period : the numerator is the number of people(animal) dying,
the denominator is the number in the population
SYN: death rate
Myocardium The middle layer of the heart, consisting of cardiac muscle (muscle of the
heart).
Necrosis Pathologic death of one or more cells, or of portion of tissue or organs,
resulting from irreversible damage
Nodular 1. Connecting nodule
2. Characterized by or containing nodules
Nodule A small node; in skin, a node 1cm < in diameter. It is solid.
Notifiable disease A disease that, by statutory requirements, must be reported to the public
health or veterinary authorities when the diagnosis is made because of its
importance to human or animal health.
NSAIDs Abbreviation for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, under drug; e.g.
aspirin, ibuprofen
Ocular SYN ophthalmic: Relating to the eye.
Onset The beginning of a disease, especially beginning to show clinical signs.
Opacity A lack of transparency/something is not clear, a nontransparent area.
Ophthalmic Relating to the eye
Orchitis Inflammation of testis
Palate The top part of the inside of the mouth
Papule A circumscribed, solid elevation up to 1 cm in diameter on the skin.
Parturient Relating to or in the process of childbirth
Pectoral Relating to the chest or muscle of the chest
Peracute Very acute
Perfuse To force blood or other fluid to flow from the artery through the vascular
bed of tissue or to flow through the lumen(the space in the interior of a
hollow tubular structure) of a hollow structure
Peri- Around, about, near
Pericardial sac The membrane covering the heart
Pericarditis Inflammation of the pericardial sac (pericardium)
Perihepatitis Inflammation of the membrane covering the liver
Peritonitis Inflammation of the peritoneum(the membrane of the inside of the
abdomen, that lines the abdominopelvic [relating to the abdomen and
pelvis] cavity and covers most of the organs contained therein
Pharynx The soft area at the top of the throat where the passages to the nose and
mouth connect with the throat
Photophobia Light-induced pain
Plague Any disease of wide prevalence or of excessive mortality.
Pleura The serous membrane enveloping the lungs and lining the walls of the
pulmonary cavities.
Pleuro Connecting to pleura
Post-dipping Dipping the teats after milking for prevention of contagious mastitis
Postmortem Medical examination of the body of a dead person/animal in order to find
out how they died
Pre-dipping Dipping the teats before milking for prevention of environmental mastitis
Prophylactic The institution of measures designed to protect a person/animal from an
treatment attack of a disease to which the person/animal has been or is liable to be
exposed.
(Giving medicines to the person/animal has been or is liable to be exposed
before showing symptoms.)
Prostraction A marked loss of strength, as in exhaustion
Proventriculus The first stomach in birds; glandular stomach
Pruritus Itchiness
Pulmonary Relating to lungs
Pustule A circumscribed, superficial elevation of the skin, containing purulent
material (pus). It is soft swelling.
Pyogenic Pus-forming; relating to pus formation. SYN pyogenous
Rale Added sound heard on auscultation (Listening to the sounds made by the
various body structures as a diagnostic method) of breath sounds; used by
some to denote rhonchus(an added sound on auscultation caused by air
passing through bronchi that are narrowed by inflammation, spasm of
smooth muscle, or presence of mucus in the lumen) and by others for
crepitation.
Reactors The animals which are proved to be infected with particular disease by the
test
Recumbency Lying down
Reservoir The host of an infection in which the infectious agent multiplies and /or
develops, and on which the agent depends for survival in nature; the host
essential for the maintenance of the infection during times when active
transmission is not occurring. (In short, it means a natural dwelling of the
infectious agent therefore reservoir cannot be attacked by that infectious
agent. It does not have any symptoms)
Retained placentas Incomplete separation of the placenta and its failure to be expelled at the
usual time after delivery of the child.
Rigor mortis Stiffening of the body, 1-7 hours after death
Rumenotomy Surgical operation for opening the rumen
Salivation Production of saliva
Scab A crust formed by coagulation of blood, pus, serum, or a combination of
these, on the surface of an ulcer, erosion, or other type of wound.
Sciatic
Seizure An attack
Septicaemia Systemic disease caused by the spread of microorganisms and their toxins
(septicemia) through circulating blood.
Serosa The outermost coat or serous layer of a visceral structure that lies in the
body cavities o the abdomen or thorax
Serotype A subdivision of a species or subspecies distinguishable from other strains
therein on the basis of antigenicity.
Serous Relating to, containing, or producing serum or a substance having a
watery consistency
Serum 1. A clear, watery fluid, especially that moistening the surface of serous
membranes, or exuded in inflammation of any of those membranes
2. (blood serum)The fluid portion of the blood obtained after removal of
the fibrin clot and blood cells, distinguished from the plasma in
circulating blood.
Shivering To shake slightly because of coldness, fright, excitement etc.
Slough 1. necrotic tissue separated from the living structure
2. to separate from the living tissue, said of a dead or necrotic part
Sporadic Denoting a temporal pattern of disease occurrence in an animal or human
population in which the disease occurs only rarely and without regularity.
Spore A resistant form of certain species of bacteria. It has high resistance to
disinfectant or other environment.
Staggering To walk with weak unsteady steps
Sternal Relating to the sternum
Sternum The long flat bone in the chest. SYN breastbone
Strain A particular type of plant or animal, or of a disease caused by bacteria, etc
Sub-clinical Denoting the presence of a disease without manifest symptoms
Subconjunctival Beneath the conjunctiva
Subcutaneous(SC) Beneath the skin
Synovial fluid The body fluid included in joints. The main function of which is to serve
as a lubricant in a joint.
Tonsillar Relating to a tonsil
Tonsils Either of the two small organs at the sides of the throat, near the base of
the tongue.
Toxaemia The clinical syndrome caused by toxic substances in the blood
(toxemia)
Transovarian- Transmission of infection through the eggs.
transmission ‐On-egg; egg contamination through affected layer’s intestines. The
infectious agents from the intestines attach to surface of eggshell at the
cloaca.
‐In-egg; egg contamination through affected layer’s ovary. The infectious
agents come into egg yolk in the ovary.
Tremor Slight shaking movement in a part of body
Tubule Small ducts inside kidneys
Ulcer A lesion through the skin or a mucous membrane resulting from loss of
tissue, usually with inflammation
Ulceration The formation of an ulcer
Unthriftiness A failure to grow or develop normally as a result of disease
Ureter Ducts carrying urine from kidneys to bladder
Urogenital Relating to urinary organs
Vasculitis Inflammation of a blood vessel SYN angiitis
Vector An insect, etc. that carries a particular disease from one living thing to
another
Vegetative Endocarditis associated with the presence of fibrinous clots (vegetation)
endocarditis forming (like “wart”) on the ulcerated surfaces of the valves.
Ventricular Either of the two lower spaces in the heart that pump blood to the lungs or
around the body
Vesicle SYN Blister: A small circumscribed elevation of the skin containing fluid.
Vesicular 1. Relating to a vesicle
2. Characterized by or containing vesicles
Withdrawal period The period for which we must wait before the carcass is eaten or
consumed after administering some medicines to livestock. This period
depends on type of medicine.
Zoonosis (pl. An infection or infestation shared in nature by humans and other animals
zoonoses)

CHAPTER 1: ANIMAL WELFARE
1.0 Animal welfare

In recent years concerns related to animal welfare has increase worldwide, not just for pets but for
animals of all kinds, including farm animals. Although producers and consumers in the world have
been little interested to date, it is considered that the development of a system to certify animal
welfare is needed. It is beneficial to both producers and consumers.
Definition
It is difficult to identify a single, universally agreed-upon definition of animal welfare; however,

many individuals and organizations have crafted definitions that share certain commonalities
including:
i. Welfare is the state of the animal, and how it is coping with the conditions in which it lives.
An animal’s welfare can range from negative to positive. A complete assessment of welfare
requires consideration of multiple facets of the animal’s state.
An unbiased and thorough assessment of an animal’s state should be encouraged regardless
of its species, role or utility. While the goal may be to classify welfare as good/bad or
acceptable/unacceptable, it will always involve considering different information often with
ethical components.
ii. Animal welfare means how an animal is coping with the conditions in which it lives. While
practical considerations may sometimes limit steps that can be taken to improve an animal’s
welfare, these considerations should not impact the assessment of the animal’s welfare state.
What is Animal Welfare?

The farm animal welfare Council established in 1979 by the British government proposed the five
freedoms in 1993. These freedoms have since become the current international consensus;
i. Freedom from hunger and thirst.
ii. Freedom from discomfort.
iii. Freedom from pain, injury and disease.
iv. Freedom to express normal behavior.
v. Freedom from fear and distress.
The maximum satisfaction of these freedoms engenders improved animal welfare. It is presumed to
be vitally important to comprehend “how animals fee” scientifically.
1. Freedom from hunger and thirst

• Appropriate feeding management must be followed that is; insufficient nutrition,
malnutrition and lack of fluids should be avoided. If this freedom is done
appropriately it will lead to increased productivity of the farm animals.
• Inputs: ready access to fresh water, and a diet that maintains full health and vigour,
e.g. how often stockperson delivers feed
• Outputs: body weight; body condition score; evidence of dehydration on the skin-
pinch test
2. Freedom from discomfort
• Improved breeding environment; this entails, maintenance of facilities, maintenance

of the thermal environment, air environment, luminous environment and acoustical
environment.
• Inputs: an appropriate environment, including shelter and a comfortable resting area
• Outputs: pressure sores on the skin
3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease
• Appropriate sanitary control and breeding management; prevention of diseases and

injuries and appropriate early treatment, noninvasive routine work (dehorning,
castration etc.)
• Inputs: veterinary advice ð disease prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment
• Outputs: prevalence of coughing, etc.
4. Freedom to express normal behavior

- Appropriate development of normal behavior, development of natural behavior patterns,
provision of appropriate environmental triggers. Management practices and
environmental improvement to prevent livestock from developing conflicting and
abnormal behavior.
 Inputs: sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal’s own
kind
 Outputs: signs of injury from fighting; abnormal behaviours
5. Freedom from fear and distress

- Appropriate grouping and appropriate handling of the livestock by peoples, grouping in
accordance with weight and body types, avoiding cruel handling of the livestock.
 Inputs: conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering, e.g.
stockperson’s training
 Outputs: behavioural tests, e.g. avoidance distance
Each of the Five Freedoms can overlap with the others. For example, if an animal is hungry, he or
she will seek food and eat it – this is normal behaviour. If the animal cannot find food, or if the
environment does not allow him/her to show normal food-seeking behaviour, s/he may become
distressed. Therefore, if animals are not free from hunger and are not free to express normal
behaviour, they may also not be free from distress.
All life ends in death; therefore, freedom from death is not something that we can provide to any
organism. However, we kill most of the animals that we keep. The issue of whether or not we should
kill animals is an ethical one. The avoidance of death in animals has an ethical value for many
cultures. Moreover, from the animal’s point of view, animals have an interest in life and, generally,
will try to avoid death.
Even though we cannot guarantee freedom from death to any animal, the manner of an animal’s
death does concern animal welfare. For example, if someone keeps a dog as a pet and does not feed
the animal properly, the animal will die of malnutrition and associated diseases. In that case, the
animal’s death comes about because several of the Five Freedoms have been compromised (freedom
from hunger, freedom from disease, freedom from distress and, possibly, freedom to express normal
behaviour
A popular approach to animal welfare based on three overlapping needs was developed. They
suggested that full consideration of welfare must include an assessment of:
1. Functioning: The physical fitness of the animal. Animals should have good health, normal
bodily functions, and normal growth and development.
2. Natural Living: The ability of animals to lead reasonably natural lives. They should be able
to perform important types of normal behavior. Animals should also have some natural
elements in their environment, such as fresh air or the ability to socialize with other animals
in normal ways.
3. Affective States: The emotional state of the animal. Animals should feel well mentally and
should not be subjected to excessive amounts of negative emotion and unpleasant affective
states (e.g., pain, hunger, distress). Animals should also experience some positive emotions in
the form of pleasure or contentment.
Ideally, the three areas of need should fully overlap, indicating that an improvement in one need
would concurrently improve the other needs. In reality, this is often not the case and an improvement
of one need may be accompanied by no change or a negative change in one or more other needs.
Difference in the views between Animal Welfare and Animal Rights
Animal welfare is distinct from rights. Animal rights addresses the legal and moral standing of
animals in society and, in its most extreme, seeks to end the use of animals by humans. While a
person with animal rights orientation may seek improvements on the immediate step
Animal welfare
It is accepted that human beings may sacrifice nonhuman animals, the five freedoms
Animal rights
If the right to life is guaranteed for a human being, the right must be given
The complete elimination of animal experiments and the complete elimination of eating meat
Concepts in Animal Welfare
Welfare concerns the quality of an animal’s life, not how long the life lasts (quantity)
Three approaches when considering animal welfare
For example, if a single hen is housed in a wire cage on her own and has food, water, a perch, a
nesting box, and an area for dust-bathing, her physical functioning is likely to be good. Her mental
state is likely to be good too, although she may feel frustration because of social isolation which may
occur even if other birds are close by, in other cages. She will also be able to perform important
behaviours like nesting before she lays. However, some people would still have concerns for her
welfare because keeping a chicken in a cage is not ‘natural’. The cages actually impact on other areas
of welfare including the health of the animal, e.g. wired floors are likely to cause injuries; if an
animal is frustrated then he or she may self-mutilate or perform stereotypical behaviours, which can
cause physical damage. So in this example, the chicken’s welfare is affected in terms of all three of
the ‘naturalness’, ‘physical’ and ‘mental’ areas of welfare.
These three areas of welfare should never be looked at in isolation and we should focus on the centre
of the diagram where they all overlap. It requires a holistic approach to welfare, incorporating all
three and understanding the relationships between the areas.
Physical area (functioning: slower movement, weight loss because the animal is unable to access
enough good grass or extra feed), andmental area (feelings: pain, hunger, perhaps fear, if separated
from the flock, and therefore is more vulnerable to predators).

1.2 STOCKMANSHIP AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION
Stockman – A person who looks after the livestock or a property. He or she is responsible for the care
for livestock and treatment for their injuries and illnesses.
1.2.1 ROLE AND SCOPE OF STOCKMANSHIP

The stockman has a unique role within livestock farming in ensuring high standards of animal
welfare. His knowledge must cover the principles and practices of animal husbandry, a basic
knowledge of disease prevention and treatment, and the operation and maintenance of equipment. He
must have a sound grasp of reproduction management, neonatal care, nutrition, behaviour, health and
animal handling amongst many other topics that are essential to good farming practice. This wide
range of expertise and skills underlines the need for effective education and training that should
continue throughout his working life on a regular and progressive basis through continuous
professional development.
In any production system, the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitude of the stockman are integral
to the standard of welfare. Good stockmanship can often compensate for deficiencies in a livestock
production system but the converse is never true. This basic principle has been enshrined in
Government codes of recommendation for the welfare of livestock.
1.2.2 The three essentials of stockmanship

The attributes of a good stockman include an affinity and empathy with livestock, patience, and
keen observational skills amongst others. Knowledge of animal husbandry based on animal science
is beneficial but it is essential that this is honed by practical experience.
The good stockman is distinguished by characteristics and qualities that are often termed “stock
sense”. It is believed that many components of stock sense can be acquired with experience and well
targeted training, provided that suitable staff are recruited, the production system is well designed
and effective management support is provided. Effective education and training are essential in the
first few years after recruitment and should continue on a progressive and continuous basis. Lack of
effective training is quoted as one of the reasons why staff leave the agricultural industry within the
first five years.
It is proposed that the following attributes should be considered as the “Three Essentials of
Stockmanship”, analogous to the “Five Freedoms”.
 Knowledge of animal husbandry. Sound knowledge of the biology and husbandry of farm
animals, including how their needs may be best provided for in all circumstances.
 Skills in animal husbandry. Demonstrable skills in observation, handling, care and treatment

of animals, and problem detection and resolution.
 Personal qualities. Affinity and empathy with animals, dedication and patience.
It is believed that education, training and motivation in all their forms have a predominant effect
relative to inborn characteristics in influencing the quality of stockmen. The “Three Essentials of
Stockmanship” should be the basis of education, training and motivational programmes for stockmen
1.2.3 Principles of stockmanship

A good animal handler understands two key principles:
1. Flight zone: The “bubble” around the animal that if invaded by handlers, will cause the animal to
move away. It is also called a Comfort Zone.
Domestic animals will try to escape if any person approaches closer than a certain distance. This
critical distance, which defines the flight zone, varies among species and individuals of the same
species, and depends upon previous contact with humans. Animals reared in close proximity to
humans (i.e. tame) have a smaller flight zone, whereas those kept in free range or extensive
systems may have flight zones which may vary from one metre to many metres. Animal handlers
should avoid sudden penetration of the flight zone which may cause a panic reaction which could
lead to aggression or attempted escape and compromise the welfare of the animals.
An example of a flight zone (cattle)
Handler movement pattern to move cattle forward

2. Point of balance: Animal handlers should use the point of balance at the animal’s shoulder to
move animals, adopting a position behind the point of balance to move an animal forward and in
front of the point of balance to move it backward
When a stockman is at the edge of the flight zone and properly balanced, only slight movements
are needed to control the animals in a low stress manner.
A good stockman will stay quiet when working with livestock. If the herd is not doing what you
want, it is not because they can’t hear or see you. It is because you are in the wrong place doing the
wrong thing. Move calmly, purposefully and in a straight lines. Why, the herd will be able to predict
your movements and respond appropriately to them.
If you move like a predator [hesitating, followed by sudden movements and in curves around them],
the herd will treat you like a predator.
A good stockman is patient, keeps doing the right things until the animals responds correctly. You
need to realize that if you make animals do something before they are ready them it is no longer low
stress handling. Train cattle how to behave every time you are with them.
1.2.4 ESSENTIAL STOCKMANSHIP IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Stockmanship is a key factor in animal welfare.
On farm, working with an experienced person or by following a course offered by a suitable training
acquisition.
Wherever possible, the training must include animal husbandry, without competent delayed
stockmanship animal welfare will be compromised.
A competent stockmanship should be able to:
1. Recognize whether or not the animals are in good health.
2. Understand the significance of a change in the behavior
3. Know when veterinary treatment is required
4. Implement a planned herd health program. E.g preventive treatments, vaccination, deworming]
5. Implement appropriate animal feeding and grassland management programs

6. Recognize if the general environment [indoor or outdoor] is adequate for promotion of good
health and welfare.
7. Have management skills appropriate for the scale and technical requirement of the production
system.
8. Handle animals with care, avoiding undue [unnecessary] stress.
1.3 Effects of climate on Animal Production
Climatic requirements for optimal production

Major climatic variables directly affecting domestic livestock are temperature, humidity, air
movement and radiation. In addition, the duration of light (the photoperiod) is of importance for
some livestock species as it affects various aspects of reproduction and other biological functions.
Combinations of these climatic variables create climates in which maximum productivity can be
achieved by specific types of livestock. The climates may vary on account ofinteractions between the
climatic variables and diurnal, daily and seasonal changes. The combinations will certainly vary
according as to whether optimal productivity is sought in growth, milk production or reproductive
processes. Additional variables in this scenario are the genetic adaptabilities of the species, breed or
individual animal; based on physiological/biochemical/neurochemical/behavioural characteristics.
Every animal, and even more so every group of animals, has a range within which it can give
optimal performance. The range one would like to keep all animals in is the ‘thermocomfort’ zone.
Within this range animals are not merely capable of giving an optimal performance, but also feel
such comfort that they have no preference for any particular location--- neither huddling nor
separating --- to keep warm, respectively. They are in complete harmony with their environment.
Outside this zone, both higher and lower, is the temperature zone known as the ‘thermoneutral’
zone, and it is vital to try and maintain stock within this all the time if they are housed, and at least
most of the time if they are outdoors. It is the zone where there are no metabolic demands on the
animals. They maintain homeothermy by quite extensive fluctuations in their behavior, by changes in
their hair disposition or blood circulation at the surface, and by perspiration and panting.
If the temperature falls below the lower critical temperature, the animal will need to use more
food to keep warm, so that either the animal produces less if it is on a fixed feeding scale or eats
more to keep warm and still produce at an optimal level.
If temperatures continue to go upwards or downwards, above or below the upper or lower critical
temperatures, respectively, the animal continues to try and maintain its homeothermy by various
metabolic means, but in due course the deep body temperature is altered and it will at extemes
eventually collapse and die.

Fig.1 Environment zone for livestock.
Upper lethal temperature
Upper critical
temperature
Thermcomfort
Thermoneutral zone
zone
Lower critical
temperature
Lower lethal temperature
Table.1.1
Species Thermoneutral
zone
Dairy cattle 10~18℃
Adult pig 15～20℃
Layer 21～23℃
Broiler 18～21℃
1.3.1 The direct effect of climate on the animal

- Heat balance
All domestic livestock are homeotherms. That is, they attempt to maintain their body temperatures
within a range most suitable for optimal biological activity. The normal range in mammals is 37-
39℃ while in birds it is 40-41℃though there are some exceptions. Typical deep-body temperatures
of some domestic livestock are shown in table 1.1.
Table 1.2 typical deep-body temperatures of domestic livestock

Type of livestock Deep body temperature
(℃)
Horses 37.2-38.2
Donkeys 36.0-38.0
Camels 36.0-38.0
Buffalo 38.0-38.5
Cattle 38.0-39.3
Sheep 38.3-39.9

Goats 38.7-40.7
Pigs 38.9-39.4
Fowls(Chickens) 41.9
Ducks 42.1
Geese 41.3
Turkeys 41.2
In order to maintain their body temperature while subject to a wide range of environmental
conditions, domestic livestock must preserve a thermal balance between their heat production and/or
gain from the environment and their heat loss to the environment. This thermal balance can be
expressed by the equation.
M=E±F±Cd±Cv±R±F±W
M : heat production
E : the heat loss from skin and respiratory passages by evaporation
Cd : heat lost or gained by direct contacts between the body and surrounding surfaces by conduction
Cv : heat lost or gained by convection due to contact between the air and skin and/or linings of the
respiratory passages
R : Radiation
F : the heat loss or gained bringing ingested food and/or water to body temperature
W : Work
Heat Production=shivering thermogenesis + non shivering thermogenesis

 Shivering thermogenesis: thermogenesis resulting from the increase in metabolism of the
skeletal muscles due to shivering.
2~3 times as much as heat produced in basal metabolism is produced by
shivering, however, it consumes much more energy.
 Non shivering thermogenesis: thermogenesis result from metabolism of various tissue or
organs.
- Regulation of body temperature

Farm livestock are homeotherms, which means that they must keep their body temperature within a
moderately narrow range for optimal results. To do this they must maintain a thermal balance
between the heat they produce or gain from the environment and the heat they lose to it.
It can be seen that heat escapes from the body by a number of routes. A small amount is lost with the
faeces and urine, but the main losses are by radiation, convection, conduction and evaporation.
―Radiationheat loss arises from the fact that a warm body will emit heat when it is at a temperature
higher than that of the surrounding surfaces. The loss is affected also by the area of the body’s

surface and its so-called emissivity ―that is, its inherent ability to emit heat by this route. Other
factors are the position and behavior of the animal: for example, heat loss will be greatly reduced
when groups of animals are close together. In practice, hot surfaces are to be avoided in summer as
they prevent the animal from radiating and thus dissipating surplus heat, while in winter cold
surfaces will aggravate heat loss in a cool environment.
―Convection loss is governed by the surface area of the animal, its temperature and that of the
surrounding air, and the movement of air over the surface. Hence the danger of draughts in cold
weather as a source of heat dissipation, in contrast to a high air movement in warm weather, which
can help to relieve the stress of high temperatures.
―Conduction loss is due to physical contact of the animal with a surface, and is dependent on the
temperature of the surface, its area and its thermal conductivity. It is very important to reduce heat
loss by conduction by providing animals with bedding or by thermally insulated surfaces.
―Evaporation loss enables an animal to withstand high temperatures even when the loss by
radiation, conduction and convection is insignificant or absent. Evaporation of water from the skin
plays a less important part in farm animals, which for the most part are sparselyequipped with sweat
glands, than that from the respiratory surfaces. Evaporation from the skin is dependent, so far as
external factors are concerned, on the temperature, humidity and movement of the air; from the lungs
it depends on the humidity of the inspired and expired air.
1.3.1.1 Effect of Climate on Animal Behavior
Grazing behavior
- The length of daytime grazing of cattle apparently varies according to the degree of climatic
stress, the breed and type of cattle utilized and the quantity and quality of the pasture available.
- When high-grade Bos Taurus-type cattle are grazed in a humid tropical climate the length of
daylight grazing is radicallycurtailed and confined almost entirely to early morning and late
afternoon periods
- The length of the night grazing period fluctuates according to the degree of climatic stress.
Intake and utilization of feed and water
a) Feed intake
- As would be expected from the effect of temperature on grazing behavior the available climatic
chamber date suggest that high ambient temperatures depress the feed intake of domestic
livestock, but that in the case of cattle the feed intake of Bos taurus is depressed at lower
ambient temperatures than is that of B. indicus breeds.
- The effect of very high temperatures is very pronounced, food consumption and rumination
practically ceasing in B. tauras -type cattle as ambient temperatures rise above 40℃.
- Increasing humidity at ambient temperatures above 23.9℃ also depresses the feed intake of all

cattle, while increasing radiation stress has the same effect on Bos taurus but not on B. indicus -
type cattle.
b) Water intake
- The direct effect of climate on the water intake of livestock is very complex, as water is required
by the animal for at least two different purposes.
- 1. As an essential nutrient and component of the body
2. To assist the animal lose heat by conductive or evaporative cooling.
- Although, in general, the water intake of livestock increases with increasing ambient
temperature the relationship between water intake and ambient temperature is not simple.
e.g. In Bos taurus-type milking cows water intake increases with rising ambient temperature up
to 29.4℃, but above this temperature it declines. This decline has been attribute d to a decline in
feed intake and productivity and to a rise in body temperature.
- Ambient temperature has a differential effect on the water intake of different types of livestock
and on different breeds within one type, and it appears that acclimatized animals require less
water than unacclimatized when managed at high ambient temperatures.
- Humidity also affects water intake, and at ambient temperatures above 24 ℃ increasing
humidity decreases water consumption and increases the frequency of drinking of cattle.
c) Efficiency of utilization
- The experimentalevidence available suggests that under controlled condition increasing ambient
temperature decreases the efficiency of feed utilization, although under field conditions any
differences may be insignificant.
d) Loss of nutrients by sweating and drooling
- Sweating is not of the same importance in all livestock, though it can be important in cattle. In
the latter, sweating behavior differs between breeds as ambient temperature rises, although
generally the loss of nutrients and particularly minerals through sweating and drooling is not of
practical significance.
Milk production
- Most of the available experimental evidence indicates that milk, butterfat and solids-not-fat
production are depresses by high ambient temperature, but as in growth studies it is difficult to
disentangle the direct and indirect effects of climate.
- High ambient temperatures also affect other constituents of the milk of temperate-type milking
cattle.
Reproduction
- The major climatic factors affecting reproduction are ambient temperature, humidity and the
length of daylight. The high environmental temperatures or sudden violent fluctuations in
ambient temperature, such as occur in the subtropics, can directly affect the reproductive
performance of cattle and that high humidities reinforce the effect of high temperature.
- Day length appears to be primary factor affecting the seasonal incidence of fertility in cattle.
- Where day length varies considerably the highest fertility occurs in the spring with increasing
hours of daylight.
- In the tropics the length of daylight varies very little and this small variation in daylight hours
does not appear to have any pronounced effect on reproductive behavior of cattle.
1.3.2 The Indirect Effect of Climate on the Animal
The major indirect effect of climate on livestock is on the quantity and quality of the feed available
for them. Other indirect effects are on the incidence of disease and parasites and the storage and
handling of animal products.
Feed and water supply

The most important climatic factors that limit plant growth, and hence the quantity of the feed
available are ambient temperature, effective rainfall, length of daylight and intensity of solar
radiation.
The quality of feed depends mainly on effective rainfall and on the intensity of solar radiation. The
very real differences in climate that exist between the humid and the arid and semi-arid tropical
regions thus present two broadly distinct livestock nutritional problems, although there are many
exceptions and the distinctions become blurred in the intermediate climatic zones.
Semi-arid and arid tropics

It is characteristic of semi-arid and arid regions that the total rainfall is low, varying widely in
amount from year and strongly seasonal and/or erratic in incidence. Thus, it is usual for the rainy
season flush of highly nutritious forage to be followed by a long dry period, when growth ceases
completely and the forage dries up. If a drought intervenes, the dry season may not be followed by a
normal rainy season, but by a few scattered showers and an even longer dry period. Under these
circumstances ruminant livestock have to graze for the major part of the year on what is essentially
standing hay or alternatively on browse and in drought periods they may have to exist on this type of
feed for very long periods, at a time when surface-water resources are diminishing.
Thus, the major problems of the nutrition of livestock in the semi-arid and arid tropics are the
intensely seasonal nature of the forage resources and the possibility of low nutrient intake and water
deprivation during the dry season.
a) Effect of feed intake
The dry matter (DM) content of forage in the arid and semi-arid tropics is high throughout most
of the year and grazing animals have no difficulty in obtaining an adequate DM intake if ample
supplies of forage are available. Thus, the crucial factor in the feeding of livestock in these areas

is that of keeping the stocking rate within the ‘carrying capacity’ of the dry season grazings.
b) Effect of water intake

All domestic livestock require access to some free water sometimes, but the needs of different
types of livestock vary. Cattle require regular and free water, through the water demands of
different types of cattle vary and Bos indicus breeds apparently require less free water than do
Bos taurus breeds when managed in the same environment. when adequate free water is available
the water intake of all types of cattle rises during the dry season but cattle can be acclimatized to
a certain degree of water deprivation.
c) Water deprivation
This affects water and feed intake, metabolism and productivity. Cattle restrict their DM intake
when they are water-deprived, but Bos indicus breeds do not reduce their DM intake to the same
extent as do B.taurus breeds. The higher the same level of water deprivation on DM intake. If at
the same time cattle are managed in such a way as to restrict their grazing time – this being
normal management practice in many tropical countries – feed intake may be decreased still
further. While the animal is water-deprived, the nutritive content of available feed may decrease,
as is normal in the semi-arid tropics with the advancing dry season, and this may lead to a further
decrease in voluntary DM intake. The cumulative effect of all these factors may mean that the
nutritive intake of cattle in this environment is very inadequate.
As rumen fluid provides the most suitable source of water to offset water losses during the initial
stages of dehydration it could be expected that water deprivation would affect rumen function.
d) Effect on the nutrient content of the forage
Livestock in the arid and semi-arid regions have to exist for long periods on forage that is
essentially mature standing hay of low nutrient value.
The low protein content, often averaging between 2 and 4 per cent CP, and the even lower
protein digestibility of this forage, is one of the major reasons for the poor performance of cattle
in these regions. The reasons for this are that many of the indigenous forage plants are inherently
not particularly nutritious, that the forage is usually mature when it is consumed, and that as the
forage plants dry out leaf fall increases, leaving feed material with a high stem: leaf ratio.
The CF content of the standing hay is high as the forage plants are mature and there is evidence
that environmental conditions in the arid and semi-arid tropics favor the early onset of
lignification.
Livestock are therefore forced to digest highly lignified fibrous feed, and as the digestion of
fibre increases the heat output already under considerable heat stress.

CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL HEALTH
2.1 CONCEPT OF HEALTH AND DISEASES
2.1.1 Definition of health and disease

Health is the condition of an animal that enable it to attain acceptable levels of production
within the farming system in which it is maintained. The term is relative, depending on what the
producer defines as his or her level of productivity. e.g. A pastoralist and a feedlot farms have
different definitions of a healthy animal. The term healthy does not imply that the animal is free
from all disease agents, an animal may be affected by a disease causing agent but remain an
affected by it for an indefinite period e.g. worms, brucellosis etc. It is therefore important to
distinguish between clinical and sub clinical disease. Sub clinical disease makes the largest
contribution to the total wastage in majority of production system. Disease is a disturbance of
structure and normal function of an organism.
Disease: an interruption, cessation, or disorder of a body, system, or organ structure or function.
Because of it, an animal may be unable to produce quality products.
2.1.2 Reasons of the maintenance of health

(a) Increasing the efficiency of production
The definition of health used above emphasized the financial and economic
importance to the farmer of the maintenance of healthy animals. The objective of any
health intervention is to avoid loss of production in order to improve the efficiency of
the livestock enterprise. This should be the goal whatever the form of the production. It
is just as important to control foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in order to avoid lameness
in ploughing oxen as it is to avoid loss of marketable milk. However, the return
achieved from any animal health intervention must be greater than the expenditure. A
livestock owner will tolerant a low tick burden if the cost of mustering and treatment
are greater than the benefit he would receive in terms of increased liveweight gain.
The view of the livestock owner derives from his own financial situation. He is
concerned with the cash flow of the enterprise. However, it is necessary for government
planners responsible for to take a wider view, to consider the economic interests of
society and to look in a more fundamental way at the resources consumed and
generated.
(b) Securing against epidemic diseases

An important benefit from the control of epidemic disease is the reduced anxiety of
producers whose livelihood can be threatened by the disease. Further, when the risk of
major epidemic disease is reduced or eliminated livestock owners have greater
security of production. This may bring about important changes in the attitude of

pastoralists. Faced with the prospect of their cattle being decimated at intervals by
rinderpest and other diseases, it is not surprising that pastoralists attempt to reduce
their risks by maintaining very large herds. They are very aware that old animals,
which may be relatively unproductive, have survived previous outbreaks and are
likely to be immune to the disease. If the threat of epidemic disease is removed
pastoralists may be able to be more selective and reduce their herds to a size that is
more appropriate to the carrying capacity of the rangeland.
(c) Improvement in human health

Maintenance of health in livestock benefits human health in a general way through the
provision of an improved supply of livestock products such as protein of high biological
value. More specifically, human health benefits through the reduction of those diseases
which are transmissible from animals to man – the zoonoses. The eradication from a
dairy herd of brucellosis, a disease which causes abortion in cattle, will eliminate the
chance of the attendants becoming infected with a disease which in man may cause the
most unpleasant effects for many years. As well as this physical benefit a further one,
psychological but very real, is the removal of the fear of contracting disease from
animals. This is of particular significance in the case of rabies.
(d) Improvement in animal welfare

It is reasonable to suppose that unhealthy livestock are suffering, and in the case of
some conditions, that they are in severe pain. There is thus a humanitarian aspect to the
maintenance of health. Animals in discomfort or pain are also likely to be unproductive.
It is possible, however, to maintain highly productive animals in some intensive
systems where they are subject to inhumane conditions, such as severe restraint or
surgical procedures. Though it is probable that in the long term, the stress imposed by
such inhumane systems will predispose these animals more easily to disease and that
the systems will become suboptimal in economic terms.
2.1.3 Assessment of health and disease
GENERAL SIGNS OF DISEASE AND HEALTH IN FARM ANIMALS

It is a daunting task to give a concise definition of health. However, it is common practice to
judge the health statue of animal by using behavioral, physiological and physical parameters. A
sick animal may exhibit behavioral changes such as listlessness, weakness, reluctance to move,
change in temperament and isolation from its fellows. Physiological changes may include loss of
appetite, a rise in body temperature, respiratory and heart/pulse rates, loss of sexual drive, reduced
production (egg and milk) and reduced growth rate. Physical changes include appearance of skin,

change in colour of mucous membranes, lameness etc.
DIAGNOSIS
Coming up with a diagnosis is an art that is perfected through practice and experience. It involves
four main facets namely history taking, clinical examination, post mortem and laboratory sample
analysis.
History taking – History of a case is composed of information obtained from the animal owner
or keeper. This information is very important and should be carefully gathered as the animal
cannot speak for itself. Many animal owners or keepers may conceal or give incorrect
information to avoid being blamed for negligence leading to occurrence of disease. History
include information such as duration of illness, number of others affected in the flock/herd or
surrounding farms, whether onset was sudden or gradual. Similar past cases, vaccination record,
past treatment etc.
However, the information gathered in the history should be relevant to the case at hand. Lengthy
history full of irrelevant information may be confusing and misleading. Although history taking
is usually the first step in diagnosis, more information may be obtained during or after clinical
examination or indeed after post mortem and laboratory analysis.
At the end of history taking a list of suspected problems or diseases is drawn up.
Clinical examination – During this stage the animal is examined by mere visual assessment or
observation, palpation, percussion and by use of equipment such as thermometer, stethoscope
etc.
Abnormalities and lesions observed are what are known as clinical signs (preferred in animals)
or symptoms (preferred in humans). At the end of clinical examination a tentative diagnosis may
be reached.
Laboratory analysis – Samples from the sick animal are collected and submitted to the
laboratory for analysis. The samples may include whole blood, blood smear, serum, tissue
biopsy, urine, faeces, parasites etc.
After analysis of laboratory results it is possible to arrive at a definitive diagnosis.
Post mortem – This is performed after the sick animal has died or sacrificed. It is systematic
dissection and examination of a carcass to find the cause of death or illness. Tissue/organ
samples may be collected and submitted to the laboratory for further analysis.
After integration of the history and results from clinical examination, laboratory analysis and
post mortem a definitive diagnosis is reached.
Always remember that “not all the signs will appear all the time”
2.2 CAUSES OF DISEASES
2.2.1 Classification of causes of diseases

Cause of diseases may be broadly into pathogenic factors and non-pathogenic factors.
Pathogenic factors are bacteria, mycoplasma, rickettsia, fungi, viruses and parasite (protozoa,
helminthes, ectoparasites). Non-pathogenic factors include mechanical and thermal injury,
poisons and toxins, nutritional deficiencies and imbalances hereditary conditions and neoplasms.
2.2.1.1 Pathogenic factors

Bacteria
They range from 1µm to 4µm in size and can multiply outside cells, although some that cause
major diseases multiply within cells. They are classified into prokaryote. Some kinds of bacteria
may develop highly resistant spores which remain a source of disease for many years. Treatment
with antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents may be effective.
e.g. Anthrax, Black leg, Haemorrhagic septicaemia, Tuberculosis etc.
Mycoplasma
These are also classified into bacteria but these have no cell wall on their cells and these are
smaller than general bacteria. They range 0.3-0.8µm. They multiply in either situation; within
cells and outside cells.
e.g. Contagious Bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia(CBPP) etc.
Rickettsia
These are also classified into bacteria but these multiply only within cells. These have cell wall
and these are smaller than general bacteria. They range 0.3-2.0µm
e.g. Anaplasmosis, Cowdriosis etc.
Fungi
These vary greatly in size, the largest being visible to the naked eye. They are often resistant to
environment influences and are sensitive to a narrow range of therapeutics.
e.g. Dermatophytosis etc
Viruses
These are the smallest pathogenic factor in size from 10 to 300nm

(1nm=0.001μm=0.000001mm). They multiply inside living cells and are generally readily
inactivated by the environment but are usually not affected by antibiotics or chemotherapeutic
agents.
e.g. Foot and Mouth Disease(FMD), African Swine Fever(ASF), Fowl pox, Gumboro disease,
Infectious bronchitis(IB) etc.
Parasites
Protozoa - Unicellular eukaryotic (true nucleus) organisms most are free living.
e.g. Babesiosis, Theileriosis, trypanosomiasis etc.
Helminths(internalparasite) - Round worm (nematode), flukes (trematode) and tapeworm
(cestode).
Ectoparasites – Common ectoparasites on farm animals include fleas, lice, mites and ticks.
2.3 Epidemiology
2.3.1 Definition of epidemiology

It is study to analyse occurrence frequency, distribution and factors concerning the problems on
health in the population. It is the main object of epidemiology to give us useful information for
prevention against disease or preventive management through the analysis of the occurrence
situation and occurrence factors. In epidemiology, the analysis about the above discloses what
kind of disease is happening, against which kind of animal the disease is affecting, where, when,
etc. A disease occurs with interaction of the causal agent factor, environmental factor and host
factor.
1) Causal agent factor

It is a direct factor which brings about a disease or problem in health to human/animal. In
uninfected disease, it is likely that the disease is compound by multi-factors.
❑ Biological factors: bacteria, virus, rickettsia, fungi, parasite…
❑ Physical factors: noise, radiation, temperature, humidity…
❑ Chemical factors: mainly chemical material (substance) e.g. carcinogens
2) Environmental factor
It is described as anything except for causal agent factor and host factor.
[environmental factorsⅠ]
❑ Biological factors: all living thing in the environment…
❑ Weather factors: temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, day-light length…
❑ Geographical factor: water quality, air pollution…

❑ Physical factors: noise, shaking, heat of radiation, malignancy…
❑ Chemical factors: natural poisons, chemical agents(insecticide, acaricide, etc)…
❑ [environmental factorsⅡ factors about society, culture and economy]
❑ Social life factors: birth place, habitat, residence, human relationship…
❑ Family factors: family structure, state of marriage, quality of life, consanguineous
marriage…
❑ House factors: ventilation, lightning, supply with water, premises…
❑ Clothes factors: clothes, shoes, bedding…
❑ Eating habit factors: food, how to cook, habit of intake, contamination of food, low
nutrition, hypernutrition…
❑ Luxury foods factors: cigarette, alcoholic drinks, coffee…
❑ Occupational factors: types/kinds of occupation, labor environment, labor conditions,
commute…
❑ Medical and health related factors: medical facilities, medical insurance system,
sports/exercise…
❑ Educational/cultural factors: educational level, culture, religion, manners and customs,
leisure…
❑ Economic factors: income, property, business condition, war…
❑ Social environmental factors: population density, politic system, industrial structure,
traffic, food circulation system, scientific technology
3) Host factor
It is mainly classified into three factors.
❑ Genetic factors: hereditary disease, predisposition, constitution, family history…
❑ Physical factors: age, sex, race, physique, physical activity…
❑ Mental factors: character, disposition, behavior, sexual behavior……
2.3.2 Epidemiology of infectious disease

Infection means that pathogen microorganisms proliferate inside animal’s body after invasion.
Infection is realized due to complete all three conditions – source of infection, infection route
and susceptible host.
Source
of
infection
Infection Susceptible
route host

1) Source of infection
Source of infection is animal/subject which has agents of infection. An affected animal is
source of new infection to others of course. Reservoir is habitat of pathogenic
microorganisms where they can multiply and live in their own natural life cycle. For
instance, in case of rabies, wildlife is reservoir and in case of African swine fever a certain
kind of tick and warthog is reservoir. Carrier is outward healthy animal in spite of keeping
an agent of disease. Carrier is the big problem in aspect of the prevention of epidemics
because it is difficult to be disclosed clinically. As infectious source of inanimate objects,
contaminated animal products or soil including pathogens is given.
2) Route of infection (Route of transmission)

- Direct infection
Pathogens are transmitted from an affected animal to others directly. Most of respiratory
infectious disease or rabies are examples.
- Indirect infection
Infection occurs through contaminated material, for example instrument, clothes, water, feed
or insects/animals called “vector”. E.g. East coast fever caused by one of protozoa; Theileria
parva is transmitted by ticks (Rhipicephalus spp).
3) Susceptible host
Infection does not always occur even if pathogens invade inside animal’s body. Normally
immunity inside host animal protects the body from pathogens’ proliferation so that
pathogens can be eliminated from the body. It can be progressed by vaccination.
In the population, if the number of immunized animal against certain pathogen is much
more than the number of susceptible (non-immunized) animal, the pathogen cannot make
itself epidemic.
In addition, host’s susceptibility is influenced by stress, nutritional condition, age, breed and
genetic factor. Transport in a long distance, high density in the house or exposure to the
heat/cold can be stress to animals and predispose them to respiratory disease or
gastrointestinal disease.
2.3.3 The glossary for expressing the features of occurrence

Sporadic: A little occurrence which is scattered geographically and temporally
e.g. Occurrence of anthrax/black leg/tetanus in the limited
area(transmission: through soil including spore),
Epidemic: The occurrence of a disease above its usual frequency in the

population. Sometimes endemic disease progress to endemic
disease.
e.g. Epidemic occurrence of foot and mouth disease in a country,
out break of ebolavirus fever in a country(It is contagious through
contaminated material by affected man’s blood or body fluid)
Pandemic: A very widespread epidemic affecting a continent or the whole
world.
e.g. Influenza (air-borne spread), Pandemic foot and mouth disease
beyond the border in the continent (wind-borne spread), pandemic
cholera (oral infection through contaminated water/food) however,
it used to be endemic disease along the Ganges River in India.
Pandemic increasing of patients of AIDS in the world, however, it
has been thought it used to be endemic disease in a certain area in
the Africa.
Endemic: Presence at much the same level in the population at all time.
Most of local diseases tend to happen endemically. It mainly
depends on presence of wild animals which carry the disease or
vectors.
e.g. Malaria or yellow fever in tropic countries (vectors: some kind
of mosquito), heart water (cowdriosis)/east coast fever (corridor
disease) in Africa (vectors: some kinds of ticks)
※Characteristics of prevalence of disease or aspects of transmission are influenced by
how agents of disease reach susceptible hosts from sources of infection.
<The difference of progress of disease>

Acute disease: The disease in the individual flares up quickly, rapid onset. It is
soon resolved either through death or recovery.
e.g. anthrax, black leg, cholera, evolavirus fever, etc.
Peracute disease Very acute
Chronic disease: The disease which has a much longer time scale, lasting months
or even years.
e.g. TB, trypanosomiasis, Hansen’s disease(leprosy)

2.4 IMMUNOLOGY
The immune system

Immunity may be defined as the ability to resist infection or the action of poisons and toxins. This
immunity may be inherited, naturally acquired or artificially acquired.
TYPES OF IMMUNITY – This may be divided into two categories; innate and acquired.
Innate immunity is something that is inherent in an animal and is not due to the presence of
antibodies. This may be absolute or partial, for example horses are absolutely resistant to foot-
and-mouth disease (resistance manifested by a species or by races, families, and individuals in a
species).
Various physical barriers by skin, mucous membrane or various secretions may also be
included in innate immunity.
Phagocytosis may also play significant role as innate immunity.
Inflammation is biophylactic reaction against tissue injuries caused by various bacterial
infections. It may mobilize also against mechanical and thermal injury, injury caused by
chemicals or as the result of allergic reaction.
Fever is also one of the measures in innate immunity for protection the body from invaders’
multiplication.
Acquired immunity may either be active or passive. Active acquired immunity is attached by
stimulation of production of antibodies either by an infection (recognized or not) or by
immunization i.e. by introduction of an antigen of some kind into the body.
Passive acquired immunity is achieved by transferring antibodies from another animal that has
been actively immunized. Newly born animals are able to passively acquire immunity in a
unique and peculiar manner. Colostrum contains a rich store of antibodies against infections that
the dam was exposed to. A newly born animal is able to absorb these antibodies from its
alimentary canal once ingested, hence acquires the immunity against those particular infections.
However, this absorption is only possible during the first 12-24 hours of the neonate’s life.

Naturally acquired
active immunity
Active
immunity
Artificially acquired
active immunity
Acquired
immunity
Naturally acquired
passive immunity
Passive
immunity
Artificially acquired
passive immunity
COMPONENTS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM – The defence lines of the body may be divided
into three major components. The first component includes mechanisms that prevent entry of
disease-causing agents into body as physical barrier such as tough, thick skin or the ability to
cough and sneeze. The second component includes mechanism that deal with disease-causing
agents that manage to enter body as parts of innate immunity such as phagocytosis of invaders by
phagocytes, fever, acute inflammation. The third component includes mechanism that generates
highly specific resistance to a diversity of microorganisms as the function of acquired immunity.
MECHANISMS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The first line of defence – The physical barriers on the surface of the body play a significant
role in slowing or blocking microbial invasion. The skin and mucous membranes must be
penetrated in order for disease to occur in the body and very few microorganisms can penetrate
intact skin. A complex population of normal skin bacteria tends to exclude new invaders, while
antimicrobial molecules in sweat can kill many would-be invaders. In the airway structure of the
upper respiratory tract serves as an effective filter of small particles. The airways themselves are
lined by a layer of adhesive mucus that can entrap microbes. The mucous contains multiple
antimicrobial proteins such as defensins, lysozyme, and surfactants. Coughing and sneezing
remove larger irritants from the airways and nasal passages and are essential defensive reactions.
The defense of the intestine centers largely on the presence of the huge and immensely complex
normal commensal flora. If all else fail, invaders may be rapidly removed from GI tract by
vomiting and diarrhea.
The second line of defence – Microbes that succeed in penetrating the physical barriers of the
body are rapidly detected, and the innate defenses are activated.
Acute inflammation is the central feature of innate immunity. Inflammation is the fundamental
reaction in local affected area against the tissue injury caused by microorganism’s infection or
various injuries caused by chemical stimulation or physical stimulation, etc. The process of
inflammation consists of three steps; killing microorganisms that have entered into the body,
destruction or removal of the injurious material and necrotic tissue, leading to repair and healing
damaged tissue.
In this process, the so-called cardinal signs of inflammation are shown; rubor (redness),
calor(heat or warmth), tumor(swelling) and dolor(pain); a fifth sign, functio laesa(inhibited or
lost function) is sometimes added. All these signs may be observed in certain instances, but none
is necessarily always present. Rubor and calor is as results of increase of blood flow to the
affected tissue due to vasodilation and enhanced vascular permeability of capillary vessel. Tumor
is also brought about as a result of the above changes on blood vessel. Dolor is caused by some
kinds of substances that are released from affected tissue. Those may stimulate sensory nerves as
algesic substances, with the result that the sense of pain may be perceived. Basically
inflammation is the local reaction to protect and repair the affected tissue, however it may cause
functio laesa on occasion because of the over action.
Phagocytosis is a process by which WBCs engulf, in an ameboid action, and destroy invading
micro-organisms, in many cases bacteria. The major WBCs involved in phagocytosis are
neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes (macrophage).
Fever namely a rise in core temperature is brought about by pyrogenic substances on occasion
accompanying inflammation. Rising core body temperature, it is helpful for suppressing
multiplication of microorganisms invaded to the body.
The third line of defence – it is through antibody response. The lymphoid tissue is responsible
for the transformation of stem cells from the bone marrow, in adult animals, into red cells,
platelets and leucocytes of the blood and tissue. The leucocytes further differentiate into five
different types: basophils, eosinophils, limphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils. Lymphocytes
further differentiate into B (bone marrow derived) and T (thymus) cells. The initiation of
antibody production is done by B calls. These cells are transformed into plasma cells that are the
major cells responsible for the synthesis of antibodies.
When the body is exposed to antigenic substances, the antibody response follows a characteristic
pattern. From the first antigenic encounter, it takes 10-14 days before antibodies are detected in
blood. This initial antibody response, the so-called primary immune response (1º), does not
reach a very high level and does not persist for a long time.
Antibod The Antibody Response

y levels
in blood
(long
titre)
2º
1º
6mon
1 2 3 4 5wk
th
Primary Secondary
expose/immunization expose/immunization
When a second challenge is encountered there is a brief decrease in the detectable levels of
antibodies in blood, for a day or two, then a dramatic rise, reaching a peak of 10-50 times that of
initial immune response within a short period of time. The second immune response (2º) is
maintained at a high level for a long time, declining slowly over a period of many months.
Further antigen challenges (booster) can each increase the antibody levels until such a point that
no more increase can be achieved by further challenges.
The body is able to retain the memory of the antigen encountered for many months or years such
as that subsequent antigen encounters (infections) result into an antibody response similar to the
secondary immune response. The interval between the primary and secondary antigen challenges
is very important for maximum antibody response. If the interval is less than 10 days, the
secondary response is usually very low; also when the interval is too long. The intervals for
subsequent boosters may be in weeks and later months or years.

2.5 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE CONTROL
A disease may occur with interaction of three factors of disease incidence, namely causal agent
factor, environmental factor and host factor. In case of infectious diseases, particularly, onset
develops complexly connected with all three conditions – source of infection, infection route and
susceptible host. Control measures for prevention of infectious diseases are carried out by shutting
down at least one factor of the above. The onset of an infectious disease cannot be realized once at
least one factor is blocked up among those. Therefore control measures of infectious diseases are
aimed at shutting down source of infection, infectious route or susceptible host.
2.5.1 GENERAL MANAGEMENT

Good general management is cardinal in prevention and control of animal diseases. It consists of
many factors and all of them are aimed at providing the most conducive and least stressful
environment possible for animal to perform to its full potential. Of these the following are discussed
herein; provision of feed, water, shelter and biosecurity.
Feed and water – provision of adequate quality feed and water is very important for an animal to
stay alive, to maintain an energetic body and a sound immune system. This enables the animal to
fight infection before it turns into clinical disease.
Shelter – provision of appropriate shelter ensures the animal is protected from adverse weather
conditions thus minimizing stress on it.
Biosecurity – these are measures aimed at preventing the introduction of disease-causing agents in
the animal’s environment. They include:
 Restriction of unnecessary visitors, especially those from other farms
 Provision of disinfection facilities at the farm and individual animal pen entrances
 Disinfection of pens and equipment e.g. after every batch of chickens in all-in-all-out
programmes
 Acquisition of replacement animals from disease-free sources
 Isolation of new arrivals for observation of disease before mixing with existing stocks
 Safe disposal of litter and other contaminated materials
 Practicing general hygiene on the farm
Quarantine literally implies government regulation for prevention of spread of infectious disease
by which an animal(s), which have come from infected countries or areas, are detained at the
frontiers or ports of entrance, or at other official centers for a period of isolation, before being
allowed to mix with stock of the country.

2.5.2 STERILIZATION/DISINFECTION
Disinfection and hygiene are vital components of any disease control programme.
Sterilization is the killing and elimination of all micro-organisms that include bacteria, fungi and
viruses. Sterilization is mainly classified into physical methods.
Disinfection is the elimination of disease-causing micro-organisms that include bacteria, fungi and
viruses. Disinfectants are the agents that achieve disinfection and usually chemicals. The
effectiveness of disinfection is heavily dependent on thorough preliminary cleansing of surfaces to
be disinfected. The cleansing is intended to remove organic materials that considerably reduce the
power of disinfectants.
2.5.2.1 Physical methods (Sterilization)

The following are some of the sterilization methods which can be carried out without large-scale
equipment or special facilities.
- Burning
Way to reduce micro-organisms to ashes by flame.
- Boiling
Tools are placed in the boiling water for 15-30min.
- Steam
Way to kill micro-organisms by using steam(100℃) for 30-60min.
※Fermentation
It’s a characteristic way in agriculture. When we produce compost from animals’ excrement we
can kill pathogen organisms or eggs of parasites in the excrement by fermentation heat made by
thermoduric bacteria. The fermentation heat reach 60-80℃.
2.2.1.1 Chemical methods (Disinfectant)

Various disinfectants are classified mainly as the following according to their active ingredients.
The properties of disinfectants are diverse depending on each active ingredient. We should
choose proper disinfectant adapting various situations.
GENERIC NAMES (active ingredients) 【Explanatory note】

① Cluster of disinfectant
[detailed cluster]
The name of active ingredient
① Halogen compound
-[chlorination]
Sodium hypochlorite [NaOCl]
• Application: Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi
• These effects decrease under organic materials.
• These are corrosive against metals.
• These irritate respiratory organs and eyes.
• Objects: mainly sheds, equipment
Chlorinated lime [Ca(Clo)2]
• Application: Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi
• These are corrosive against metals.
• These irritate respiratory organs and eyes.
• Usually, we use these as powdered one.
• Objects: mainly sheds, road, other environment
-[iodization]
Iodoform
• Application: Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoa
• These are less sensitive under organic materials than chloric disinfectants.
• These are less corrosive than chloric.
• These don’t irritate animal’s organs.
• Objects: mainly, skin, mucus membrane
② Aldehydes
Formaldehyde [HCHO]
• These are potent disinfectant.
• These irritate and poisonous to eyes and nasal mucous membrane.
• Objects: fixative[ 37% saturated solution as Formalin],
equipment [1-3%],
airtight room [as gas]
Glutaraldehyde [CHO(CH2)3CHO]
• These are potent disinfectant.
• These are less irritating than Formaldehyde.
• These are little corrosive against metals.
• Objects: mainly, sheds, equipment, excrement
③ Surface active agents
Cationic surfactant
• Application: some bacteria(excluding Mycobacterium, Spore of Bacillus and
Clostridium), some viruses
• These don’t irritate animal’s skin or mucous membrane.
• Example; Benzalkonium chloride, Benzethonium chloride
• Objects: Mainly, equipment, skin, mucous membrane
•
Ampholytic surfactant
• Application: some bacteria (including Mycobacterium), some viruses
• These don’t irritate animal’s skin or mucous membrane.
• Objects: Mainly, equipment, skin, mucous membrane
④ Phenols
Phenol [C6H6O]
• Application: some bacteria (excluding Spore of Bacillus and Clostridium), some
viruses, Fungi
• These can work even under organic matter comparatively.
• These are bad-smelling and poisonous so we can’t use them for skin or mucous
membrane.
• Objects: mainly, sheds, wall, excrement
Cresol [C7H8O]
• These are stronger than phenol.
• Usually we use these as cresol soap.
⑤ Alcohol
Ethanol [C2H5OH]
• Application: some bacteria(excluding Spore of Bacillus and Clostridium), some
viruses, some fungi
• These are less poisonous.
• These are effective as 70-80% concentration.
• Objects: mainly, hands [70% solution]
Isopropanol [C3H7OH]
• Application : some bacteria (excluding Spore of Bacillus and Clostridium), some
viruses, some fungi
• These are less effective against virus than Ethanol.
• These are used as 50-70% concentration solution.
• Objects: mainly, hands
⑥ Oxydol
Oxydol [H2O2]
• Application: some bacteria(excluding Spore of Bacillus and Clostridium, some
Mycobacterium), Viruses, Fungi
• Objects: mainly, wound[3%]
⑦ Biguanide
Chlorohexidine gluconate
• Application: some bacteria(excluding Spore of Bacillus and Clostridium,
Mycobacterium)
• Using with alcohol or cationic soap, these are more effective.
• Objects: mainly, skin, equipment
We must choose more suitable disinfectant for various uses.
2.5.3 Disinfection of sheds

1. First, excrements, bedding and equipment should be removed and carried outside the
houses.
2. The ceiling, wall, floor and drains should be washed well by water or boiling water.
(Ideally, it’s desirable to use a high-pressure washing machine.)
3. The house should be dried out.
4. After that, the house should be disinfected by steam sterilization using steam cleaner or be
sprayed with disinfectant using a power sprayer.
5. Finally, equipment can be carried back to inside of the houses.
In all-in-all-out system, cleaned up houses should be kept empty for a while until next
introduction.
Surroundings of shed should be kept clean with weed-killer and be prevented from the
appearance of harmful insects. Soil of surrounding sheds should be disinfected by slaked lime
or bleaching powder (chlorinated lime).

2.5.4 Other disinfections
When we enter the shed, we should change into working clothes and rubber boots for
preventing infectious diseases from invading.
We should provide some disinfectant bath (footbath) with cationic surfactant, chloric
disinfectant and the like in front of the entrance of farm or houses. Those disinfectants should
frequently be changed as possible as we can.
2.6 Vaccination
Vaccination is the production of active immunity in an animal against a specific infection by
using a vaccine. The vaccine contains antigens that stimulate production of specific antibodies in
the body.
2.6.1 Types of vaccines – there are three types of vaccines namely live vaccine, killed (dead or
inactivated) vaccine and toxoid, usually toxoid is classified into killed vaccine.
(a) Live vaccines contain actual living organisms, in most cases modified (attenuated) in
a way that they do not produce the disease. Such kind of vaccines is referred to as a
live attenuated vaccines. Occasionally a related non-attenuated live but non-
pathogenic organism is used. Live vaccines produce a more lasting immunity.
(b) Dead vaccines may contain either killed organisms, part of the organism or genetic
material. Dead vaccines produce a more solid immunity after a booster.
Toxoid is defined a modified or inactivated toxin that has lost toxicity but retains the
ability to stimulate the production of antitoxin (antibody against a toxin).
2.6.2 Vaccine handling, storage and usage – it is absolutely essential that vaccines are handled,
transported, stored and used as recommended because they are very sensitive to certain
environmental factors. The “cold-chain” must be maintained from the time of
manufacturing to the time of usage. General recommendations are outlined below,
however, it is always important to read the manufacturer’s instructions carefully and
abide by them.
Recommendations;
❑ Vaccines must be stored and transported at 2-8℃. Most vaccines must not to be
frozen.
❑ Vaccine must be protected from direct sunlight.
❑ Reconstitute only enough for immediate use and do not use leftovers.
❑ Remains of vaccines must be disposed of burning or burying
❑ Vaccines must be shaken thoroughly when reconstituting
❑ Use new sterile syringes and needles, particularly for live vaccines

❑ Avoid vaccinating sick animals
❑ Caution must be exercised when vaccinating pregnant animals, seek professional
advice if in doubt
Route of vaccine administration include the following:
❑ Intramuscular (I.M.)
❑ Subcutaneous (S.C.)
❑ Oral (P.O.)
❑ Intradermal (I.D.)
❑ Spray
❑ Nasal
❑ Ocular
2.6.3 Vaccination Programmes

It is virtually impractical to recommend a universal vaccination programme for different places
with different conditions. Factors that should be considered when designing a vaccination
programme include diseases prevalence in the area, antibody titres, age of the animals, whether
the animals are pregnant or not and government regulations.
Disease prevalence – in endemic areas a disease may show seasonal variations and
vaccination should be undertaken prior to the expected season of most prevalence. It may
not be necessary to vaccinate against diseases that do not occur in the area. There is a risk
of introducing a disease through vaccination if live vaccines are used.
Age of animals – many vaccines have age limitations e.g. generally calves less than 3
months should not be vaccinated and S19 (brucellosis) vaccination is only recommended
in heifers before their first service. The vaccination status of the dam may dictate when
young animal are first vaccinated because material antibodies acquired by the young
animal may interfere with response to vaccination for a certain period after birth. Young
animals often require a booster earlier than the adults.
Gestation – in cases where breeding is not synchronized timing of vaccination should be

considered carefully as some vaccines may cause abortion at certain stages of gestation. If
in doubt seek professional advice.
Governmental regulation – It is important to keep up-to-date with government laws and

regulations as certain vaccinations may be mandatory. The laws and regulations are often
reviewed from time to time.

Economics – a vaccination programme may be deliberately designed to coincide with the
time when a farmer is expected to have a sound cash flow for easy acquisition of
vaccines. This should, however, not be at the expense of prevention of disease outbreak.
2.7 INTERNAL PARASITE CONTROL
Principles of Helminth Control

In helminth control the herd or flock and its environment are considered as one unit. This implies
that treatment and control measures are targeted at the entire herd/flock with its pastures or
housing. Presence of one confirmed case means that other cases are developing in the group.
Strategic treatment, as a means of control, may be administered two to four times a year depending
on the climate and management system. Strategic treatment is considered most important in young
animals because of their great susceptibility. It is usually intended to provide maximum protection
during the periods that the young animals suffer their greatest nutritional stress such as at the time
of weaning.
2.7.1 Control of nematodes

Aims of control:
 Prevention of heavy helminth exposure to animals
 Minimized pasture contamination
 Minimized effects of parasite burden on the animal
 Encourage the development of immunity or resistance of animals to helminthes
Methods of control:
 Alternate grazing of different host species
 Alternation of grazing and cropping
 Timing of dosing based on knowledge of the seasonal changes of infection
 Integrated rational grazing of different age groups within the one species
2.7.2 Control of trematodes

Aims of control:
 Reducing the number of flukes in the host animals
 Reducing the snail population in the environment
 Minimize the exposure of livestock to snail-infested ground
Methods of control:
 Use of fasciolicide

 Drainage of land (Where possible)
 Use of molluscicides such as copper sulfate, copper and sodium pentachlorphenate
 Avoid grazing animals in swampy areas
2.8 EXTERNAL PARASITES CONTROL
There are several methods of controlling external parasites infection on farm animals. These
methods include plunge dipping, race spraying, hand spraying, pour-on, spot-on, greasing, use of
impregnated ear tags and hand dressing.
2.8.1 Plunge Dipping

Plunge dipping involves total immersion of the animal in a dip tank. Animals intending to dip
should not be thirsty, sweating and should have had enough rest, thus it is ideal to dip animals
very early in the morning. Animals that are either heavily pregnant, weak, severely sick, have
wounds or very young(less than 3 months) should not be dipped.
Requirements of an ideal dip tank:

 Holding pen at the entrance
 Entrance footbath which should be at least 4m long and 20cm deep
 Splash walls
 Minimum depth of 1.85m of dip fluid
 Drain race at the dip outlet slopping back into the dip tank with a holding pen at the end
 Drain plugs for the drain race and a sedimentation chamber
 A non-porous roof
 Must be located near a reliable source of water
 Must not be located in a flooding area
Advantages of plunge dipping:

 Relatively cheap to maintain
 Most effective in application of acaricide
 Suitable for large herds
 Less wasteful as some amount of wash is recovered
 Dipping is less time-consuming
Disadvantage of plunge dipping:

 Construction and charging expenses are very high(initial capital)
 Not suitable for animals that are heavily pregnant, very young, weak, severely ill and

dairy animals with huge udders.
2.8.2 Race Spraying

Race spraying is applying dip wash on the animal via a set of pipes fitted with apray nozzles as
animals pass through a race. A pump is used to push the wash through this set of pipes.
Requirements of an ideal spray race

 Entrance foot-bath and outlet drain race as for the dip tank
 Capable of delivering 800 liters of wash per min.
 Storage sump for the entrance and outlet as for the dip tank
 The area should not be subject to flooding
Advantages of race spraying:

 Relatively effective in application of acaricide
 Suitable for pregnant, young ones, weak and dairy animals
 Less wasteful as some acaricide is recovered
Disadvantages of race spraying:

 Relatively expensive to maintain – high rate of charging and high cost of running and
maintenance of pump
 Acaricide may not cover some areas of animal
 High initial capital
2.8.3 Hand Spraying

Hand spraying involves use of knapsack sprayer or similar devices, some of which may be
connected to a motor driven pump.
Requirement for successful hand spraying

 Animals should be adequately controlled in a crush
 The whole animal must be drip-wet after spraying
 Special attention should be paid to areas not easily accessible and preferred by ticks
e.g. under the tail, inside the ears, the axilla and inguinal region
For easy wetting, begin with the dorsal aspect of the animal, move ventrally and end up
with areas that need special attention.
Advantages of hand spraying

 Initial capital required is small

 Cost of acaricide per spraying is low
Disadvantages of hand spraying
 Wasteful as wash is not recovered
 Not suitable for large herds
 Coverage of areas on the animal may be poor if the person apraying is inexperienced or
not dedicated
 Spraying is time consuming
2.8.4 Pour-on
Pour-on involves pouring special “pour-on”acaricide on the dorsal aspect of the animal, from the
head to the tail. The amount of acaricide applied is calculated according to the weight of the
animal. It is poured evenly using devices such as squeeze bottle or syringe. The acaricide the
permeates downwards to the rest of the body.
2.8.5 Spot-on
Spot-on involves application of special “spot-on”acaricide onto specific spots or areas where
ectoparasites are located. Grease containing acaricide, “tick grease”, is also applied to specific
areas habited by ectoparasites.
2.8.6 Hand-dressing
Hand-dressing involves removal of ectoparasites from the animal by hand.
2.9 Client education of disease control

For efficient control of diseases, appropriate explanation for owners and leading them to cooperate
with disease control measures are necessary. For example, veterinarians and agricultural extension
officers frequently face difficulties to persuade owners to agree with slaughter their livestock as
disease control, however, officers should be patient and fairly lead them to take proper measures. For
leading owners, the following should be considered/carried out.
1. Routine rounds by veterinarians or extension officers

Officers should go rounds to farms in the region for surveillance.
They are able to become aware of outbreak of a disease as soon as possible by routine collection of
information from farmers. Moreover it can be connect to build a tight relationship with farmers
which brings easy lead them cooperate with efficient disease control.
2. Consciousness that prevention is more efficient and important

Farmers sometimes tend to depend on treatment after onset of diseases without efforts of prevention.

But treatment after onset is likely to cost much more expenditure and time compared with taking
preventive measures before onset. Moreover even after treatment, sometimes affected animals may
not be completely recovered as before. Therefore preventive measures should be more considered
and carried out for more efficient control measures before onset.
Preventive measures; vaccination, dipping, disinfection of equipment or farm area, removing
wires/garbage within the farm, etc…
3. Taking control measures involving the area
Not only a farm but also the whole area in the region should be involved to take measures for
controlling diseases. It is highly important especially in cases of contagious diseases or tick-borne
diseases. Even after eradication a disease in a farm, re-invasion of the causative agent associated
with the disease is likely to occur if the area which surrounds the farm is still contaminated the
disease or causative agents. To thoroughly eradicate/control a disease, controlling measures should
take account of the whole area in the region and it should be carried out at the same time in the
region.
2.10 PRACTICE OF BIOSECURITY MEASURES IN EACH FARM/AREA
2.10.1 Biosecurity GuidanceTo Prevent TheSpread Of Animal Diseases

Introduction
1 )Farm to farm movement of infected livestock is the most effective means by which animal
diseases such as Foot and Mouth Disease can be spread. Contact with animals and with their
excrement also pose significant risks. Clothes, boots, vehicles and equipment can become
contaminated and can carry disease from one premises to another. Diseases can also be spread
by other means, such as wildlife, air or other vectors. This Guidance describes measures
which will minimise the spread of diseases between different premises via contaminated
clothes, boots, vehicles and equipment.
2 )Implementing biosecurity measures as standard practice helps ensure that all those working
with farm animals or coming into contact with them do not spread disease when they enter
or leave a premises. This is important whether or not any disease outbreaks have been
reported. Some diseases are zoonotic - they can be transmitted between humans and
animals - therefore there are good public and occupational health reasons for having
biosecurity measures. Proper biosecurity which effectively reduces the incursion and spread
of disease reduces disease control costs and helps prevent the spread of plant diseases too.
3 ) Definitions
a) 'Biosecurity' is the prevention of disease causing agents entering or leaving any place

where farm animals are present (or have been present recently). It involves a number of
measures and protocols designed to prevent disease causing agents from entering or leaving
a property and being spread.
b) ‘person’ means anybody who enters or leaves a premises with farm animals;
c) ‘equipment’ means anything which has been in contact with livestock or has been visibly
contaminated with manure or other livestock products and is to be taken on to or off a
premises with farm animals;
d) ‘premises with farm animals’ means any premises in which farm animals are present
either as a commercial concern or as pets. It also includes farms, livestock markets, shows,
slaughterhouses and other premises where farm animals have been present in the recent past
or are to be introduced.
e) 'direct contact' means handling or intention to handle farm animals or working near
farm animals where clothing may become contaminated, for example by saliva, excreta
or milk.
f) 'disinfected' means use of a disinfectant.
g) 'an Outbreak of a Notifiable Disease' is where the Chief Veterinary Officer of the
Department of Animal Health and Livestock Development, MAFF, has confirmed the
presence of such a disease, for example Foot and Mouth Disease, African Swine Fever,
Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease.
4 ) Disease is not always apparent, especially in its early stages. Any person visiting a premises
with farm animals and not carrying out effective biosecurity measures on entry and on
leaving a premises runs the risk of spreading diseases to or from that premises. It is
important to apply bio-security measures even when animals have been removed from
the premises, as disease causing agents and their vectors can persist after the animals
have left. The biosecurity
measures taken should reflect the risk involved.
5 ) The most important biosecurity measures are:

a) To ensure that methods of working are designed to minimise where possible the
movements of people, vehicles or equipment into areas where farm animals are kept,
including fields, sheds, markets or other holding areas. This will minimize the potential
contamination of people, vehicles and equipment with material that could carry diseases
– manure, slurry and other products.
b) If direct contact with farm animals cannot be prevented then it is best practice to
cleanse and disinfect protective clothing, footwear, equipment, vehicles etc.
before and after the contact with the animals, or use disposable protective
clothing.
6 ) In some premises farm animals are present for short periods of time e.g. showgrounds and
markets. If these premises cannot be cleansed and disinfected then there is a legal
requirement to rest them for 21 days. This rest period is critical for allowing the detection
of some notifiable diseases in animals that used the premises and, for most disease agents,
reduces the risk to animals that subsequently use the land by allowing the infectious agent
to decay naturally.
7 )Common land. Common grazing provides an opportunity for the spread of disease.
Owners and keepers need to follow these bio-security guidelines every time they visit
the common land in the same way as they would if they visited another premises with
farm animals. The low stocking rates found on the large tracts of unenclosed rough
grazing means that disease transmission by others, such as recreational users, is less
likely.
8 ) The appropriate bio-security measures depend on the risk associated with the visit.
The risk of spreading disease varies with the degree of exposure to the animals and their
products (e.g. manure, used bedding, milk, etc) and the likelihood of passing infection
on to others. Factors that determine the risks associated with visits include:
a) Type of premises – e.g. arable, livestock, mixed, horticultural;
b) Restrictions applied to the premises – e.g. animal disease control;
c) Restrictions applied on all premises in a defined area – e.g. Restricted Infected Area /
Infected Area;
d) Extent and reason for the visit – e.g. farm house, animal handling or
inspection, land inspection.
Unnecessary contact with animals is best avoided.
Visits to more than one premises with farm animals where there is direct contact with farm
animals
In the absence of an outbreak of a Notifiable animal disease

Persons entering premises with farm animals with the specific intention of handling animals (or
their products) should wear protective clothing and footwear. Such persons should ensure that any
vehicles or equipment taken with them are clean on arrival,
making use of any facilities available.
During an outbreak of an exotic Notifiable animal disease

Visiting premises with susceptible animals in the event of a disease outbreak increases the risk that
disease may be taken on to or off the premises as disease is not always apparent, especially in its
early stages.
Only essential visitors should visit any premises with farm animals within areas where restrictions
have been imposed.
The risk of spreading diseases is minimised when appropriate bio-security measures are observed.
Non-essential visits to premises with farm animals should be suspended.
Premises under specific disease control restrictions

Under these circumstances only essential visitors should visit any premises that are subject to any
specific animal health disease restrictions. Such visits may need to be licensed and the licence
conditions and requirements followed. This is required by law and a breach may result in a
criminal penalty.
Where a person needs to visit premises (e.g. statutory visit or inspection) on which
animals have been or are about to be slaughtered for disease control reasons, the visit will only be
permitted provided appropriate bio-security measures are taken. Visits will normally only be
authorised after slaughter and preliminary cleansing and disinfection of the premises have been
completed.
Other agricultural related visits to premises with farm animals
In the absence of an outbreak of a Notifiable animal disease

Persons entering a premises with farm animals should ensure their shoes or boots are clean when
they enter and again when they leave. This applies even if they do not expect to come into contact
with animals or their products. They should make use of any facilities provided and ensure, before
and after the visit, that there is no manure or other animal product to be seen on their footwear,
other clothing, vehicle or anything else taken with them.
During an outbreak of a Notifiable animal disease

The guidance above applies.
Non agricultural related visits to premises with farm animals

This section is aimed at recreational, social and non-farming visits, including visits by
the public to Community Farms and access by power/water companies, for example.
In the absence of an outbreak of a Notifiable disease

Those who visit or have a right of access through premises with farm animals, for example on
public footpaths, should respect the legal boundaries and legal notices and use any facilities
provided to clean mud/manure off footwear and vehicles (wheels, wheel arches, etc). Direct
contact with animals should be avoided. Where animals are handled or touched, hands should be
washed as soon as practical.
During an outbreak of a Notifiable animal disease

Visiting premises with susceptible animals in the event of a disease outbreak increases the risk that
the disease may be taken on to or off the livestock premises.
Those who visit or have a right of access through premises with farm animals, for
example on public footpaths or bridleways, should respect the legal boundaries and legal notices
and use any disinfection facilities provided to clean mud/manure off footwear and vehicles
(wheels, wheel arches etc). Direct contact with livestock should be avoided.
'Official’ footpath closure signs may appear in an area around an Infected Premises within an
Infected Area or a Restricted Infected Area. These must be respected.
Compulsory Bio-security Measures Within Restricted Infected Areas

There are compulsory bio-security measures that must be adopted when a Restricted Infected Area
has been declared. These are required by law and their breach may result in a criminal penalty.
They include:
a) Any vehicle or trailer entering or leaving a premises must be cleansed and disinfected
on the outside and underside (and include the tyres (including the whole
circumference of their treads), wheel arches, mudguards and mud flaps of the
vehicle). Any parts of the vehicle or trailer where farm animals have been must
also be cleansed and disinfected. All visible traces of mud, slurry, animal faeces,
droppings or excretions or other similar matter must be removed, including any
inside the vehicle. This must be done at the entrance and exit.
b) No person shall enter or leave any livestock premises wearing clothing or boots
which are visibly contaminated with mud, slurry, animal faeces, droppings or
excretions or any other similar matter or without cleansing and disinfecting the
outer surfaces of their footwear on entering or leaving those premises.
c) Any person who tends any animal shall not leave the livestock premises on which
the animal is kept wearing the outer clothing and footwear which they wore
whilst tending the animal unless that clothing and footwear have been thoroughly
cleansed and disinfected.
d) The owner or occupier of any premises where animals are kept shall maintain a
footbath containing an approved disinfectant in some convenient place at every
exit from those premises and renew the disinfectant as frequently as is
necessary to maintain a clean solution and if so directed by an inspector.

2.10.2 GENERAL BIO-SECURITY MEASURES WHEN IN DIRECT CONTACT WITH
FARM ANIMALS
1) Where appropriate the visit should be made with the agreement of the owner or
premises manager and any reasonable requests for additional bio-security measures
should be observed, especially if you have visited another premises with farm animals
in the previous 3 days.
2) Livestock vehicles or trailers must be cleansed and disinfected in accordance with

current legislation.
3) If other vehicles are taken on to the premises they should, wherever possible, be parked
on hard standing away from farm animals and must be visibly free of animal excreta,
slurry etc. Vehicles or trailers should not normally be taken into areas where farm
animals have access – these arrangements should be confirmed, where appropriate, with
the owner or premises manager in advance of the visit. Before leaving the premises all
visible contamination with manure, slurry or similar material must be removed
(including where appropriate, cleaning of the inside of vehicles, especially foot wells
and pedals). If this is not possible, vehicles and trailers must be cleaned before they are
taken onto another premises with farm animals, either at the end of the day or before the
next visit.
4) Owners or farm managers are recommended to have facilities available for disinfecting
vehicles, footwear and clothing. If facilities are NOT available on farm cleansing and
disinfection should be arranged as soon as possible and before the next visit to a
premises with farm animals.
5) Suitable protective clothing and footwear must be worn on all premises where visits
include entering areas where farm animals are present or to which they normally have
access. The type of protective clothing and footwear required depends on the nature of
the visit, e.g. the protection required for a visit to a dairy herd would differ from that
required for a visit to an extensive premises on moorland. Contractors such as shearers
should ensure clothing is changed and washed between visits to different premises.
6) The purpose of the protective clothing and footwear is to prevent any contamination
being carried from premises to premises. Protective clothing and footwear may be
disposable or re-usable. The following are examples of types of protective clothing:
a) Disposable boiler type suits. These can be used once and should be discarded
at the end of the visit to the premises. They can be left on the premises with the
owner's agreement or bagged and suitably disposed of later, as can disposable
overshoes for footwear.
b) Non-disposable protective clothing (e.g. cotton boiler suits or cotton coats).

These may be used once and should be laundered before being re-used on any
other livestock premises.
c) Waterproof protective clothing and waterproof boots. These should be cleansed

and disinfected before entering the premises and again at the end of the visit
just before leaving the premises.
7) All equipment used must be clean on arrival and on departure. Great care must be taken
when cleaning electrical apparatus or tools. Where possible equipment should be
protected from contamination e.g. using plastic bags. Health and Safety rules mustbe
observed. Where equipment can be cleansed and disinfected this must be done before
entry to the premises and again on departure.
8) For premises catering for accomodation or farm tourism, it is advisable to keep

visitors away from direct contact with farm animals and ensure as far as possible that
they and their vehicles do not come into contact with animal excreta, etc. Where there is
contact with animals then hands should be washed and any contaminated clothing or
shoes cleaned.
2.10.3 ADDITIONAL BIOSECURITY MEASURES WHEN VISITING PREMISES WITH

FARM ANIMALS DURING AN OUTBREAK OF A NOTIFIABLE DISEASE
The following measures must be observed:
It is recommended that either clean non-disposable protective clothing or waterproof

protective clothing and waterproof boots are worn.
Sufficient water, disinfectant and disinfecting equipment should be taken on the visit,
even if facilities for disinfecting clothes, footwear, equipment or vehicles are thought to
be available on the premises.
Non-essential vehicles, e.g. cars/vans, should be parked outside the premises wherever
practical.

2.10.4 MEASURES WHICH MUST BE OBSERVED FOR VISITS TO PREMISES UNDER
SPECIFIC RESTRICTIONS
The following measures must be observed:
A visit should be made only with permission.

Waterproof protective clothing and waterproof boots should be worn at all times.
Any additional measures required by the licence. This may include a quarantine period.
For example, in the case of Foot and Mouth Disease, Avian Influenza or Newcastle
Disease any person who comes into direct contact with relevant susceptible animals or
poultry, their manure, by-products or carcasses either in the course of their work or as a
consequence of residing on a premises on which such susceptible animals are kept
should not visit another livestock premises for 72 hours.

2.11 CATTLE DISEASE
1. Diseases which tend to cause “sudden death”
- Anthrax ◆
- Black leg ◆
- Hemorrhagic Septicaemia ◆
- Gangrenous mastitis ◆
- Enterotoxemia ◆
- Bloat
2.11.1 ANTHRAX
(Splenic fever)
Anthrax is a peracute or acute disease of all warm-blooded animals including man. It is characterized
by septicaemia, sudden death, high mortality and oozing of dark, thick blood from natural
orifices.
The causative agent is spore-forming bacteria called Bacillus anthracis. The spores can withstand
100℃boiling for 30min and can remain infective for over 20years on pastures.
TRANSMISSION
Infection gains entry into the body by ingestion, inhalation and through the skin. Incubation period is
1-5 days.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Peracute form (An affected animal may die in 1-2 hrs after onset)
 Sudden death without any previous observed signs
 High fever, muscle tremors and mucosal congestion
Acute form (course 2 days)
 Sudden fever (42℃), respiratory distress, staggering, excitement followed by depression and
congested mucosae
 Pregnant animals may abort, milk may be blood-stained and production is reduced
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Dark, thick, non-clotting blood, may ooze from natural orifices
 Absence of rigor mortis
 Carcass rapidly undergoes decomposition.
 Spleen is very large sometimes
TREATMENT

 Early treatment is essential, severely ill animals are unlikely to recover
 Penicillin and tetracycline are highly effective
CONTROL
 Treat all in-contacts
 Inform relevant authorities immediately
 Observe hygiene (very important)
 Burn or bury carcass 2m deep and cover with quick lime
 Vaccination e.g. with Stern vaccine. This is a live vaccine therefore handle with care and avoid
giving antibiotics about a week before and after vaccinating.
NB : Do not open an anthrax carcass. The bacilli readily form spores on exposure to air.
Putrefaction rapidly destroys the bacilli if the carcass remains unopened.
2.11.2 BLACK LEG

(Blackquarter – BQ)
Blackleg is an acute, infectious disease of cattle and sheep. It is characterized by swelling of skeletal
and heart muscles, severe toxaemia and high mortality. It is most common in young cattle, 6months
to 2 years old.
The causative agent is bacteria called Clostridium chauvoei.
TRANSMISSION
Blackleg is a soil-borne infection and may gain entry through deep wounds. In cattle the infection is
endogenous and common in beef breeds, in animals that are in excellent health, gaining weight and
usually the best of the group. This may be particularly serious in feedlots.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Sudden onset with others dead without any previous observed signs
 Severe lameness usually with severe swelling of upper part of affected leg
 Hot and painful crepitus swelling which later becomes cold and painless
 Fever (40-42℃), depression and anorexia
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Blood-stained froth from nostrils and anus
 Rapid clotting blood
 Affected muscle is dark red to black, dry and spongy and has a sweetish (clover) smell
TREATMENT
 Not very effective

 Penicillin and tetracycline may be useful if given early
CONTROL
 Vaccination of all cattle between 6 months and 2 years of age prior to anticipated danger period
 Clean wounds with antiseptics before applying other forms of treatment
 Burn carcasses(not bury)
2.11.3 HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA

(Pasteurellosis)
An acute infectious disease, principally of cattle. The causative agent is bacteria called Pasteurella
multocida.
TRANSMISSION
A small percentage of cattle are carries and become clinically ill under different stresses. The
organisms are then shed through saliva and nasal discharge. Other animals get infected through direct
and indirect contact.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Sudden death without previous observed signs.
 Dullness, lagging behind, fever, salivation and nasal discharge
 Edematous swelling of ventral neck and brisket
 Respiratory distress
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Edema of head, neck and brisket region
 Straw-coloured fluid in edematous region
TREATMENT
 A variety of antibiotics (sulfonamides, tetracyclines, and penicillins) are effective, if
administered early
CONTROL
 Reduce stress i.e. transportation, handling etc
 Vaccination (inactivated)
2.11.4 BLOAT
(Ruminal tympany)

It is an abnormal distention of the rumen and reticulum with the gases of fermentation, either in the
form of a persistent foam mixed with the ruminal contents (It is called primary or frothy bloat), or in
the form of free gas separated from the ingesta (it is called secondary or free-gas bloat).
There are two types of bloat:

Frothy bloat (primary ruminal tympany) which is caused by trapped normal gases of fermentation
in stable foam. It occurs mainly on lush legume pastures (e.g. alfalfa, clover, young green cereal
crops, rape, kale, turnips etc.) and high level grain diets.
Free gas bloat (secondary ruminal tympany) which is caused by physical obstruction to eructation
in the esophagus by foreign body (e.g. potetos, apples, turnips, kiwifruit) or ruminal atony. Excess
gas is usually free on top of solid and fluid ruminal contents.
NB Unusual postures such as lying on the side or back may cause secondary tympany.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Sudden death, or found dead
 In primary pasture bloat, obvious distention of the rumen is sudden especially on the left side.
 Difficulty breathing and increased rate of respiration, mouth breathing and protrusion of the
tongue
 Grunting and kicking at the belly
 Death 3-4 hours after onset of signs
 In secondary bloat, the abdomen is distended and there is a ‘ping’ sound on percussion
TREATMENT
 In life-threatening cases, an emergency rumenotomy may be necessary; it is accompanied by an
explosive release of ruminal contents and, thus, marked relief for the cow.
 A trocar and cannula may be used for emergency relief, although the standard-sized instrument
is not large enough to allow the viscous, stable foam in peracute cases to escape quickly enough.
NB trocar or cannula should be stabbed at left paralumbar fossa (usually, it is observed as
inverted-triangular dent encircled by last rib, tips of transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae
and cord of the flank). If trocar or cannula is mistakenly stabbed at thoracic cavity through
between the ribs, it causes a more fatal condition to the cow.
 After relief use antifoaming agents such as oils (vegetable oils and mineral oils at doses of 250-
500ml). Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (docusate) is commonly incorporated into the oil.
 Large bore stomach tube in secondary bloat
NB it is passed through nostril up to rumen and it can find large pockets of rumen gas that can
be released. After slight passing the tube, if you cannot breathe though you can blow through the
tube, it indicates the tube is correctly placed in the esophagus. If you can blow and breathe
through the tube, it indicates the tube is incorrectly placed in the trachea.
2. Diseases which are accompanied by mainly abortion or genital abnormalities
- Brucellosis ◆
- Bovine venereal epididymits vaginitis (Epivag) ◇?
- Akabane disease ◇
- Coxiellosis (Q fever) ■
2.11.5 BRUCELLOSIS
(Contagious abortion, Bangs’ disease)
It’s a contagious disease characterized by abortion in late pregnancy and a subsequent high rate of
infertility in the female and to a lesser extent, orchitis and infection of accessory sex glands in male.
It is caused by bacteria Brucella abortus. This organism is readily destroyed by common
disinfectants.
TRANSMISSION
Transmission is mainly through consuming infected pastures, other feedstuff and water supplies.
Aborted fetuses, foetal membranes, vaginal discharges, milk and faeces from infected animals are
most probable sources of contamination. Venereal transmission is considered unimportant. Other less
important modes of transmission include penetration through intact skin and conjunctiva.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Abortion after 5 months of pregnancy in susceptible, unvaccinated cows is the cardinal feature
of the disease
 Stillborn calves, retained placentas, metritis and reduced milk yield
 In the bull, orchitis and epididimytis occur occasionally
TREATMENT AND CONTROL

 Treatment of brucellosis is generally considered unsatisfactory.
 Vaccination of calves (heifers) with B.abortus strain 19 (S19) increases resistance to infection.
Vaccination of pregnant animals with full dose causes abortion
 Elimination of the disease may be achieved by testing and eliminating the reactors
2.11.6 BOVINE VENEREAL EPIDIDYMITIS AND VAGINITIS

(Epivag)

Epivag is a disease that affects cattle of all ages and breeds. The infection may remain dormant but
reactivated by different forms of stress. In breeding animals it is characterized by genital infection
and abortion.
Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) is suspected as the cause, however to be precise, the cause is
unknown.
TRANSMISSION
Transmission is venereally or through close contact. AI with semen from clinically or sub-clinically
infected bulls is also a possible mode of transmission.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Acute onset of signs i.e. 24-48 hours after mating
 The vulval lips become swollen and tender
 Red vesicles develop on the vaginal mucosa, rupture and give rise to haemorraghic ulcers.
Unruptured vesicles develop into pustules
 Similar lesions will appear on the penile shaft of the bull which will become reluctant to serve
 Abortion is a common result of the infection. Abortion occurs after the 5th month of pregnancy
 Reduced volume and quality of semen in bulls
 Permanent sterility may result in both bulls and cows

 Recovery is spontaneous therefore treatment is not necessary
 Vaccination is the most effective way of controlling the disease. Heifers should be vaccinated
after 6 months of age but before their first service thereafter annually
 AI using semen from uninfected bulls
 Slaughter infected bulls
3. Diseases which may be accompanied by dyspnea (respiratory distress)/coughing

- Contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia ◆
- Tuberculosis ◆
- Theileriosis □
- Heatstroke
- Stricture of the esophagus
- Hemorrhagic septicaemia ◆
2.11.7 CONTAGIOUS BOVINE PLEURO-PNEUMONIA

(CBPP)
A highly contagious cattle disease characterized by localization of in infection the lungs and pleura.

The causative organism is bacteria Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides.
TRANSMISSION
Infection is by inhalation of infective droplets coughed out by carriers or active cases. This bacteria
can survive only a few hours outside the body thus close contact is necessary for transmission to
occur e.g. at watering points, in kraals etc.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Acute fever (41℃), anorexia and respiratory distress
 Animal stands in shade, its head and neck extended, slightly arched back and elbows turned out
 Pain on percussion of the chest
 Death after 1-3 weeks
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 On section, the lung shows characteristic variation in colour of the lobules from red to gray, each
lobule is separated by a partition containing straw-coloured fluid which later becomes thickened,
firm and yellowish giving it a marbled appearance
 Chest contains large amounts (up to 10 litres) of clear fluid containing shreds of fibrin
TREATMENT
 Only in endemic areas (under government supervision)
 Antibiotics e.g. sulphadimidine, streptomycin, tetracycline and tylosin may be used
 Elimination is most recommended in new areas
CONTROL
 Report to relevant authorities immediately
 Restrict animal movements (under government supervision)
 Blood testing and slaughter of reactors
 Vaccination (inactivated)
2.11.8 TUBERCULOSIS
(TB)
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease affecting virtually all vertebrates. It is commonly described as a
chronic wasting disease, but may be acute. The TB- causing agent has a waxy covering that renders it
much more resistant to external influence including disinfectants.
The three most important forms of TB are the, human, bovine and avian forms. These forms are
caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. bovis and M. avium respectively.
TRANSMISSION

Mainly, through inhalation of exhaled air from infected animals also through ingestion of infected
materials such as faeces, milk, urine etc. Calves commonly get the infection through drinking milk
from infected udders.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 No clinical signs may be observed for a long time even if one or more organs may be severely
affected
 Chronic weight loss despite good nutrition
 Superficial lymph nodes may be enlarged
 Weakness, respiratory distress, chronic cough and anorexia
 Diarrhoea may occur in intestinal TB
 Enlarged and hardened udder in mammary gland TB
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 TB granulomas (swellings) may be found in any of the lymph nodes or any organ
 The granulomas may be capsulated with a caseous core
 Miliary abscesses in the lungs (pus is yellow to orange, thick cream to crumbly cheese). These
lesions may coalesce (merge) to an extent of replacing an entire lobe
 Treatment is not recommended in animals
 Test-and-slaughter (tuberculin)
 Test-and-segregation
2.11.9 THEILERIOSIS
(Corridor disease, East coast fever-ECF)
An acute tick-borne disease of cattle characterized by high fever, lymph node enlargement,
respiratory distress, weakness and high mortality.
It is caused by a protozoan parasite called Theileria parva.
TRANSMISSION
The parasites are transmitted to cattle by infected vector ticks, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and R.
zambeziensis.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Vary according to level of infection
 Fever (42℃), enlarged lymph nodes
 Depression, anorexia, loss of condition, reduced milk yield
 Respiratory distress, lacrimation and nasal discharge/froth
 High mortality (may be more than 90%)

POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Enlarged lymph nodes and spleen
 Frothy discharge from nostrils and in the trachea
 Fluid in the lungs, chest cavity, and around heart
 Haemorrhages on most organs
TREATMENT
 Buparvaquone (Butalex®)
 Parvaquone (Clexon®)
 Halofuginone (Terit®)
CONTROL
 Tick control is very important
 Restrict animal movement to avoid tick infestation
 Vaccination is now possible
4. Diseases which may be accompanied by salivation

- Foot and mouth disease ◇
- Theileriosis □
- Pharyngtitis (various causes)
- Stomatitis (various cuases)
- Stricture of the esophagus
2.11.10 FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE

(FMD)
FMD is an acute, extremely contagious disease of all cloven-hoofed animals. It is characterized by
fever and vesicular eruptions (blister) in the mouth, on the muzzle, nares, feet, teats and udder.
It is caused by Foot-and-Mouth Disease virus (FMDV). There are seven serotypes designated O, A,
C, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3 and Asia-1.
TRANSMISSION
Spread of the disease is mainly through feed and direct contact. FMD may be transmitted from one
country to another by birds or wind. Transmission through meat products has made FMD one of the
most serious diseases in the world.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Fever (in early stages only), dullness, inappetence and shivering
 Smacking of lips, difficulty in chewing and swallowing, indicating pain in the mouth

 Vesicles on the muzzle, in the mouth and between claws leading to drooling and lameness
respectively.
 After 1-3 days vesicles rupture leaving moist, red and painful sores
 Mortality is normally very low
TREATMENT
 No treatment
 Give antibiotics for secondary bacterial infection
CONTROL
 Vaccination
 Quarantine of affected farms (under government supervision).
5. Diseases whose cardinal sign is anemia

- Babesiosis □
- Anaplasmosis ■
- Trypanosomiasis ()□
2.11.11 BABESIOSIS
(Redwater)
It is a tick-borne disease of domestic and wild animals. It is characterized by fever, anemia,
haemoglobinaemia and haemoglobinuria.
In cattle the disease is caused by Babesia bovis and B. bigemina.
TRASMISSION
The natural and main vectors of redwater are ticks of Boophilus spp. may also transmit this disease.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Fever (42℃), loss of appetite, reduced milk yield
 Haemoglobinura (red water), anemia, abortion and jaundice sometimes
POSTMORTEM SIGNS
 Jaundice, pallor of tissues and edema in most parts of the body
 Thin watery blood, enlarged and deep orange liver
 Red- brown urine in the bladder
TREATMENT
 Imidocarb (Imizol®) is very effective
 Diminazine aceturate (Berenil®)

 Early tetracycline treatment
 Tick and animal movement control are very important
2.11.12 ANAPLASMOSIS
(Gall sickness)
An infectious disease of ruminants, characterized by anemia, jaundice and fever. It is caused by
rickettsia of the genus Anaplasma. A. marginale and A. centrale are responsible for the disease in
cattle and wild ruminants while A.ovis causes anaplasmosis in sheep. A. marginale is the most
pathogenic of the three.
TRANSMISSION
Spread from animal to animal occurs chiefly by vectors ticks. Anaplasma may alsobe transmitted via
unsterilized surgical instruments and needles.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Anaplasmosis is most severe in adults
 Depression, sometimes aggression, anorexia and fever (40-41℃)
 Marked anemia, jaundice, weight loss and dehydration
 Reduced milk yield and abortion
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Jaundice, pallor of tissues, this watery blood and emaciation
 Enlarged and deep orange liver with a distended gall bladder
 Spleen is enlarged and dark
DIAGNOSIS
 Blood smears and serum should be submitted to the lab for confirmation
TREATMENT
 Imidocarb (Imizol®) is very effective
 Early tetracycline treatment may be useful
CONTROL
 Tick and fly control is cardinal
 Restricted animal movement to avoid tick infestation
6. Diseases whose cardinal sign is nervous sign

- Rabies ◇
- Malignant catarrhal fever ◇
- Listeriosis ◆
- Tetanus ◆
- Cowdriosis ■
- Urea poisoning (Ammonia poisoning)
- Grass tetany
2.11.13 COWDRIOSIS
(Heartwater)
An infectious, non-contagious, disease of ruminants characterized by fever, nervous signs, edema of
body cavities and diarrhea.
It is caused by Ehrlichia (Cowdria) ruminatium.
TRANSMISSION
Ticks belonging to genus Amblyomma (Bont ticks) are the major transmitter of cowdriosis.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Fever, loss of appetite, rapid breathing, listlessness
 Nervous signs such as circling, high-stepping gate, exaggerated blinking and chewing
movements with terminal convulsions
NB: Indigenous cattle show high level resistance
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Hydropericardium, hydrothorax and hydroperitoneum

 Early tetracycline treatment, preferably I.V.; also sulphadimidine
 Tick control is very important
 Restricted animal movement to avoid tick infestation
7. Diseases which tend to chronic weight loss/emaciation

- Trypanosomiasis ()□
- Tuberculosis ◆
- Liver fluke ○

2.11.14 TRYPANOSOMIASIS
Trypanosomiasis affects all domestic and many wild animals. It is characterized by fever, anemia,
emaciation, and a high mortality rate.
In Zambia the three main species of trypanosomes responsible for trypanosomiasis in cattle are
Trypanosoma vivax, T. congolensis and T. brucei.
TRANSMISION
Tsetse flies, Glossina spp, are the most important vectors of trypanosomiasis. The trypanosomes are
ingested by the tsetse fly from an infected animal. The trypanosomes multiply in the fly and are
injected into a susceptible animal as the fly feeds. Transmission is also possible by mechanical
transfer through other biting flies, surgical instruments and needles.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Very variable
 Intermittent fever, anemia and loss of appetite
 Chronic weight loss
 Enlarged lymph nodes, ocular discharge
 Abortions are common
 Mortality is high without medical intervention
 Stress such as lack of food and water worsen the disease
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
Very variable too
 Anemia, emaciation and depleted fat stores
 Enlarged lymph nodes, spleen and liver
TREATMENT
A number of trypanocides are available
 Diminazene aceturate (Berenil®)
 Isometamidium (Samorin® or Trypamidium®)
 Pyrithidium bromide (Prothridium®)
 Quinapyramine sulfate (Antrycide®)
CONTROL
Aim of control:
 To interrupt the life cycle of the parasite either in the host or vector
Control methods:
 Use of trypanocides in animals
 Control of tsetse flies can be achieved by regular dipping of animals, spraying of insecticides on
fly-breeding areas, use of insecticide-impregnated screens, bush cleaning and so on.
 Also animals can be treated prophylactically
8. Diseases which may be accompanied by skin/appearance abnormality

- Dermatophilosis ◆
- Lumpy skin disease ◇
- Dermatophytosis ●
- Mange ()○
- Pink eye ◆
- Bovine leukemia ◇
- Actinomycosis ◆
- Actinobacillosis ◆
2.11.15 DERMATOPHILOSIS
(Senkobo, Cutaneous streptotrichosis)
An infectious disease of the epidermis, frequently affecting cattle, sheep and goats. It characterized
by formation of scabs on the affected skin.
It’s caused by Dermatophilus congolensis.
TRANSMISSION
D.congolensis can survive in a quiescent form, in scab material, for several months providing
conditions are dry. The infective form is activated by humidity (rain), high temperature and various
factors that reduce the natural barrier of skin such as ticks, biting flies or thorny bushes.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Sites commonly affected are head, neck, chest, root of the tail and back of udder
 Papules appear from which serum comes out and hair get matted together into
“paintbrush”fashion.
 Scab formation follows later
 The skin thickens to form “wart-like”lesions
 Severely affected animals are anorexic, lose condition and may die
TREATMENT
 Infected animals usually heal spontaneously after 2-3 weeks

 Treatment is not completely satisfactory
 Antibiotics include penicillin, oxytetracycline, Pen-strep®
 External treatment include spray or dip with 0.2-0.5 % ZnSO4 or 0.2 % CuSO4 (sheep)
CONTROL
 Slaughter or isolation of affected animals
 Control ticks, biting flies and thorny bushes to avoid injury to the skin
2.11.16 LUMPY SKIN DISEASE

(LSD)
A highly infectious disease of cattle characterized by appearance of nodules on all parts of the skin.
It is caused by the Neethling virus.
TRANSMISSION
Transmission is through biting flies and contact. Pure-breed exotic cattle are most susceptible.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Fever, lacrimation, nasal discharge and hyper-salivation
 Round, slightly raised, firm and painful nodules on the skin
 Nodules may slough-off leaving sores
TREATMENT
 No treatment
 Use antibiotics to prevent secondary bacterial infection
 Vaccination
 Quarantine is not very helpful
2.11.17 DERMATOPHYTOSIS
(Dermatomycosis, Ringworm)
An infection of the skin, hair and nails caused by one or several genera of fungi collectively called
dermatophytes.
In cattle Trichophyton spp are the usual cause of ringworm, however, Microsporum spp may also
cause infection.
TRANSMISSION
Dermatophytosis is most common in the season when the skin remains wet for a long time with high
temperatures. Direct contact with infected animals is the common method of spread of ringworm,
however, indirect contact through any inanimate objects, particularly bedding, harness, ropes and

grooming kits is probably also important.
CLINICAL SIGNS
The disease is most common in calves.
 Alopecia with thick round, raised, sharply circumscribed gray-white crust
 Lesions are most commonly found on the neck, head and perineum
 Secondary bacterial infection results in pruritus otherwise ringworm itself is not itchy
TREATMENT
 Topical washes or sprays of 4% sulphur
 0.5% chlorhexidine, 1% povidine-iodine
 Griseofulvin, miconazole and clotrimazole
2.11.18 MANGE
A contagious skin disease characterized by alopecia (hair loss), pruritus and hypersensitivity. It is
caused by a number of species of mites.
TRANSMISSION
Chiefly through direct contact, although beddings and grooming tools may be additional methods of
spread.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Appearance of small nodules and pustules in particular areas
 Pruritis, hair loss, skin thickening and scab formation may soon follow
 Lesions usually first appear in particular areas such as around the muzzle, face, neck, brisket,
root of the tail and udder before spreading to other parts of the body.
TREATMENT
 Subcutaneous or pour-on ivermectin (Ivomec®)
 Flumethrin (BAYTICOL®) can be applied even to dairy animal.
 Suitable dips such as coumaphos, phosmet, amitraz etc.
2.11.19 PINK-EYE
(Infectious keratitis, Blight, Infectious kerato-conjunctivitis)
It is an infectious disease of cattle, sheep and goats characterized by conjunctivitis, lacrimation and
varying degrees of corneal opacity and ulceration. It is most severe in exotic breeds of cattle.
In cattle, the common cause is Moraxella bovis, in sheep Branhamella ovis (Neisseria ovis).

TRANSMISSION
Transmission is thought to be through droplets carried by flies, dust and long grass, however, other
factors such as stress, bright sunlight and irritants like pollen worsen the condition.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 In cattle and goats young ones are most affected, in sheep only adults
 Photophobia, rapid blinking, and lacrimation
 Pussy ocular discharge, conjunctivitis (reddening of eye)
 Extensive corneal opacity which may lead to blindness if not treated
TREATMENT
 Ophthalmic treatment with preparations such as zinc sulphate, tetracycline & doxycycline
 Subconjunctival injection of antibiotics e.g. penicillin, nitrofurazone, tetracycline or penicillin-
streptomycin mixture (Pen-strep®)
CONTROL
 Hygiene and fly control, especially in the dairy and calf pens
 Preparation of shelter wood
9. Diseases which are likely to happen around perinatal period

- Milk fever
- Downer cow syndrome (various factors)
- Retained placenta (various factors)
- Puerperal fever (Febris puerperalis) ◆
- Ketosis
- Gangrenous mastitis ◆
2.11.20 MILK FEVER

(Parturient paresis)
It is a disease of mature, often high lactating, cow that occurs most commonly at or soon (within 72
hours) after calving. There is a high incidence in the Jersey breed.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Excitement, hypersensitivity and unsteady walk
 Sternal recumbency, depression, head turned to one side
 Anorexia is complete, dry muzzle and cool skin (36-38℃)
 Lateral recumbency, coma, flaccid lims and bloat due to position

TREATMENT
Early treatment before clinical signs are obvious is ideal.
 400-800ml of 25% calcium borogluconate, preferably IV. It may be given subcutaneously as
well.
(Usually, a half amount of above solution is given via IV, the rest of that is given via SC)
NB IV injection of calcium borogluconate should be given very slowly. It should take more than
15 min. to give above amount of the solution to cows because fast injection of calcium solution
cause animal’s heart too heavy a burden.
NB Animals that relapse or fail to respond should be treated again. (Usually in that case, above
treatment is repeated up to three times at 12 hours intervals.)
PREVEVTION
 Feed low calcium diets (e.g. corn silage) during the dry period. (Legume pastures such as alfalfa
include high calcium)
The negative calcium balance results in a minor decline in blood calcium concentrations. This
stimulates PTH secretion, which in turn stimulates bone resorption and renal production of 1,25
dihydroxyvitamin D. increased 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D increases the efficiency of intestional
calcium absorption. As a result, mobilization of calcium is enhanced.
 Oral administration of large doses of calcium in gel form. Doses of 150g calcium are given one
day before one day after calving. After calving, feed high calcium diets.
 Use of the dietary cation-anion difference(DCAD) or reducing the potassium content of the diet
during the late prepartum and early postpartum period.(e.g. corn silage tends to have lowest
content postassium)
It is based on the finding that most dairy cows are in a state of metabolic alkalosis due to the
high potassium content of their diets. This state predisposes cows to hypocalcemia by altering
the conformation of the PTH receptor, resulting in tissues that are less sensitive to PTH.
 Addition of anionic salts (e.g. calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate,
calcium sulfate etc.) to counteract the effects of high cation levels(potassium and sodium) in the
diets.
 Administaration of vitamin D3.
 Large doses of vitamin D (20-30 million U, sid), given in the feed for 5-7 days before
parturition. However, if administration is stopped more than 4 days before calving, the cow
is more susceptible. Dosing for periods longer than those recommended should be avoided
because of potential toxicity.
 A single injection (IV or SC) of 10 million IU of crystalline vitamin D given 8 days before
calving is an effective prevention
NB The dose is required if cow does not calve on the due date.
 Frequently observe milk fever prone cows from 48 hours before to 48 hours after calving for
evidence of milk fever and treat immediately.
2.11.21 DOWNER COW SYNDROME
In most cases, downer cow syndrome is a complication of periparturient hypocalcemia (milk fever)
in cows that do not fully respond to calcium therapy. Carving paralysis after dystocia may also result
in recumbency due to traumatic (external) injury to tissues and nerves inside the pelvic cavity.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Bright and alert, eats and ruminants well, but with slight-reduced appetite
 No abnormalities except will not stand up
 50% of downer cows will get well within 4 days if properly nursed
 Recovery is unlikely if recumbency is over 7 dats
TREATMENT
 Usually responds well to calcium treatment
 Good nursing is the best treatment. Provide the most comfortable bedding possible and turn the
animal from side to side several times (at least 3-4 times).
 Hind limbs should be flexed and extended and massaged several times daily.
 Prevention and prompt treatment of milk fever essential
10. Diseases which may be accompanied by lameness

- Foot rot ◆
- Blackleg ◆
- Foot and mouth disease ◇
- Foot disorders (various causes)
- Laminitis (various causes)
- Tetanus ◆
2.11.22 FOOT ROT

(Foul-in-the-foot, Interdigital necrobacillosis)
This is an infectious disease characterized by infection of the sensitive tissues of the feet which cause
inflammation, necrosis, ulceration and severe lameness.
The most common causal organism in cattle is Fusobacterium necropforum.
TRANSMISSION
Infection gains entrance through broken skin on the lower part of the foot. The disease occurs during
all seasons, but tends to be more prevalent during the wet season.

CLINICAL SIGNS
 Lameness which may be severe
 Fever, anorexia, loss of weight and reduced milk yield
 Swelling of coronet and spreading of claws
 Interdigital space may be swollen, cracked or ulcerated
 Pus usually in small amounts in the interdigital space
TREATMENT
 Clean the foot and soak in 5% copper sulphate or apply aerosol spray e.g. chloramphenicol in
genitian violet preparation
 In addition to this topical treatment give antibiotic injection (e.g. sulphonamide, oxytetracycline)
CONTROL
 Screen new arrivals
 Animals should avoid wet grounds
 Footbathing with 5-10% copper sulphate or 5% formalin at places such as entrance to the dip
tank or milking parlour. In severe cases it best to let the animals stand in the bath for about 1 min
once every week.
11. Diseases whose cardinal sign is diarrhea

- Calf diarrhoea (various factors)
- Parasitic gastro-enteritis ○
- Coccidiasis □
- Malignant catarrhal fever ◇
2.11.23 CALF DIARRHOEA

(Scours)
It is an acute disease characterized by diarrhoea, dehydration and death, sometimes in as few as 12
hours. Diarrhoea occurs in all species of new born farm animals.
Causes include:
 Bacteria- Esherichia coli (E. coli )
Salmonella spp
Clostridium perfringens
 Viruses- rotavirus and coronavirus
 Protozoa- Cryptosporidium spp
 Feeding excessive milk or using inappropriately formulated milk replacers
Risk factors
 Overcrowding (beef)

 Inappropriate feeding
 Adverse weather conditions
 Lack of ingestion of adequate colostrum within a few hours after birth
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Diarrhoea, dehydration, weakness and death within one to several days of onset
 Generally, diarrhea due to bacteria occurs in calves less than 14 days while the virus cause
diarrhoea in calves 5-15 days old calves. Diarrhoea due to Cryptosporidium spp occurs in calves
5-35 days old.
TREATMENT
 Oral fluid therapy
 Absorbents such as kaolin or charcoal
 Antibiotics
Only withhold milk if diarrhoea is due to inappropriate feeding
12. Diseases which may be accompanied by abnormality in udder
2.11.24 MASTITIS
Mastitis is inflammation of the mammary gland. Inflammation has five properties; swelling, pain,
reddening, hotness and loss of function. Although these properties are ever present in a mastitic
udder, it is not always easy to detect one with mastitis by palpation or visual examination alone.
Mastitis is probably the most common disease in dairy cows with great economic importance. It
occurs wherever cattle are kept for commercial milk production. There are many factors that cause
mastitis but the most common and important one is bacterial infection.
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
 The major predisposing factor is injury to the teat and canal. This may be caused by poor
milking techniques such as:
 Strip milking and two finger milking
 Faulty milking machine e.g. misshapen teat-cup liners, high vacuum, incorrect pulsation rate
and failure for teat-cups to drop after all the milk has been removed
 Incomplete milking in presence of germs (pathogenic bacteria)
 Failure to adequately induce milk let-down
 Delay in milking when milk let-down reflex operates
 Rough handling of milking cows
 Wet and dirty bedding

 Other bacterial infectious disease or reduce of immune strength
CLASSIFICATION OF MASTITIS BY TRANSMISSION

 Environmental mastitis
It is described mastitis is caused by organisms such as Escherichia coli which do not normally
live on the skin or in the udder but which enter the teat canal when the cow comes in contact
with a contaminated environment. e.g. through teat canal or injured teat from bedding, straw,
feces, contaminated water, discharge of metritis, in the udder itself and so on.
 Contagious mastitis
Contagious Mastitis is caused by bacteria live on the skin of the teat and inside the udder.
Contagious mastitis can be transmitted from one cow to another during milking. The causative
bacteria included contaminated milk are transferred to the skin of the udder and teats by milker’s
hands, udder cloth, milker etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF MASTITIS BY CLINICAL SIGN

 Clinical mastitis
Characterized by the presence of gross inflammation signs (swelling, heat, redness, pains). There
are three types of clinical mastitis
 Peracute mastitis
Characterized by gross inflammation, disrupted functions (reduction in milk yield, changes
in milk composition) and systemic signs (fever, depression, shivering, loss of appetite and
loss of weight). The whole udder gets swollen, feeling cold of the udder. In this case, it is
likely that they may die if treatment is delayed.
 Acute mastitis
Similar to percute mastitis, but with lesser systemic signs (fever and mild depression). The
udder gets hot, swollen, hardened.
 Sub-acute mastitis
In this type of mastitis, the mammary gland inflammation signs are minimal and no visible
systemic signs.
 Sub-clinical mastitis
This form of mastitis is characterized by change in milk composition with no signs of gross
inflammation or milk abnormalities. Changes in milk composition can be detected by special
diagnostic tests (CMT or laboratory test).
 Chronic mastitis
Udder is evidently hardened, may shrink, abscess may form and milk production may cease.
DIAGNOSIS
 Observing clinical signs of the disease
 Field test – These tests detect physical and/or chemical changes of milk. They include salty taste
detected by use of the tip of the tongue, strip cup with black surface plate to detect wateriness or
clots of the foremilk and in California Mastitis Test (CMT) the milk forms a gel when mixed
with some types of detergent like TEEPOL®.
 Laboratory test, which include check of physical and/or chemical changes of milk, cell count
culture and isolation of bacteria, sensitivity of bacteria to antibiotics.
TREATMENT
 Early recognition of mastitis and treatment is essential for a cure
 Before local medication is applied the infected udder is thoroughly milked, and the teat
disinfected.
 Treatment may be applied locally or systemically
 In severe cases milk the mastitic udder several times daily.
Local treatment
Lactating cow
 Intramammary infusions/injections containing antibiotics such as penicillin are highly effective.
However, the withdrawal period as recommended by the manufactures must be observed strictly
to avoid exposing consumers to milk with high levels of antibiotics that may cause allergic
reactions.
 It is recommended that all quarters be treated even when mastitis has been detected in only one
quarter. However, due to economic reasons only the affected quarter may be treated. Treatment
of all quarters is then left to situations when mastitis is persistent, recurrent or in outbreaks.
 From time to time a small number of cases will be incurable. Seek professional advice for a
decision whether to continue treating or to dispose of the case. However, continuous culling is
very wasteful and is not encouraged.
Dry cow
 Dry cow therapy is given after the last milking before drying off. During this period maximum
benefit of treatment is achieved because the antibiotics stay a longer period in the udder and it
helps in reducing the incidence of mastitis.
Systemic
 Systemic treatment is usually given when intramammary treatment alone is less effective. It is
often intramuscular, or less often, intravenous. It is highly recommended that the same type of
antibiotics used in the udder be used systemically.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL
 For a mastitis control programme to succeed, mastitis history of the herd must be available and
the full co-operation of the herdsman must be sort. The herdsman must fully understand ways in
which mastitis may be introduced into the herd and how it spreads.
 Medical treatment alone is of limited value if not accompanied by efforts towards prevention of
transfer of bacteria.
 Routine monthly testing (e.g. with CMT) of all quarters of every cow helps to detect early cases
and subclinical infection.
Prevention measures include:

 Following standard milking techniques
 Proper use of udder cloths i.e. dipping in warm disinfectant before using on another cow
 Teat dipping in a disinfectant after milking
 Washing milker’s hands with a disinfectant
 Milking older cows and ones with mastitis last
 Obtaining replacements from clean herds
13. External parasite and internal parasite
2.11.25 EXTERNAL PARASITE
TICKS
Ticks are of great veterinary concern and economic importance in livestock production in Zambia.
Ticks have the ability to transmit a large variety of infectious agents some of whom cause disease
that are able to cause very high mortality eg corridor disease. The cost of treatment of these diseases
and that of tick control are usually very high. Ticks act as disease reservoirs as some disease-causing
agents have to pass through them to complete their life cycle.
Heavy tick infestation can lead to anemia and hides from such animals are down-graded and fetch
low prices on the market. Animals may also react to their salivary fluids and toxins, a condition
called tick toxicosis (sweating sickness, tick paralysis). They also cause skin wounds that can get
bacterial infection.
LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle of the ticks various widely. Generally eggs are laid in the soil and hatch into larvae,
which attach themselves to a passing host on which they may develop through one or more nymphal
stages before becoming adults. The nymphs and adults have four pairs of legs while the larvae have

three pairs. The larvae and nymphs engorge on a meal of blood before molting into the next stages
respectively. In most cases, mating occurs in the host and the female dies after oviposition. It may
oviposite 2,000 – 20,000 eggs that may hatch at once under high temperature and moderate humidity
conditions.
TYPES OF TICKS
Depending on the number of hosts they pass through to complete the life cycle, ticks can be
categorized into four main groups; one-host ticks, two-host ticks, three-host ticks and multiple host
ticks.
One-host ticks – all the three stages (larva, nymph and adult) are spent on one animal e.g. Boophilus
spp.
Two-host ticks - larva attaches to an animal, feeds, engorges and moults into nymph then drops off,
moults into an adult which re-attaches to another host. The adult feeds and drops as an engorged tick
e.g. some species of Rhipicephalus spp. and Hyalomma spp.
Three- host ticks - each stage (larva, nymph and adult) feeds, engorges and drops off before re-
attaching to the next host e.g. Amblyomma spp, some species of Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma spp.
Multi- host ticks - larvae feed on one host and drop to the substrate to moult; the several nymphal
instars each feed separately, drop, and molt; adults feed several times (but don’t moult) e.g. Most of
Ornithodorus spp. (except for O. lahorensis)
TYPES OF TICKS
Generic Name DISEASES TRANSMITTED in Afirca
ONE-HOST TICKS
Boophilus spp. Babesiosis, Anaplasmosis
Dermacentor albipitus
Otobius megnini
TWO-HOST TICKS
Hyalomma spp.
Rhipicephalus bursa
Rhipicephalus evertsi
Ornithodorus lahorensis
THREE-HOST TICKS
Amblyomma spp. Cowdriosis
Dermacentor spp.
Haemaphysalis spp.
Ixodes spp.
Rhipicephalus spp. (except R.evertsi and Theileriosis(East Coast Fever)

R.bursa)
MULTI-HOST TICKS
Ornithodorus spp. (except O. lahorensis) African Swine Fever( pigs)
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (Brown ear tick)

Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Kennel tick or brown dog tick)
Amblyomma americanum (Lone- star tick)
Amblyomma variegatum (Bont tick)
TICK CONTROL
 Acaricides application – is by far the most effective and widely used method
 Pasture spelling or burning
 The use of tick – resistant cattle
 Piking by tweezers (tick’s head shouldn’t be left inside of animal’s skin)
The choice of acaricides depends largely on four factors:

 The persistence of the acaricide compound on the skin and hair coat
 The likelihood of residues of acaricide toxic to man appearing in the milk or meat
 Whether or not the ticks in the area have developed resistance to the particular acaricides
 Cost and availability of the acaricide
Generally, one-host ticks are easier to control than two-host or three-host ticks. For strategic dipping,
the following may be used; longer interval (2-5 weeks) between dipping with higher acaricide
concentration for one-host ticks or short interval (5-7 days) with a lower acaricide concentration for
two- and three-host ticks. However, this requires accurate identification of the ticks to be controlled.
In tick control, one of the following strategies may be adopted:

 Complete eradication of ticks hence the animals are totally unchallenged by tick-borne diseases.
In this strategy no lapse in the dipping regime should be allowed because the animals are naïve
to tick-borne disease challenge thus slight infection will result in heavy losses
 Incomplete eradication of ticks so that animals are exposed to minimum challenges by tick-
borne diseases.
This method allows animals to continuously build immunity and losses are reduced in case of an
outbreak
EXTERNAL PARASITES CONTROL (Refer to bulleting 2.8 – External parasite control)
2.11.26 INTERNAL PARASITES

HELMINTHS
(Worms)
A general accurate estimate of the economic importance of helminth parasitism cannot easily be
given because the problem varies from area to area depending on the climate and the farming system
used. The problem seems to be more in areas of intensive farming system where stocking rates are
high. A similar situation can also occur in extensive farming system during periods of feed deficit
when feeding of animals is concentrated along water courses, wells, swampy areas etc.
Other factors that form part of a network of interrelated variables leading to helminth parasitism
include the microclimate and macroclimate of the environment, grazing habits, immunological and
nutritional status of the host, the presence of intermediate hosts and vectors and the number of
infective larvae and eggs in the environment.
Helminths can be classified into three main groups nematodes(roundworms), cestodes(tapeworm)

and trematodes(flukes).
Nematodes(Round Worms)
The common stomach worms of cattle are Haemonchus placei, Ostertagia ostertagi and
Trichostrongylus axei.
TRANSMISSION
Ingestion of infective larvae in faeces and contaminated feed and water. Development to infective
stage is delayed in cold weather.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Young animals are more susceptible
 Diarrhoae and sometimes constipation
 Anemia, hypoproteinaemia leading to edema of the jaw (bottle jaw)
 Anorexia, weight loss, weakness rough coat and potbelly
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Presence of worms in abomasum
 Pin-point haemorrhagic areas and small nodules in the Gastro-intestinal Tract(GIT)
 Gastric congestion and superficial ulcers
TREATMENT
 Drug treatment alone cannot effectively control worms, it must be used together with other
measures such as:
 Treatment of all animals at once to avoid contamination
 Movement of animals to uncontaminated pasture to avoid reinfestation
 Provision of adequate nutrition
Anthemintics include the following:
 Thiabendazole, mebendazole, albendazole, fenbendazole, oxfendazole and cambedazole
 Also levamisole and ivermectin
CONTROL
Aims of control:
 Prevention of heavy worm exposure to animals
 Minimaised pasture contamination
Methods of control:
 Timing of dosing based on knowledge of the seasonal changes of infestation
Trematodes(Flukes)
Liver fluke disease is caused by members of the genera Fasciola, Fascioloides and Dicrocoelium.
Fasciola hepatica is the most important trematode of domestic ruminants. Paramphistomum spp.
cause stomach fluke disease.
TRANSMISSION
Snails, Lymnaea spp, act as intermediate hosts for flukes. The snails prefer low-lying swampy areas
with slow moving water, also in constantly moist areas. Eggs are passed out in faeces of the host,
hatch in water and picked up by the snail. In the snail the fluke develop infective stage and leaves the
snail to attach to herbage. Infective stages of flukes are gested with herbage as the animal feeds.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Infestation is usually asymptomatic in cattle
 In heavy chronic infestation anaemia, unthriftiness, weight loss and reduced milk yield may be
observed
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Presence of large number of flukes in bile ducts
 Calcification of bile duct walls is common in cattle
 Bottle jaw and distended abdomen in very severe cases
 Anemia, ascites, edema and emaciation may be observed too
TREATMENT
 Triclabendazole, mebendazole and albendazole
 Rafoxanide(Ranide®, Flukanide®), nitroxynil(Trodax®) and closantel
CONTROL
Aims of control:
 Reduce the snail population in the environment
Methods of control:
 Drainage of land (where possible)
 Use of molluscicides such as copper sulphate, copper pentachlorphenate and sodium
pentachlorphenate
Cestodes(Tapeworms)
Tapeworm infestation have little apparent effect on the health of farm livestock, however, heavy
infestation in young animals may cause failure to thrive. Common tapeworms include Moniezia
expansa, M. benedini and Cysticercus bovis.
TRANSMISSION
Eggs are passed in faeces of host, which are taken up by intermediate host (oribatid mites) and
finally the final host.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Most infestations do not cause clinical signs but on occasions heavy infestation may result in
unthriftiness, pot-belly and poor coat
 Vague digestive disturbances including constipation and mild diarrhoea
 Sometimes anemia and edema may be present
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Most commonly, tapemorms are present small intestines
 Site of attachment may be indicated by presence of an ulcer.
 Emaciation and anemia
TREATMENT
 Niclosamide
 Cambendazole, oxfendazole, fenbendazole and albendazole
CONTROL
 Dosing with above cesticides
 Alternation of grazing and cropping is less helpful
INTERNAL PARASITE CONTROL
Principles of Helminth Control

In helminth control the herd or flock and its environment are considered as one unit. This implies
that treatment and control measures are targeted at the entire herd/flock with its pastures or housing.
Presence of one confirmed case means that other cases are developing in the group.
Strategic treatment, as a means of control, may be administered two to four times a year depending
on the climate and management system. Strategic treatment is considered most important in young
animals because of their great susceptibility. It is usually intended to provide maximum protection
during the periods that the young animals suffer their greatest nutritional stress such as at the time of
weaning.
Control of nematodes
Aims of control:
 Prevention of heavy helminth exposure to animals
 Minimized pasture contamination
Methods of control:
 Timing of dosing based on knowledge of the seasonal changes of infection
Control of trematodes
Aims of control:
 Reducing the snail population in the environment
Methods of control:
 Drainage of land (Where possible)
 Use of molluscicides such as copper sulfate, copper and sodium pentachlorphenate
CLASSIFICATION OF ACARICIDES AND ANTIHELMINTICS

Application Category Generic name Trade name
Trematodes Bithionol(po)
Bromophenophos(po)
Nematodes Avermectins Ivermectin(sc, pour-on) Ivomec
Doramectin(sc,im) Dectamax
External-parasites/ Carbamate Compounds Carbaryl(spray) Sevin, Menaphtame
Arthropod Propoxur(spray, etc) Baygon, Sendran
Methomyl Lannate, Nudrin
Organophosphates Coumaphos Asntal, Co-Ral
(spray, plunge dipping)
Dichlorvos(spray,etc) Vapona, Equigard
Diazinon(spray,etc) Neocidal,Spectracide
Fenthion(spray,etc) Tiguvon
Dioxathion Delnav, Bercotox
Chlorfenvinphos Supona,Steladon
Malathion Cynthion
Famphur Warbex
Phosmet Prolate
Cythioate Cyflee, ProBan
Pyrethroids Deltamethrin Glossinex
Flumethrin Bayticol
Cyhalothrin Grenade
Permethrin Stomoxin, Ectiban
Cypermethrin Barricade, Stochade
d-Allethrin Aeroblast
Deltamethrin, tetramethrin, Target
permethrin
Tetramethrin, phenomethrin, Mobil insecticide

allothrin
Miscellaneous Rotenone Derris,Lonchocarpus
Closantel Flukiver, Seponver, Quadril
Benzyl benzoate
Mixtures Toxaphene + chlorfenvinphos Dismis
Toxaphene + dioxathion Altick
Dioxathion + chlorfenvinphos Supamix
2.11.27 POISONING
General practical measures for management of poisoning or intoxication are usually directed towards
removal of unabsorbed poison from the animal and its environment. a few poisons and toxicants
have specific antidotes. However, identity of the poisonous substance involved is often unknown and
identification by analytical laboratories or manufacturers usually takes long. Despite this, the clinical
condition of the patient require immediate therapeutic intervention.
If the case history fails to pin-point the identity of the toxicant, the animal health attendant should
proceed along the lines exemplified below and in a sequence determined by severity of the clinical
sighs.
GENERAL APPROACH TO POISON CASES

1. Exclude the possibility of further access to the poison
2. If possible the poison should be removed from the animal; by washing with plenty clean water if
it is in the eye or on the skin, by emesis and/or gastric lavage if in the stomach.
3. Unabsorbed poisons may be subjected to chemical neutralization if acid or alkaline in nature.
Absorption from the gut may be reduced by physical means e.g. adsorption by activated charcoal
(kaolin) or by simple solution in non-absorbable oil like liquid paraffin.
4. When toxicant is unknown or antidote unavailable, symptomatic treatment should be instituted
e.g. the control of convulsions with CNS depressants, pain with analgesics.
5. Measures to minimize or relieve tissue damage should be considered, e.g. use of anti-
inflammatory drugs locally, infusion of glucose to ensure adequacy of liver glycogen stocks and
IV fluids with electrolytes.
6. Drugs which aid in detoxification may be given e.g. methionine and cysteine which are substrates
for enzymic pathways of detoxification.
UREA POISONING
(ammonium poisoning)
Urea poisoning is usually an acute, rapidly progressing, highly fatal condition. It is caused by

ingestion of urea intended to be used as fertilizer or as a source of Non-protein Nitrogen (NPN) in
ruminant rations. Poisoning due to urea added to ration results from either excess addition of the urea
to the ration or excess intake of the ration containing recommended levels before animals adapt to it.
After ingestion, urea and NPN undergo hydrolysis and release excess ammonia. The ammonia is
rapidly absorbed from the GIT resulting in onset of signs in 10-30 min after feeding. The toxicity
may be accelerated if these are fed together with soyabean meal.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Severe abdominal pain resulting in violent struggling and bellowing
 Bloat and frothing at the mouth and nose
 Muscle tremors, incoordination, weakness, respiratory distress and bloat
 Hypersensitivity to sound and movement
TREATMENT
 Only successful in very early stages of the condition
 Prompt & efficient emptying of rumen through a large bore stomach tube or rumenotomy
 Oral administration of a weak acid e.g. 4 liters of vinegar or 5% acetic acid
 Oral administration of magnesium sulfate with a large quantity of water
 Sodium thiosulfate solution
PREVENTION AND CONTROL

 Feed urea at a rate mot more than 2-3% of the concentrate or grain of ruminant diet
 NPN should be introduced gradually to the animals
 Temporary absences of NPN from diet should be avoided
 NPN should not constitute more 1/3 of the total nitrogen in the ruminant diet

2.12 SHEEP AND GOAT DISEASES
BACTERIAL
2.12.1 TYPE D ENTEROTOXAEMIA

(Pulpy kidney disease, Overeating disease)
This is a classic enterotoxaemia of sheep while goats are less affected. It mostly affects young
animals, less than 2 weeks of age or weaned lams in feedlots, on high carbohydrate diet. Adults are
less affected.
The causative agent is Clostridium perfringens type D.
TRANSMISSION
C.perfringens is widely distributed in the soil and the alimentary tract of animals and gains entry into
the body through cuts and wounds.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Usually sudden deaths in the best-conditioned lambs are first signs of enterotoxaemia
 Neck-twisting, circling and pushing the head against fixed objects
 Occasionally adult sheep are affected; they show weakness, incoordination and die within 24
hours
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Hyperemic areas in the intestines and fluid-filled pericardial sac. This is particularly the case in
young lambs
 In adults hemorrhagic areas on the myocardium, abdominal muscles and serosa of the intestines
may be found
 Bilateral pulmonary edema and congestion frequently occur, but usually not in lambs
 Rapid postmortem autolysis of the kidney has led to the popular name “pulpy kidney disease”
CONTROL
 Ewe immunization probably is the most satisfactory method of control of pulpy kidney in lambs
 In feedlots it can be controlled by reducing the amount of concentrate in the diet (this is may not
be economical)
 Immunization of all animals with a toxoid when they first enter the feedlot probably will reduce
losses to an acceptable level. Two injections 2 weeks apart will protect them throughout the
feedlot period
2.12.2 CASEOUS LYMPHADENTITIS

It is a chronic bacterial infection of sheep and goats characterized by formation of abscesses

primarily in lymph nodes.
It is caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis.
TRANSMISSION
Discharges from ruptured lymph nodes contaminate the environment with the organism, which can
survive for long periods outside the host. Infection can then gain entry by contamination of skin
abrasions and wounds that arise for a variety of reasons, e.g. shearing of sheep, castration and
fighting among goats. The organism can survive for about a day in commercial dips and dipping of
sheep, particularly those that had recently been sheared, can lead to infection.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Enlargement of one or more lymph nodes.
 Superficial lymph nodes may rupture, discharging thick, green pus
 Pneumonia, drop in milk yield and paralysis may be experienced due to involvement of internal
organs
 External abscesses around the head and neck occur more commonly in goats, while the visceral
form is more common in sheep. Internal abscesses should be considered as a potential diagnosis
for “thin ewe” syndrome
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Abscesses in one or more palpable lymph nodes and in almost all internal organs
 Abscesses are encapsulated by fibrous tissue
 Abscess contents are light green or cream to yellow in sheep while in goats they are commonly
creamy
 At first pus is semi-fluid but thick and later become firm and dry
TREATMENT
 Not satisfactory although the organism is sensitive to antibiotics because antibiotics cannot reach
inside of abscess.
CONTROL
 General hygiene in sheep and goats yards and pens
 High standard of hygiene during shearing and castrating i.e. drop instruments in an antiseptic
before each use
 Elimination of all animals with enlarged lymph nodes
 Acquire replacements from clean flocks
 Burn or bury the pus from the abscess

2.12.3 DERMATOPHILOSIS
(Lumpy wool, Mycotic dermatitis)
An infection of the epidermis characterized by scab formation. It is caused by Dermatophilus
congolensis.
TRANSMISSION
D.congolensis does not normally penetrate the natural barriers of healthy skin. Factors th
at influence the development and transmission of dermatophilosis include those that weaken
this barrier like prolonged wetting by rain, high humidity, high temperature and various
ectoparasites. Also thorny bushes, shearing tools and grooming tools.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Lesions in goats first appear on the lips and muzzle then spread while in sheep they first appear
on the dorsal parts of the body
 The crust are often pyramidal in a sheep wool
 Crusts are thick, up to 3 cm in diameter and roughly circular
 Heavy mortalities may occur in very young animals but generally the health of the animal is
unaffected unless lesions are widespread
``
TREATMENT
 Shear the sheep and dip or spray with 0.2-0.5% zinc sulphate or 0.2% copper sulphate (this may
stain wool)
 Topical antibacterial shampoo therapy
 Soaking with chlorhexidine, benzoyl peroxide
 Topical treatment with povidone-iodine
 IM injection may also be given e.g. penicillin or Pen-strep®
CONTROL
 Isolation the affected animals
 Use separate grooming and shearing tools
 Cull affected animals
 Control ectoparasites
 Delay dipping with acaricide for about 10 days after shearing
 Avoid dipping sheep with long wool
2.12.4 FOOT ROT

(Virulent footrot, Malignant footrot)

Foot rot in sheep is characterized by inflammation of the skin at the skin-hoof junction (coronet),
underrunning of the hoof and inflammation of the sensitive layers of the foot that leads to severe
lameness.
Foot rot in sheep is due to synergism between two anaerobic bacteria; Fusobacterium necrophorum
and Dichelobacter nodosus.
TRANSMISSION
Transmission of foot rot to healthy animals requires a warm, moist environment. Injuries to the feet
enhance the transmission.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Most obvious is lameness, which may be very severe
 Swelling and moistening of the skin in the interdigital space
 The horny layer of the hoof is separated from underlying tissues
 Discharge from affected foot has a foul smell
 Loss of body condition
 Rams affected in hind feet may be unable to serve and similarly ewe with affected hind feet may
be unable to bear the weight of a ram at service
TREATMENT
Treatment may be local or systemic
Local treatment
 This requires removal of all detached hoof tissue
 Then treatment with either aerosol spray, foot bathing or foot soaking
 Solutions common for foot bathing include 10% zinc sulphate, 10% copper sulphate or 5%
formaldehyde, for aerosol spray in addition to these include 20% cetrimide, and 1.3%
tetracycline. Let the animal stand in foot bath for at least one minute.
※ traditionally, treatment consisted of foot bathing utilizing antibacterial solutions after careful
hoof trimming to remove all dead forn and expose infected tissue and bacteria air. However, foot
soaking for 30 min to 1 hr has shown to be more effective even when trimming is not done. The
most effective solution is 10% zinc sulphate with 0.2% of laundry detergent containing nonionic
surfactants such as sodium lauryl sulphate.
Systemic treatment
 Injection of Pen-strep®, tetracycline or erythromycin
PRVENTION AND CONTROL

 Acquire sheep from clean flocks
 Examination and isolation for one month and re-examination new arrivals
 Footbathing in wet and warm season
 Vaccination is possible to against D. nodosus
VIRAL DISEASE
2.12.5 RIFT VALLEY FEVER
(Infectious enzootic hepatitis)
It is an acute, mosquito-borne, viral disease of cattle, sheep and human beings. It is characterized, in
lambs, by hepatitis, high mortality and fever while in adult sheep by abortion. It is caused by a
phlebovirus.
TRANSMISSION
Infection is transmitted by biting insects, chiefly mosquitoes.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Rapid onset in kids and lambs with fever, listlessness, anorexia, weakness and death
 In lambs less than one week old mortality may be more than 90%
 In adult sheep there may be fever, anorexia, unsteady gait, vomiting diarrhea and abortion.
Abortion may be the only sign
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Focal liver necrosis
 Enlarged, soft, friable, yellow brown to dark red liver
CONTROL
 Moving stock to high-altitude areas with less mosquitoes
 Stabling plus spraying against mosquitoes
 Vaccination
2.12.6 CONTAGIOUS PUSTULAR DERMATITIS

(Orf, Contagious ecthyma, sore mouth)
It is characterized by formation of ulcers and pustules around the mouth and nostrils. The disease
occurs in sheep and goats. Humans are occasionally affected through direct contact. The orf virus
belongs to the genus Parapoxvirus. The virus is highly resistant to desiccation in the environment.
TRANSMISSION
In a flock transmission is by contact with either affected animals or inanimate objects. It is believed
that damage to the skin is necessary for the virus to gain entry into the body. The scab remains

infective for a long time.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Benign type
 Ulcers and pustules around the mouth and nostrils.
 Scabs around the nostrils and sometimes around the coronet and on teats and udder
 Fever and difficulty in eating leading to anorexia and loss of condition
Malignant type
 Lambs are most susceptible (3-6 months of age)
 Blisters and ulcers on the tongue, cheeks, palate, gums, buccal cavity and sometimes throughout
the body
 Severe blisters and ulcers on the teats of ewes leading to mastitis.

 Topical treatment with either an antiseptic, sulphur, antibiotic creams or aerosol sprays
 Isolation of all affected animals
 Vaccination
ND: Do not vaccination lambs less than 3 months old and sick ewes
NON-INFECTIOUS
2.12.7 PREGNANCY TOXAEMIA OF SHEEP

(Ovine ketosis, Twin lamb disease, Pregnancy ketosis, Sleeping ewe disease)
A highly fatal disease of periparturient ewes characterized primarily by impaired nervous function.
CAUSE
Underfeeding in late pregnancy is the primary predisposing factor. Overfeeding ewes particularly
those carrying twins or triplets in early pregnancy predisposes them to ketosis more than ewes in
poor condition and carrying single lambs. Anything that interrupts feed intake (e.g. storms, transport,
other disease conditions) may induce the disease. Under-fed ewes use up all the sugar reserves in the
body and naturally turn to body fat. During metabolism of the body fat, poisonous substances called
ketones are produced and accumulate in the bloodstream causing the condition called ketosis
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Separation from the flock, aimless walk, and apparent blindness
 Inappetence, walking into objects, muscle twitching especially around the face, grinding of teeth
and head turned to one side
 Abnormal postures, incoordination, recumbency and coma death after 3-4 days

 Small of ketones may be detectable on the breath
TREATMENT
Treatment is not very satisfactory unless the ewe is close to lambing
 Glycerol or propylene glycol administered early reduces mortality
 The above plus an anabolic steroid, vitamin B and fluid therapy
 Caesarean section or induced abortion may lead to recovery (in early stages of the disease)
NB: Once signs are advanced, no treatment is highly effective. Fluid therapy is aimed at correcting
the acid base disturbance in blood. In absence of biochemical analysis, give glucose with IV isotonic
sodium bicarbonate or lactated ringer’s solution.
CONTROL
 Avoid obesity in early pregnancy
 Raising plan of nutrition in the last 6 weeks of pregnancy
 If adequate and suitable feed is not available for the entire flock during late pregnancy, early
cases can be identified by gentle driving, then should be separated from the flock and given
special care and nourishment
 Any interruption of food intake should be avoided.

2.13 PIG DISEASES
BACTERIAL
2.13.1 POST WEANING DIARRHOEA

(Enteric colibacillosis)
Post weaning diarrhoea usually occurs soon after weaning and is characterized by acute diarrhoea,
dehydration, reduced growth rate and death.
The cause is believed to be multifactorial and complex but is frequently associated with E. coli.
Some of the predisposing factors of post weaning diarrhoea caused by E.coli include stress due to
separation from the sow, new environment, change of diet, mixing with piglets from other litters and
uncomfortable unsanitary weaning pens.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Yellow to grayish brown muddy or watery diarrhoea
 Reduced feed consumption but normal water intake
 Reduced growth rate, gaunt abdomens and lusterless hair coats
 One or two pigs, in good condition, found dead
 Staggering and incoordination in terminal stages
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Dehydration and loss of condition
 Small intestines have yellow contents that may be blood-stained
 Congestion of small intestine mucosa
TREATMENT
 Treatment of in-contacts at first sign of this disease is recommended
 Oral (especially through water) antibacterial drugs such as ampicillin, neomycin, sulphonamides
and tetracycline
 Agemates in same piggery should be considered for treatment as well
CONTROL
 Minimized stress associated with weaning
 Avoid sudden change of diet; probably continue the pre-weaning diet for about 14days after
weaning
 Preferably wean by removing the sow and keep the litter as one for some time
 Where weaners from different litters are mixed, group them in equivalent sizes

 Where possible wean pigs on weight basis; wean at a weight of 6kg or more
 Preventive antibiotic treatment may be given in feed or water for 7-10 days after weaning. This
is not encouraged because of high incidence of E.coli resistance to antibiotics.
2.13.2 SWINE ERYSIPELAS

An infectious disease mainly of growing pigs. It may occur in an acute septicemic form often
accompanied by diamond-shaped skin lesion, or a chronic form manifested by arthritis and a
vegetative endocarditis. It is caused by bacteria Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae.
TRANSMISSION
Soil and surface water contamination represent routs of exposure. Asymptomatic carriers are the
usual source of infectious organisms but bacteria may also be introduced to animal production unites
by surface water runoff, wild mammals, wild birds, pets, and biting insects. E.rhusiopathiae
commonly resides in the tonsillar tissue. Sometimes infection occurs through wounds.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Acute form
 Sudden onset of high fever(42℃) followed by prostraction, complete anorexia and thirst
 One or two dead pigs or severely affected ones show red or purple discoloration of some parts of
the skin. The skin lesions may take the form of the classical diamond-shaped plagues
 Affected pig squeal excessively when handled
 Require assistance to stand, and prefer to lie down soon after being forced to stand
Chronic form
 Obvious enlargement of joints(arthritis) with mild lameness and stiffness
 There may also be alopecia and sloughing of the tail and tip of the ears.
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
Acute form
 Skin lesions may be present
 Hemorrhages throughout the body, congestion of lungs and liver.
Chronic form
 Inflammation of limb and intervertebral joints
 No pus in the enlarged joints
 Synovial fluid is thicker with fibrinous material which is amber colored
 Erosion of the articular surface may be present
 Inflammation of the heart may occur with or without arthritis

TREATMENT
 Penicillin is effective in acute form. Ampicillin, ceftiofur and tetracycline may be used
 Treatment is not effective in chronic form
CONTROL
 Vaccination (live) is available although it does not give complete protection
 Elimination of carriers, good sanitation, and a regular vaccination program is effective in
controlling the disease
2.13.3 SALMONELLOSIS
It commonly affects weaned and growing-finishing pigs, however, other group may also be affected.
Salmonellosis in pig is usually opportunistic infection. Asymptomatic carriers are cause of infection
with human through their products (meat).
It is caused by Salmonella Choleraesuis, S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Fever and watery diarrhoea which may be yellow and contain shreds of necrotic debris
 Septicemia characterized by hepatitis, pneumonia, and cerebral vasculitis
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Slightly thickened ileum and colon with necrotic debris on the mucosal surface
 Mesenteric lymph nodes are enlarged, edematous and sometimes reddened

 Oral antibiotics such as neomycin and lincomycin-spectinomycin are the most often used water
medications.
 Susceptibility testing of the isolated organism is useful in selecting an appropriate antibacterial.
 Through cleaning and disinfection of contaminated surfaces and elimination of the source of the
organism
VIRAL
2.13.4 AFRICAN SWINE FEVER

(ASF)
A highly contagious viral disease of domestic pigs characterized by sudden onset, fever, anorexia
with high morbidity and mortality of all ages.
It is caused by ASF virus which is an asfivirus.

TRANSIMISSION
Transmission is by direct and indirect routs, through contact with contaminated materials. Pork and
pork products play a very important role in this regard. Transmission is also possible through the
nasal route. ASF virus is maintained in Africa by a natural cycle of transmission between wart hogs
and the soft tick vector Ornithodoros moubate. Wart hogs and Ornithodoros spp are reservoirs of
ASF virus. The spread of virus from the reservoirs to domestic pigs can be by the bite of an infected
soft tick or by ingestion of wart hog tissues.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Fever(40-42℃), for about 4 days and death in 7-10 days
 Anorexia, listlessness, incoordination and cyanosis
 Diarrhoea and vomiting
 Pregnant sows may abortion
 Mortality may reach 100% in clean herds
 Survivors are usually carriers for life
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Hemorrhages of lymph nodes, renal cortex and enlarged congested spleen
 Hairless portions are edematous and cyanotic
 Excess fluids in body cavities

 No treatment
 No vaccine
 All successful eradication programs have involved the rapid diagnosis, slaughter, and disposal of
all animals on infected premises.
 Prevention of importation of live pigs or pork products from areas where ASF occurs
2.13.5 INTERNAL PARASITES

HELMINTHS
(Worms)
Helminths infection in pigs can lead to significant economic losses through reduction in growth rate,
poor feed utilization and susceptibility to other diseases. Helminths have more effect on young
animals.
The most common helminth in pig is the round worm, Ascaris suum.
TRANSMISSION

Infestation is through ingestion of A. suum eggs in feed, water or from contaminated surfaces. Piglets
may pick the eggs, that are naturally sticky, from the sow’s skin/udder during sucking.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Reduced appetite, reduced growth rate general unthriftness
 If left untreated, piglets remain permanently stunted
 Helminthes may be excreted in feces
 In severe infection in piglets, sometimes coughing and respiratory signs are found due to larvae’s
transfer to lungs
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Leukoderma on liver (milk spots) due to inflammation against larvae’s invading into liver

 Effective anthelmintics include albendazole, fenbendazole, flubendazole, parbendazole,
thiabendazole, ivermectin, levamisole, piperazine and pyrantel
 Treat sows and gilts before breeding and repeat before farrowing
 Treat weaners and growers before moving them to uninfected pens
 Boars may be treated once or twice per year
 Wash sows before entering the farrowing pen to remove the sticky A. suum eggs that adhere to
their skin/udder
2.13.6 EXTERNAL PARASITE

MANGE
(Barn itch)
Sarcoptic mange occurs in all species of animals, causing a severe itching dermatitis. It is the most
important type of mange in pigs. The lesions usually start from the head, especially the eras, then
spread over the body, tail and legs. Sarcoptic mange in pigs is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei var. suis
LIFE CYCLE AND TRANSMISSION

The females form shallow burrows in the horny layer of the skin in which they lay eggs. The larval
and nymphal stages may remain in the tunnels or emerge onto the skin. The normal exfoliation of the
skin eventually exposes the tunnels and any of the life cycle stages may be transmitted by contact to
other animals.
Spreading of infection is chiefly by contact and adult mites do not usually survive for more than a
few days away from the host. Adult sows are often the source of infestation for young pigs at

farrowing even though they (piglets) show no signs of the disease.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Presence of small red papules and general reddening of the skin
 Affected areas are intensely itchy and wounds develop because of scratching or biting
 Thickening and roughening of dry skin which is covered by grayish crusts and is thrown into
large folds later

 Treatment must be thorough so that all parts of the skin especially under the tail, in the ears and
between the legs are covered by acaricide
 Spraying with acaricide such as coumaphos, trichlorfon and diazinon etc.
 Injection of Ivermection
2.13.7 NON-INFECTIOUS PIG DISEASE
AGALACTIA SYNDROME
(Mastitis-metritis agalactis complex-MMA, Periparurient hypogalactis)
The agalactia syndrome occurs between 12 and 48 hours after farrowing and is characterized by
anorexia, lethargy, disinterest in the piglets, fever, swelling of the mammary glands and agalactia.
The cause is believed to be multifactorial but has not been determined adequately.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Sows are usually with a normal milk flow for the first 12-18 hours after farrowing
 After 24 hours the sow show signs of decreased milk production, milk ejection is absent or only
for a brief period, piglets nurse for an extended time leading to injury of teats
 Sow is disinterested in her piglets, generally lies in sternal recumbency and is unresponsive to
squealing and sucking demands
 The litter is noisy, may drink surface water or urine and may develop diarrhoea
 Many piglets are emaciated, weak and may die from starvation
 Crushed piglets are common

 Foster the piglets to normal sow (one which has farrowed within 24 hrs or one whose litter was
just weaned at 2-3 weeks of age)
 Most affected sows will recover within 24-48 hrs if treated with a combination of antimicrobials,
oxytocin and NSAIDs

 The above treatment should be followed by massaging of the mammary glands with a towel
soaked in warm water and hand milked for 10-15 min every few hrs
 Good sanitary practices are very important particularly in the farrowing pen
IRON DEFICIENCY
Iron deficiency is most common in young sucking piglets that have diets lacking in iron, particularly
those kept indoors. Iron deficiency causes anemia and unthriftiness.
It sometimes occur in cattle, however, it is less frequent than piglets.
CAUSE
The cause is basically inadequate intake of dietary iron, milk being a poor source of it. Body iron
deposits are not adequate to maintain haemopoiesis for more than 2-3 weeks, particularly in pigrets.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Highest incidence is at about 3 weeks of age
 Reduced food intake, and consequently growth rate
 Diarrhoea, dyspnea and lethargy
 Skin is pale and sometimes yellowish in white pigs
 Death is usually sudden
 Edema of the head and forequarters
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Pallor and edema of tissues, thin and watery blood
 Enlarged heart and liver
TREATMENT
Intramuscular
 A dose of 100-200mg of iron in the first 7 days of life
 An additional dose at 2-3 weeks of age is said to increase the growth rate
Oral
 Daily dosing of iron-pyrophosphate solution at a rate of 300mg per day for 7 days
 Painting of a ferrous sulphate solution on the sow’s udder. The disadvantage is that this solution
is sticky
 Pigs may also be raised on iron grating or soils rich in iron
NB excessive oral dosing may cause diarrhoea in which case treat intramuscularly
Dietary supplementation
 Sows are fed diets with 200mg iron per Kg. the piglets will ingest about 20g of sows faeces that
has enough iron to prevent the anemia.
SALT POISONING
Salt (NaCl) may be toxic when excessive quantities are ingested and intake of water is limited.
Optimally, with fresh water fully available, pig feeds should contain 0.5-1% salt.
Especially, pigs have low resistance to salt poisoning.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Increased thirst, pruritus and constipation
 Affected animals may become blind, deaf and unaware of their surrounds
 May wander aimlessly, push against objects and circle around one point
 Seizures, if water deprivation is prolonged, followed by recumbency, coma and death
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Blood-filled pinpoint ulcers on congested and inflamed gastric (stomach) mucosa
TREATMENT
 Immediate removal of the salt source
 Fresh water provide, initially in small quantities at frequent intervals to avoid exacerbation of
clinical signs
 For all affected animals, the treatment should slowly return the animal to normal water and
electrolyte balance over 2-3 days.

2.14 POULTRY DISEASES
BACTERIAL
2.14.1 SALMONELLOSIS
2.14.1.1 PULLORUM DISEASE

(Bacillary white disease-BWD)
It is characterized by high mortality in young chickens and turkeys.
It is a bacterial disease caused by Salmonella Pullorum.
TRANSMISSION
Pullorum disease is transmitted mainly through the egg (transovarian), from infected or carrier
breeder chickens. Infection may also spread through direct contact or from contaminated objects
such as incubators, chick boxes, breeders’ and attendants’ hands, feet and clothing.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Young birds (1-3wks of age)
 Pullorum in chicks causes typical white bacillary diarrhoea (chalky white) that paste the cloaca
 High mortality within 3 weeks of age
 Birds huddle near heat source, do not eat and appear sleepy
 Ruffled feathers and drooping wings
Adult
 Adult carriers are mostly asymptomatic
 Poor feather development, inappetence, depression and retarded growth
 Occasionally reduced egg-laying rate
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Unabsorbed yolk sac with blood-tinged or cintants
 The heart, liver, spleen and lungs etc. may have nodules
 Firm cheesy material in the caeca
 In adults ovules are misshapen, angular and attached to body of the ovary by stalks
 Egg material may be attached to the wall of the peritoneal cavity

 Treatment does not cure pullorum disease and is not recommended if eradication is desired
 Testing and eradication is preferred
 High standards of hygiene especially on breeder farms and the hatchery
 Thorough disinfection of pens after every batch of birds

2.14.1.2 FOWL TYPHOID
It is caused by Salmonella Gallinarum which is related to S Pullorum. Fowl typhoid is more of a
growing and mature chicken disease, with high mortality and morbidity.
TRANSMISSION
Transmission is mainly through infected droppings, bird carcasses and infected clothing, shoes,
utensils and other fomites. Infection occurs through the eggs (transovarian transmission).
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Sudden death without any sign of illness
 Listlessness, loss of appetite and increased thirst
 Ruffled feathers, drooping wings, tail and head
 Yellow-green watery droppings with a foul smell
 Mortality may be as high as 50%
PSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Yellow-green droppings on the vent
 Swollen and friable liver, enlarged kidney and spleen
 Liver turns greenish bronze on exposure to air and lungs are yellow-brown
 Whole carcass may be congested or jaundiced
 Intestinal contents may be blood-tinged and gelatinous
TREATMENT
 Treatment and control are basically as for pullorum disease.
 Sulphonamides, tetracyclines, furazolidone
 Carriers remain after treatment
CONTROL
 Test-and eradicate is the best method of control
 Vaccination is possible but is not desired if an eradication programme is in place
 Thorough disinfection of pens
2.14.2 COLIBACILLOSIS
(Colisepticaemia)
It is a common systemic disease of economic importance in poultry. It is caused by Escherichia coli.

TRANSMISSION
E.coli is a normal inhabitant of intestinal tract and is widespread wherever poultry are kept; although
most serotypes are nonpathogenic, a limited number produce extraintestinal infections. There is rapid
multiplication of the organism under poor ventilation, bad litter, high stocking rates etc.
CLINICAL SINGNS
 Sudden death without any sign of illness
 Respiratory disease with gurgling noises (rales)
 Listlessness, reduced appetite, poor feed conversion
 Uneven and retarded growth
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Cheesy material in airsac is thick and cloudy
 Airsac is thick and cloudy
 Fibrinopurulent airsacculitis, pericarditis and perihepatitis

 A variety of antibiotics may be used e.g. tetracyclines, sulphonamide and flumaquine (However
it is said 90% of clinical isolates are resistant to tetracycline)
 Control predisposing factors (practice good management)
NB: High rate of resistance results in excessive use of antibiotics which add significantly to
economic losses.
2.14.3 MYCOPLASMA
(Chronic respiratory disease- CRD, Infectious sinusitis)
It plays a significant role in the respiratory disease complex resulting in poor performance and
reduced egg production, suboptimal hatchability and livability of chicks and poults. It also results in
downgrading of carcasses of broilers and turkeys. It’s caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum.
TRANSMISSION
The spread is through both the egg and directly from chicken to chicken.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Varying degrees of respiratory distreaa
 Rales, difficulty in breathing, coughing and sneezing
 Mortality and morbidity are low in cases where there is no secondary infection

 Feed utilization efficiency and weight gain are reduced
 Layers fail to reach peak egg production
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Air sacs are thickened and opaque
 Gelatinous accumulations in air sacs

 A wide variety of antibiotics e.g.; oxtetracycline, erythromycin and tylosin although infection is
not eliminated by antibiotics
 Depopulation may be necessary
 Acquisition of birds from CRD-free flocks
2.14.4 OMPHALITIS
(Navel ill, “Mushy chick” disease, Yolk sac infection)
A condition characterized by infected, unhealed navel in chicks, poults and other young fowls. It is
caused by a large variety of bacteria.
Conditions that lead to disease outbreak include the following:
 Shell contamination on the breeder farm
 Failure to control humidity in the hatcher
 Other factors which lead to delayed hatches
CLINICAL SIGNS
 High number of chicks dead in the boxes
 Chicks are often wet and “mushy” with foul smell
 The yolk sac is unabsorbed and fluid may be seen oozing resulting in discoloured and matted
underside of many chicks
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Yolk has an abnormal appearance, sometimes thick and curdled or sometimes watery and
reddish brown
 Yolk sac may rupture causing peritonitis that makes examination of other abdominal organs
difficult

 Medication of omphalitis chicks is not very helpful
 Control of temperature, humidity and sanitation in the hatchery is extremely important in
preventing the disease
 Good brooding conditions and good general management will help reduce mortality in an
outbreak
2.14.5 INFECTIOUS CORYZA

An acute or subacute respiratory disease characterized by nasal discharge, sneezing and swelling of
the face under the eye. It affects mainly the growing pullets and young layers. It is caused by
Haemophilus paragallinarum.
TRANSMISSION
Transmission is by direct contact, airborne droplets and contaminated drinking water. The
chronically ill and carrier birds act as reservoir of the infection.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Depression, reduced appetite, nasal discharge and rales
 Swelling of face and wattles
 Egg production is delayed in pullets and severely reduced in producing flock

Early treatment is very effective
 Erythromycin and tetracycline in water then in feed
 Carriers develop after cessation of treatment
 All-in-all-out programmes are beneficial
 Acquisition and isolation of replacements from clean flock.
VIRAL DISEASES
2.14.6 NEWCASTLE DISEASE

It is an acute, rapidly spreading disease of poultry characterized by rapid onset and high mortality
(may reach 100%).
Newcastle disease is caused by Newcastle disease virus (Avian paramyxovirus 1)
TRANSMISSION

Transmitted through direct and indirect contact i.e. through contaminated droppings, water, feed,
equipment and personnel.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 High mortality and depression
 Respiratory signs which include gasping, wheezing and gurgling
 Nervous signs which include twisted neck (torticollis), drooping wings, dragging legs and
circling
 Watery-greenish diarrhea
 Egg production drops by 30 to 50%
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
Very variable
 Inflamed trachea and/or froth in air sacs
 Haemorrhages in the proventriculus and intestines

 No treatment
 Vaccination is the only reliable method of control
 Good management practices
2.14.7GUMBORO DISEASE
(Infectious Bursal Disease-IBD, Infectious Bursitis)
It is an acute, highly contagious viral disease of young chickens. The gumboro disease virus causes
disease by destroying antibody-forming cells (lymphocytes) located in the brusa of Fabricius (cloacal
bursa), spleen and thymus resulting in immunodeficiency. This virus is highly resistant to
disinfectants and once it infects a poultry house or farm, it is extremely difficult to eradicate.
Gumboro disease is caused a birna virus (infectious bursal disease virus; IBDV).
TRANSMISSION
Infection is easily spread from bird to bird by way of droppings. Other means of transmission include
infected clothing, utensils and other objects.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Usually birds between 3 and 6 weeks of age are most affected
 Incoordination, watery diarrhoea, soiled vents
 Depression, hunddling and paleness

 Retarded and uneven growth is observed in subclinical form of the disease
 Mortality rate is 5-10%, sometimes as high as 50%
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Enlarged bursa which may have cheesy material or haemorrhages
 After day 3 of the disease, the bursa may become smaller than usual (atrophied)
 Haemorrhages in the caecal tonsils, pectoral, thigh and muscles
TREATMENT
 No treatment
 Control secondary bacterial infection with antibiotics
 Vaccination is the most successful method of control
 Disinfection of pens after every batch(all-in-all-out programmes are benefic
2.14.8 INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS

(IB)
It is an acute, air-borne, viral disease of chickens, characterized by infection of respiratory, urogenital
and GIT tissues. It is caused by coronavirus (infectious bronchitis virus).
TRANSMISSION
It is transmitted by infected air droplets and also ingestion of contaminated feed and water.
Transmission is also possible by cintact with infected chickens and contaminated objects.
CLINICAL SIGNS
Infectious bronchitis most severe in young chickens
 Coughing, sneezing and tracheal rales
 Severe respiratory distress
 In chickens, mortality may be high (up to 60%) if the urogenital system is affected
 In adult chickens, respiratory sighs include wet rales, gurgling and wheezing
 Egg production will drop dramatically (5-50%), and eggs are often deformed, thin/wrinkle
shelled and have watery albumen
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Cheesy exudate in the trachea and bronchi
 Air sac are thickened and cloudy
 Airsacculitis, perihepatitis and pericarditis
 Kidneys may be swollen and pale, with distended tubules and ureters

TREATMENT
 There is no treatment for IB
 Secondary bacterial infection may be controlled with antibiotics
 Ensure adequate heat and ventilation in the brooder. In an outbreak increase temperature in the
room by 3-4℃
 Vaccination of chicks at 1-14 days of age
2.14.9 FOWL POX

This is a slow-spreading viral infection of chickens and turkeys. It is characterized by proliferative
lesions in the skin that become thick scabs (cutaneous form) and by lesions in the upper GIT and
respiratory tract (diphtheric form). It is caused by an avipoxvirus (fowl pox virus).
TRANSMISSION
Transmission to penmates is through contact with affected skin. Mosquitoes and other biting flies
may accelerate the spread.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Only a few birds develop lesions at a time
 Thick scabs on unfeathered skin (chicken) and upper neck (turkey)
 Sometimes scabs appear on feet and legs only
 Lesions on the membranes of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx, larynx and trachea
 Mortality is 1-2% if only the skin is affected may be high in the other form 40%
DIAGNOSIS
 Characteristic lesions
 Submit lesion for lab examination

 No treatment
 Vaccinations of day old chicks is the principle means of control
 Good management practices are recommended

2.14.10 MAREK’S DISEASE
(Neurolymphomatosis)
This was probably the most common disease of chickens prior to the use of highly effective vaccines.
It is caused by a herpes virus.
TRANSMISSION
It is highly contagious and easily spread among chickens. The main source of infection is dander
from feather follicles which remain infective in the premises. Young chickens pick the infection by
oral and respiratory routs.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Weight loss, depression, some form of paralysis (one leg in front the other behind and sometimes
wing drooping)
 Mortality is variable 5-10%
 The condition is very rare in immunized birds
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Enlarged nerves particularly the sciatic and/or wing nerves
 Tumors in various organs such as liver, spleen, heart, lung, kidney and proventriculus

 No treatment
 Vaccination of day-old chickens is the principle means of control
 Good management practices are recommended
PARASITIC
2.14.11 COCCIDIOSIS
Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease caused by protozoa of the Eimerridae family. In poultry, the species
belong to the genus Eimeria and occur in the intestines.
In chickens the seven most important species are Eimeria acervulina, E. necatrix, E. tenella, E.
maxima, E. brunette, E.mitis and E.praecox. In geese E. truncate affects the kidneys and not the
intestines.
TRANSMISSION
Transmission is by ingestion of droppings, water or feed containing coccidian oocysts.

CLINICAL SIGNS
Birds of all ages may be affected
 Mortality may be high, as high as 50% for E. tenella
 Listlessness, diarrhoea and bloody droppings are common. Pale comb is also expected
 Reduced appetite, loss of body weight and production
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Haemorrhagic lesions in different portions of the intestines
 Inside the intestines may be a blood clot, cheese-like materials or thick mucus
 Cloaca and intestinal walls are thickened
TREATMENT
 Amprolium
 Sulfamethazine, sulfadimethoxine
 Chlortetracycline, Oxytetracycline
CONTROL
Aim of control
 To prevent the build-up of coccidian to a stage where clinical disease occurs, but retain low level
infection to continuously induce immunity
Methods of control
 Use of coccidiostats in feed or water
 Frequent raking of litter in order to keep it dry and disturb the development of oocyst into
infective stages especially in moist places such as around drinkers and feeders
 Maintaining chickens on wire floor at all times, if possible is the best option
 Use anti-coccidial drugs once in a while even without disease outbreak
2.14.12 HELMINTHS
(Worms)
In poultry nematodes are the most significant helminthes in terms of number of species and
economic impact, however, cestodes are also found. The most common genera are Ascaridia,
Heterkis and Capillaria.
TRANSMISSION
The helminth problem is most significant in range birds than in donfined ones, however, severe

parasitism may still occur in 100% confined birds. Transmission may be direct through ingestion of
infective eggs or indirect through ingestion of intermediate hosts like insects, snails, slugs or
earthworms.
NB: Heterakis gallinarum carries Histomonus meleagridis, the blackhead organism.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Inactivity, reduced appetite and retarded growth
 In large numbers, intestinal blockage may occuer
 Some worms may migrate via cloaca to the oviduct and become en-shelled
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Worms in the intestines
 Harmorrhages may be present in intestines

 Good sanitary practices
 For treatment piperazine compounds are widely used, also phenothiazine, hygromycine and
coumaphos
NON-INFECTIOUS
2.14.13 ASCITES SYNDROME

(Water belly, Pulmonary hypertension syndrome-PHS)
Ascites is accumulation of fluid in the abdomen. This fluid may contain yellow fibrin clots. Ascites
syndrome mainly affects the fast-growing broilers.
CAUSE
Increase in intravascular hydrostatic pressure due to right ventricular failure is the main cause of
ascites in broiler chickens. Due to increased pressure, the fluids perfuse out of the blood vessels and
accumulate in the abdominal cavity resulting in ascites.
Modern broiler chickens have been selected for rapid growth rate, high feed utilization efficiency and
a large pectoral muscle mass. These factors have a high oxygen demand and can easily lead to heart
failure and respiratory acidosis.
CLINICAL SIGNS

 Pale head, shrunken comb, rough and dull feathers
 Abdomen may be enlarged with congested skin
 Affected broilers are usually smaller than their penmates
 Increased respiratory rate and increased exercise intolerance
 Sudden death without any observed signs
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
 Variable amounts of clear yellow fluid clots of fibrin in the abdomen
 The liver may be swollen and congested or firm and irregular or shrunken
 Lungs are extremely congested and edematous
CONTROL
 Reduced growth or reduce feed intake in order to reduce the bird’s oxygen requirements
 Environmental temperature, humidity and air movement should be controlled to prevent
excessive body heat loss; avoid chilling

3.0 Dairies and dairy products act, cap 230
If, upon any such inspection as aforesaid, the inspector is of opinion that any livestock on the
premises on which milk is produced or cooled or cream is separated is so diseased as to be likely to
affect injuriously dairy produce, he shall, if he is not a Veterinary Officer, report the disease to a
Veterinary Officer, and shall, in the meantime, place a temporary brand on all the suspected or
affected animals, and may prohibit the sale or use of milk from any such animal until a Veterinary
Officer has declared the animal free from disease likely to affect dairy produce.
(4) If, in the opinion of a Veterinary Officer, there are grounds for believing that any livestock on
the premises is suffering from tuberculosis, he shall, at the earliest moment, subject the animal or
animals to a test. Such test shall be one of the variations of the tuberculin test, and the manner in
which it shall be carried out shall be laid down by the Director of Veterinary Services from time to
time. Should any animal react to the test, any Veterinary Officer shall order its immediate destruction
and shall also give instructions as to the manner in which the carcass shall be disposed of.
(As amended by G.N. Nos. 158 and 364 of 1964) Tuberculosis
4. If, upon any inspection as aforesaid, the inspector is of opinion that any person is affected with a
disease of an infectious or contagious nature which is likely to contaminate dairy produce, he shall
report the fact to a Medical Officer, and, if the Medical Officer certifies that such person is affected
with such a disease, the inspector may, by written order, order the isolation or the removal of such
person for such time as the Medical Officer thinks necessary. Human disease
5. Forthwith, upon the request of an inspector, every owner of dairy produce premises shall allow
the inspector to make a list of the persons supplying dairy produce to such owner. Every such owner
or his agent shall give to the inspector any personal assistance and information which he is capable
of giving to aid the inspector in discovering the cause of any defect or deterioration in dairy
produce. List of suppliers
8 of 1961
An Act to provide for the prevention and control of stock diseases; to Act No.
regulate the importation and movement of stock and specified articles; to 13 of 1994
provide for the quarantine of stock in certain circumstances; and to Government
provide for matters incidental to the foregoing. Notices
[27th December, 1963] 319 of 1964
497 of 1964
1. This Act may be cited as the Stock Diseases Act. Short title
2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires- Interpretation

"article" includes gear, harness, seeds, grass, forage, hay, straw, manure or any
other thing likely to act as a carrier of any disease;
"authorised officer" means the Director and any Veterinary Officer;
"carcass" means the carcass of any stock and includes part of a carcass, and the
meat, bones, hide, skin, feathers, hooves, horns, offal or other part of any stock;
"Director" means the Director of Veterinary Services and includes the Deputy
Director of Veterinary Services;
"disease" means foot and mouth disease, rabies, rinder-pest, lumpy skin
disease, contagious epididymitis and vaginitis, sheep pox, swine fever,
Newcastle disease, epidemic tremor, contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia,
anthrax, contagious abortion, quarter evil, tuberculosis, bovine vibriosis, swine
erysipelas, glanders, streptothricosis, anaplasmosis, redwater, heartwater, East
Coast fever, trypanosomiasis, epizootic lymphangitis, ulcerative lymphangitis,
sarcoptic mange, psoroptic mange (scab) and any other disease of stock which
the *Minister may, by statutory notice, specify;
"owner", in relation to any stock, includes the person for the time being having
the management, custody or control of such stock;
"permit" means a permit issued under the provisions of this Act;
"railway company" means Zambia Railways and any other railway operating in
Zambia;
"stock" includes cattle, horses, sheep, goats, mules, donkeys, pigs, animals of
the antelope species in captivity, domestic fowls, turkeys, geese, ducks and any
other domesticated or captive animal or bird which the Minister may, by
statutory notice, declare;
"Veterinary Officer" means a veterinary surgeon in the service of the

Government and includes a Livestock Officer when instructed by the Director

to exercise or perform any of the powers and duties of a Veterinary Officer.

Table of Contents
GROCERY FOR ANIMAL HEALTH..…………………………………………………………………………
1
CHAPTER 1: ANIMAL WELFARE......................................................................................................................11
1.0 Animal welfare................................................................................................................................................11
1.2 STOCKMANSHIP AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION......................................................................................15
1.2.1 ROLE AND SCOPE OF STOCKMANSHIP............................................................................................15
1.2.2 The three essentials of stockmanship........................................................................................................15
1.2.3 Principles of stockmanship.......................................................................................................................16
1.2.4 ESSENTIAL STOCKMANSHIP IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION..............................................................17
1.3 Effects of climate on Animal Production.........................................................................................................17
1.3.1 The direct effect of climate on the animal.................................................................................................19
1.3.2 The Indirect Effect of Climate on the Animal...........................................................................................22
CHAPTER 2: ANIMAL HEALTH.........................................................................................................................29
2.1 CONCEPT OF HEALTH AND DISEASES....................................................................................................29
2.1.1 Definition of health and disease................................................................................................................29
2.1.2 Reasons of the maintenance of health.......................................................................................................29
2.1.3 Assessment of health and disease..............................................................................................................30
2.2 CAUSES OF DISEASES.................................................................................................................................32
2.2.1 Classification of causes of diseases...........................................................................................................32
2.3 Epidemiology...................................................................................................................................................33
2.3.1 Definition of epidemiology.......................................................................................................................33
2.3.2 Epidemiology of infectious disease...........................................................................................................34
2.3.3 The glossary for expressing the features of occurrence.............................................................................35
2.4 IMMUNOLOGY.............................................................................................................................................37
2.5 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE CONTROL.....................................................................................41
2.5.1 GENERAL MANAGEMENT..................................................................................................................41
2.5.2 STERILIZATION/DISINFECTION.........................................................................................................42
2.5.3 Disinfection of sheds.................................................................................................................................45
2.5.4 Other disinfections....................................................................................................................................45

2.6 Vaccination.......................................................................................................................................................46
2.7 INTERNAL PARASITE CONTROL..............................................................................................................48
2.7.1 Control of nematodes................................................................................................................................48
2.7.2 Control of trematodes................................................................................................................................48
2.8 EXTERNAL PARASITES CONTROL...........................................................................................................49
2.8.1 Plunge Dipping.........................................................................................................................................49
2.8.2 Race Spraying...........................................................................................................................................49
2.8.3 Hand Spraying...........................................................................................................................................50
2.8.4 Pour-on......................................................................................................................................................51
2.8.5 Spot-on......................................................................................................................................................51
2.8.6 Hand-dressing...........................................................................................................................................51
2.9 Client education of disease control..................................................................................................................51
2.10 PRACTICE OF BIOSECURITY MEASURES IN EACH FARM/AREA....................................................52
2.10.1 Biosecurity Guidance To Prevent The Spread Of Animal Diseases........................................................52
2.10.2 GENERAL BIO-SECURITY MEASURES WHEN IN DIRECT CONTACT WITH FARM ANIMALS
........................................................................................................................................................................... 56
2.10.3 ADDITIONAL BIOSECURITY MEASURES WHEN VISITING PREMISES WITH FARM

ANIMALS DURING AN OUTBREAK OF A NOTIFIABLE DISEASE.........................................................58
2.10.4 MEASURES WHICH MUST BE OBSERVED FOR VISITS TO PREMISES UNDER SPECIFIC
RESTRICTIONS...............................................................................................................................................58
2.11 CATTLE DISEASE.......................................................................................................................................60
2.11.1 ANTHRAX.............................................................................................................................................60
2.11.2 BLACK LEG..........................................................................................................................................61
2.11.3 HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA........................................................................................................62
2.11.4 BLOAT................................................................................................................................................... 62
2.11.5 BRUCELLOSIS......................................................................................................................................64
2.11.6 BOVINE VENEREAL EPIDIDYMITIS AND VAGINITIS..................................................................64
2.11.7 CONTAGIOUS BOVINE PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.............................................................................65
2.11.8 TUBERCULOSIS...................................................................................................................................66
2.11.9 THEILERIOSIS......................................................................................................................................67

2.11.10 FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.........................................................................................................68
2.11.11 BABESIOSIS........................................................................................................................................69
2.11.12 ANAPLASMOSIS................................................................................................................................70
2.11.13 COWDRIOSIS......................................................................................................................................71
2.11.14 TRYPANOSOMIASIS..........................................................................................................................71
2.11.15 DERMATOPHILOSIS..........................................................................................................................73
2.11.16 LUMPY SKIN DISEASE.....................................................................................................................74
2.11.17 DERMATOPHYTOSIS........................................................................................................................74
2.11.18 MANGE................................................................................................................................................75
2.11.19 PINK-EYE............................................................................................................................................75
2.11.20 MILK FEVER.......................................................................................................................................76
2.11.21 DOWNER COW SYNDROME...........................................................................................................77
2.11.22 FOOT ROT...........................................................................................................................................78
2.11.23 CALF DIARRHOEA............................................................................................................................79
2.11.24 MASTITIS............................................................................................................................................80
2.11.25 EXTERNAL PARASITE......................................................................................................................83
2.11.26 INTERNAL PARASITES.....................................................................................................................84
2.11.27 POISONING.........................................................................................................................................84
2.12 SHEEP AND GOAT DISEASES...................................................................................................................84
2.12.1 TYPE D ENTEROTOXAEMIA.............................................................................................................84
2.12.2 CASEOUS LYMPHADENTITIS...........................................................................................................84
2.12.4 FOOT ROT.............................................................................................................................................84
2.12.6 CONTAGIOUS PUSTULAR DERMATITIS.........................................................................................84
2.12.7 PREGNANCY TOXAEMIA OF SHEEP...............................................................................................84
2.13 PIG DISEASES............................................................................................................................................. 84
2.13.1 POST WEANING DIARRHOEA..........................................................................................................84
2.13.2 SWINE ERYSIPELAS...........................................................................................................................84
2.13.3 SALMONELLOSIS...............................................................................................................................84
2.13.4 AFRICAN SWINE FEVER....................................................................................................................84

2.13.5 INTERNAL PARASITES.......................................................................................................................84
2.13.6 EXTERNAL PARASITE........................................................................................................................84
2.13.7 NON-INFECTIOUS PIG DISEASE.......................................................................................................84
2.14 POULTRY DISEASES..................................................................................................................................84
2.14.1 SALMONELLOSIS...............................................................................................................................84
2.14.2 COLIBACILLOSIS................................................................................................................................84
2.14.3 MYCOPLASMA....................................................................................................................................84
2.14.4 OMPHALITIS........................................................................................................................................84
2.14.5 INFECTIOUS CORYZA........................................................................................................................84
2.14.6 NEWCASTLE DISEASE.......................................................................................................................84
2.14.7 GUMBORO DISEASE...........................................................................................................................84
2.14.8 INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS................................................................................................................84
2.14.9 FOWL POX............................................................................................................................................84
2.14.10 MAREK’S DISEASE...........................................................................................................................84
2.14.11 COCCIDIOSIS.....................................................................................................................................84
2.14.12 HELMINTHS.......................................................................................................................................84
2.14.13 ASCITES SYNDROME.......................................................................................................................84
3.0 Dairies and dairy products act, cap 230...........................................................................................................84

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GLOSSARY FOR ANIMAL HEALTH

Abscess A circumscribed collection of purulent exudate frequently associated with

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 10

1.0 Animal welfare

It is difficult to identify a single, universally agreed-upon definition of animal welfare; however,

What is Animal Welfare?

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 11

2. Freedom from discomfort

• Improved breeding environment; this entails, maintenance of facilities, maintenance

• Inputs: an appropriate environment, including shelter and a comfortable resting area

• Outputs: pressure sores on the skin

3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease

• Appropriate sanitary control and breeding management; prevention of diseases and

• Inputs: veterinary advice ð disease prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment

• Outputs: prevalence of coughing, etc.

4. Freedom to express normal behavior

5. Freedom from fear and distress

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 12

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 15

1.2.1 ROLE AND SCOPE OF STOCKMANSHIP

1.2.2 The three essentials of stockmanship

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1.2.3 Principles of stockmanship

Handler movement pattern to move cattle forward

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 17

1.2.4 ESSENTIAL STOCKMANSHIP IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION

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1.3 Effects of climate on Animal Production

Climatic requirements for optimal production

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 19

Lower lethal temperature

1.3.1 The direct effect of climate on the animal

Table 1.2 typical deep-body temperatures of domestic livestock

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 20

Heat Production=shivering thermogenesis + non shivering thermogenesis

- Regulation of body temperature

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1.3.1.1 Effect of Climate on Animal Behavior

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 22

1.3.2 The Indirect Effect of Climate on the Animal

Feed and water supply

Semi-arid and arid tropics

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 24

b) Effect of water intake

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 25

2.1 CONCEPT OF HEALTH AND DISEASES

2.1.1 Definition of health and disease

2.1.2 Reasons of the maintenance of health

(b) Securing against epidemic diseases

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 30

(c) Improvement in human health

(d) Improvement in animal welfare

2.1.3 Assessment of health and disease

GENERAL SIGNS OF DISEASE AND HEALTH IN FARM ANIMALS

Animal Welfare & Health - 2015 31

2.2 CAUSES OF DISEASES

2.2.1 Classification of causes of diseases