Electrical Distribution For Al Maadi Group Medical Center

Acknowledgement
We would like to express our deep gratitude and

sincere thanks to our honorable supervisor
Prof.Dr/AbdElSalam Hamza
for his supervision, motivation and firm support
throughout the project, and for his exquisite guidance
during the work on the project.
1
The team-work of the project:
1- Ahmed Sayed Ahmed Abosriea
2- Sefeen Samy Dawood Ibrahim
3- Omar Gasser Abd El Hakm Mohamed
4- Amr Rashad Mohamed Amer
5- Amr Tarek Khalifa Soliman
6- Fady Ashraf Maher Adly
7- Farouk Salem Farouk Salem
8- Kerolous Esam Baskharon Anis
9- Michael Nabil Girgis Ibrahim
10- Magdy Nageh Shehata Eissa
11- Mohamed Ashraf Ibrahim Mohamed
12- Mohamed Elmahdy Saied Abdel-gawad
13- Mina Mounir Rezkallah Wasef
2
Index
Chapter 1: indoor lighting..……………………5
Chapter 2: outdoor lighting…………………..39
Chapter 3: sockets………………………….47
Chapter 4: elevators………………………...67
Chapter 5: HVAC……………………………77
Chapter 6: Cables…………………………...87
Chapter 7: circuit breakers………………….100
Chapter 8: Panel boards………………….….114
Chapter 9: Bus duct………………………...125
Chapter 10: Load estimation………………….130
Chapter 11: Feeding system…………………...141
Chapter 12: Transformers…………………....150
Chapter 13: Generators…………………….....171
3
Chapter 14: UPS………………………….....188
Chapter 15: SC&VD calculations……………....199
Chapter 16: Power factor correction………….209
Chapter 17: Earthing ………………………..222
Chapter 18: Light current……………………235
REFERENCES ………………………………292
4
CHAPTER 1
INDOOR LIGHTING
5
Introduction:
Light is the prime factor in the human life as all activities of human depend
upon the light. Where there is no natural light, a source of artificial light
was needed. Light may be produced by passing electric currents through
filaments as in the incandescent lamps, through arcs between carbon or
metal rods, or through suitable gases as in neon and other gas tubes. In
some forms of lamps the light is due to fluorescence excited by radiation
arising from the passage of electricity through mercury vapor.
Nature of Light:
Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light and the light
emitted by such bodies depend upon its temperature. Energy is radiated into
the medium by a body which is hotter than the medium surrounding it, in the
form of electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths. The velocity of
propagation of radiant energy is approximately 3*108 m/sec. The properties
and Behavior of the radiant energy depends on the wavelength.
Types of lighting schemes:

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as:
1- Direct lighting
2- Semi-direct lighting.
3- Semi indirect lighting.
4- Indirect lighting.
5- General lighting
6
1- Direct Lighting
In this type of lighting the light from the source falls directly on the object
or the surface to be illuminated.
2- Semi-direct Lighting
Only 60-90 % of the flux reaches the working plan directly while the rest is
reflected to illuminate the ceiling and walls.
3- Indirect Lighting:
In this form of lighting, light dose not reach the surface directly from the
source but indirectly as the ceiling work as light source and reflect the
light: 90% of light upwards, 10% downwards.
4- Semi-Indirect Light Like the pervious method but 75% of light
upwards and 25%downwards.
5- General lighting: Lamps made of diffusing glass are used which
give nearly equal illumination in all directions
Types of lamps:
1-Incandescent lamps:
a) standard (A)
b) Halogen
2-discharge lamp:
A-High intensity discharge lamp:
a) Mercury vapor
b) Metal Halide
c)High pressure sodium
7
Lighting Design
There are essential requirements to be taken into consideration while
designing lighting of hospitals.
a) Hospital’s lighting should be dim & comfortable for both patients &
staff.
b) Avoid uncomfortable glare from luminaries.
c) Avoidance of eye fatigue caused by the harsh brightness from outside

(from windows) when compared to the indoor level.
d) Windows should have shades, blinds, draperies, low-transmission

glass, or other suitable shielding to control and/or reduce the
brightness in the field of view.
e) Patient rooms should be able to be darkened totally for sleep or

comfort.
f) The reflectance of room surfaces is an important factor in the efficient

utilization of light.
g) For best utilization of light, the ceiling should be painted white. The
walls, floor, and equipment finishes should be within the
recommended reflectance ranges.
h) Reduce the effect of Veiling reflections by certain lighting distributions

such as polarizing lighting panels, bat-wing lenses, parabolic louvers,
and indirect lighting.
i) Lighting that makes the skin appear gray or sallow should not be used
in patients` rooms.
j) Indirect systems or linear systems along the sides of the corridor are
the most preferred in corridors.
8
Types of luminaires
9
Type (A)
Technical Data
Description : Recessed Mounted led luminaire 60Cm

x60Cm.,25w
Luminaire housing : Luminaire housing of zinc coated steel
Reflector : OLC micro lens optic, made of

polycarbonate
Dimension : 60 * 60 cm
Lamps : Philips foretime led line 3R
Degree of protection : IP40
Color index White color (4000K)
Manufacturer : Similar to Philip Catalogue (BBS460 W60L60

1xLED24/840 MLO-PC) or approved equal.
Application : ‫صيدلية‬,‫طوارىء‬,‫مركز اشعه‬,‫عيادات‬, ‫غرف اقامة‬
‫ كافتيريا‬, ‫خدمات طبيه‬,
10
Type (B)
Technical Data
Description : Recessed Mounted led luminaire
120Cm x30Cm.,31w
Luminaire housing : Luminaire housing of zinc coated steel
Reflector : VAR ,pc
Control Gear : No ballast
Lamps : Philips fortimo led line 1R
Color index : White color (4000K)
Manufacturer : Similar to Philips Catalogue (RC120B W30L120

1xLED26S/840) or approved equal.
Application : ‫سوبر ماركت‬
11
Type (C)
Technical Data
Description : Surface mounted luminaire 132*10 cm ,17w
Luminaire housing : sheet steel, laquerred
Reflector : Narrow (NB)
Control Gear : No ballast
Lamps : Philips Fortimo LEDline 3R
Color index : White color (4000K)
Manufacturer : Similar to philips Catalogue (WT460C L1300

1xLED23S/840 NB) or approved equal.
Application : ‫ اوفيس‬, ‫ غرف كهرباء‬, ‫ جراج‬, ‫مخازن‬
12
Type (D)
Technical Data
Description : Recessed Mounted led luminaire 60Cm x60Cm ,

41w
Luminaire housing : polycarbonate
Reflector : AC-MLO
Dimension : 59.6 * 59.6 cm
Lamps : Replaceable LED module
Manufacturer : Similar to philips Catalogue (CR434B 1xLED48/840

AC-MLO) or approved equal.
Application : ‫ صالة افاقة‬, ‫ عناية مركزة‬, ‫ عمليات‬, ‫تحاليل‬
13
Type (E)
Technical Data
Description : Surface mounted luminaire 134*24 cm ,35w
Luminaire housing : polycarbonate and sheet

metal
Reflector : ACC-MLO
Dimension : 134 * 24 cm
Lamps : Philips Fortimo LED Line 1R
Manufacturer : Similar to philips Catalogue (SM480C 1xLED35S/840

ACC-MLO) or approved equal.
Application : ‫ساللم‬
14
Type (F)
Technical Data
Description : Recessed downlight led luminaire, 14w
Luminaire housing : die-cast aluminum
Reflector : C
Lamps : Non replaceable LED module
Manufacturer : Similar to philips Catalogue (DN460B 1xLED11S/840

C) or approved equal.
Application : ‫ممرات‬
15
16
`
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Light calculation
25
Recommended Lux Values
26
. Using programs “such as DIALUX
Examination room
27
Bathroom
28
Waiting room
29
Corridor
30
LED vs Fluorescent
Which Way To Go...LED vs Fluorescent

Fluorescent is still an inexpensive option for retrofitting old T12 fixtures,
but Fluorescent lighting does have it's drawbacks. Here are 10 problems
that people run into with Fluorescent Lighting:
1. Frequent Switching Causes Early Failures

If the lamp is installed where it is frequently switched on and off, it will
age rapidly.
Under extreme conditions, its lifespan may be much shorter than a cheap
incandescent lamp.
Each start cycle slightly erodes the electron-emitting surface of the

cathodes; when all the emission material is gone, the lamp cannot start
with the available ballast voltage.
Fixtures intended for flashing of lights (such as for advertising) will use a
ballast that maintains cathode temperature when the arc is off,
preserving the life of the lamp.
31
The extra energy used to start a fluorescent lamp is equivalent to a few
seconds of normal operation; it is more energy-efficient to switch off
lamps when not required for several minutes.
2. Fluorescent Bulbs Contain Mercury

If a fluorescent lamp is broken, a very small amount of mercury can
contaminate the surrounding environment. About 99% of the mercury is
typically contained in the phosphor, especially on lamps that are near the
end of their life.
The broken glass is usually considered a greater hazard than the small
amount of spilled mercury. The EPA recommends airing out the location
of a fluorescent tube break and using wet paper towels to help pick up
the broken glass and fine particles.
Any glass and used towels should be disposed of in a sealed plastic bag.
Vacuum cleaners can cause the particles to become airborne, and should
not be used.
3. Fluorescent Lights Give Off Ultraviolet Light

Ultraviolet emission Fluorescent lamps emit a small amount of ultraviolet
(UV) light. A 1993 study in the US found that ultraviolet exposure from
sitting under fluorescent lights for eight hours is equivalent to only one
minute of sun exposure.
Very sensitive individuals may experience a variety of health problems

relating to light sensitivity that is aggravated by artificial lighting.
Ultraviolet light can affect sensitive paintings, especially watercolors and

many textiles. Valuable art work must be protected from light by
additional glass or transparent acrylic sheets put between the
fluorescent lamp(s) and the painting.
32
4. The "Buzz" On the Fluorescent Ballast
Magnetic single-lamp ballasts have a low power factor. Fluorescent lamps
require a ballast to stabilize the current through the lamp, and to provide
the initial striking voltage required to start the arc discharge.
This increases the cost of fluorescent light fixtures, though often one
ballast is shared between two or more lamps. Electromagnetic ballasts
with a minor fault can produce an audible humming or buzzing noise.
Magnetic ballasts are usually filled with a tar-like potting compound to

reduce emitted noise. Hum is eliminated in lamps with a high-frequency
electronic ballast. Energy lost in magnetic ballasts can be significant, on
the order of 10% of lamp input power.
Electronic ballasts reduce this loss. Small lamps may use an incandescent
lamp as a ballast if the supply voltage is high enough to allow the lamp to
start.
5. Power Quality and Radio Interference

Inductive ballasts include power factor correction capacitors. Simple
electronic ballasts may also have low power factor due to their rectifier
input stage.
Fluorescent lamps are a non-linear load and generate harmonic currents

in the electrical power supply. The arc within the lamp may generate
radio frequency noise, which can be conducted through power wiring.
Suppression of radio interference is possible.
Good suppression is possible, but adds to the cost of the fluorescent

fixtures.
33
6. Not As Efficient At High and Low Temperatures
Fluorescent lamps operate best around room temperature. At much
lower or higher temperatures, efficiency decreases.
At below-freezing temperatures standard lamps may not start. Special

lamps may be needed for reliable service outdoors in cold weather.
In applications such as road and railway signaling, fluorescent lamps

which do not generate as much heat as incandescent lamps may not melt
snow and ice build up around the lamp, leading to reduced visibility.
7. Fluorescent Lamp Shape Cause Retrofit Problems

Fluorescent tubes are long, low-luminance sources compared with high
pressure arc lamps and
incandescent lamps. However, low luminous intensity of the emitting
surface is useful because it reduces glare.
Lamp fixture design must control light from a long tube instead of a
compact
globe. The compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) replaces regular incandescent
bulbs.
However, some CFLs will not fit some lamps, because the harp (heavy
wire shade support bracket) is shaped for the narrow neck of an
incandescent lamp, while CFLs tend to have a wide housing for their
electronic ballast close to the lamp's base.
8. Most Fluorescents Are Not Able To Be Dimmed

Fluorescent light fixtures cannot be connected to dimmer switches
intended for incandescent
lamps.
Two effects are responsible for this:
1. The waveform of the voltage emitted by a standard phase-control

dimmer interacts badly with many ballasts.
34
2. It becomes difficult to sustain an arc in the fluorescent tube at low
power levels.
Dimming installations require a compatible dimming ballast. These

systems keep the cathodes of the fluorescent tube fully heated even as
the arc current is reduced, promoting easy thermionic emission of
electrons into the arc stream.
Now, before you go off and write me a note telling me I am wrong, here is
the exception...
This would not apply to some CFLs as they are available to be used with
with suitable dimmers.
9. Contaminants Cause Disposal and Recycling Issues

The disposal of phosphor and particularly the toxic mercury in the tubes is
an environmental issue.
Governmental regulations in many areas require special disposal of

fluorescent lamps separate from general and household wastes.
For large commercial or industrial users of fluorescent lights, recycling

services are available in many nations, and may be required by regulation.
In some areas, recycling is also available to consumers.
But even though recycling is available, it can be expensive which leads to

a bigger issue. If it is too expensive to dispose of the lamps, people are
not encouraged to recycle and dispose of the lamps in ways that are
harmful to our environment.
10. Light From Fluorescent Bulb Is Non-Directional

The Light from fluorescent bulbs is non-directional light source. When a
fluorescent bulb is lit, it gives off lighting all the way around the bulb or
otherwise 360 degrees.
This means that only about 60-70% of the actual light being given off by
the fluorescent lamps is being used. The other 30-40% is wasted.
35
This wasted light tends to lead to over lighting certain areas, especially
offices. Most offices we go into will not qualify for The Energy Policy Act
of 2005 because the wattage per square foot is too high.
When comparing LEDs to fluorescent tubes, here are four

key specifications that should be reviewed.
 Lumens – This is the unit of measurement for strength of light. Look
for tubes with 1500 lumens or more.
 Watts – This is a unit of measurement for power consumption.
Four-foot LED tubes typically use 15 to 25 watts, while fluorescent
tubes of this size use more than 30 watts.
 Lifespan – This is how long the bulb will last. It’s measured in hours.
50,000 hours is common for LED tubes.
 Color temperature – The temperature of the light is the color of the
light. It is measured in units of absolute temperature, or Kelvin (K).
3000K is considered warm (redder), 4100K is considered neutral,
and 5800 K is cool (bluer).
36
Comparison between led and fluorescent
load ESTIMATION BY USING fluorescent

First Basement
72*8+36*353= 13284 w
Second basement
388*72+255*72+14*72+80*18= 48744 w
Ground floor
392*72+8*72+9*36+14*72+182*18+66*18= 34596 w
First floor
350*72+27*36+14*72+(172+159)*18= 32328 w
Second floor =129321 w
Third floor = 129321 w
Fourth floor = 129321 w
Fifth floor = 129321 w
Last floor = 305*72+10*36+94*72+14*72+115*18+209*18 =35928 w
Load estimation by using led

First Basement
353*17+8*31= 6249 w
Second basement
388*25+255*31+14*31+80*13.8= 19143 w
Ground floor
392*25+8*31+9*17+14*31+(182+66)*13.8= 14057 w
First floor
350*25+27*17+14*31+(172+159)*13.8= 13590 w
Second floor =14935 w
Third floor = 14935 w
Fourth floor = 14935 w
Fifth floor = 14935 w
Last floor
305*25+10*17+94*41+14*31+115*13.8+209*13.8 =16554 w
Total load of led per month 37750 kw/month
37
Total load of fluorescent per month 132775 kw/month
Consumption cost of fluorescent =132775*43.5= 57757 LE/MONTH
Consumption cost of led = 37750*43.5= 16421 LE/MONTH
The difference in consumption is = 41336 LE/MONTH
The difference between led installation and fluorescent installation is
662607 LE
So the difference in consumption

will cover the difference in
installation over 16 month
662607/41336 = 16 month
This shows that led is better than
fluorescent
38
Chapter 2
Stand Alone Photo

Voltaic Street Lighting
39
Introduction:-
Solar powered lighting systems are effective for remote locations without
power or where it is too expensive to run electrical lines.
Solar LED Lighting systems save energy while providing very bright lights for
Solar Area Lighting, flag-pole Lighting, Solar Street Lighting, and Solar Sign
Lighting with advanced very bright LED arrays.
Advancements in Light Emitting Diode LED technology has allowed relatively

small solar power supplies. Use standalone solar energy systems to provide
power for your lighting systems. Select the type of LED lighting system you're
looking for considering the amount of surface area you need to light. Select how
many hours of light you need, and whether you can deploy your Solar LED
lighting system with a tower, or ground mount. LED lighting using solar energy is
becoming increasingly popular due to its attractive performance and relative
low cost.
Solar LED lighting systems typically use solar PV modules to charge internal
battery packs. The lighting controller both regulates the battery charging, and
also controls the timer so you can set the lighting on/off pattern you'd like.
Stand-alone solar lighting is a clean and effective solution for sites where the
cost or complication of mains cable installation is prohibitive.
Manufacture and install stand-alone of solar lighting for the illumination of
streets, car parks, walkways and a variety of other public spaces.
Benefits:
 Provision of light in any location no matter how remote.
 Fully automated operation and programmable working times
 Eliminates expensive mains cable installation costs
 High quality construction and components
 Engineer certified to withstand all Australian wind conditions
 Eliminates electricity bills
 Environmentally friendly – No emissions or greenhouse generation
40
A) Road & Street
Presenting a convenient and cost-effective way to light your streets at night.
Philips Solar road and street lighting systems provide clear visibility for
pedestrians and drivers, without needing AC grid access. These reliable street
lights quickly pay back the low initial investment with substantial energy savings
B) Urban
Beautify your urban area, the green way:
Help your city shine at night. High-quality illumination from our solar powered
systems brings out the best in your urban landscape, making residents feel
proud. And by using a green and sustainable energy source, you’re being kind to
the environment too
41
C) Community light center
Improving life in rural areas
Bring your community together. Solar powered LED lighting enables local people
to do activities together after dark, even in areas with no electricity. By
harnessing energy from sunlight, a Philips Light Center can illuminate a space
the size of a small soccer pitch at night. As a result, rural communities have a
night time venue for sport and other important pursuits like healthcare,
business, and education.
The Philips light center operates on low-maintenance batteries that only need
replacing every 4-5 years. Not only do these batteries keep the lighting system
working, but they can also be used to power other devices like mobile phones.
42
System Components
1) Photovoltaic Panels
43
Designed for Philips Solar Lighting System; PV Panel sub-system include panel
and connectors; Solar Panel utilizes poly-crystalline and mono-crystalline silicon
solar cells that combines high “Wp” (Watts Peak) output, affordability and
efficiency.
Philips solar powered LED lighting system integrates highly efficient (up to 16%)
and stable poly-crystalline silicon panel that generates positive power tolerance
resulting in highly efficient system performance. We offer the panels ranging
from 35Wp to 295Wp and all panels are dedicated optimized with robust
connectors to be working in outdoor tough conditions.
2) Batteries
Valve Regulated Lead Acid(VRLA)Battery integrates Gel electrolyte technology

with long service life, high performance in deep discharging; it can be used in
wide range of ambient temperature and keep good performance of constant
power input.Philips battery subsystem uses lead crystal(Gel) battery, which
poses long cycle life time and delivers high efficiency with depth of discharge in
long term run. The battery could be buried in-ground, which is accommodated
in IP68(1.3m deep underwater, 3 months)box, and also could be placed in on-
pole metal box in term of mounting type. On-pole battery subsystem comes
with charge controller as well.
44
3) Charge Controllers
Philips Solar Off-grid Control Unit(OCU)Gen 3.0 Charge Controller with

Maximum Power Point Tracking(OCU Gen 3.0 MPPT CC)is an advanced battery
charger for off-grid photovoltaic lighting system. The controller features a
leading and smart tracking algorithm that maximizes the energy harvest from
the PV and provides load control to prevent over discharge of the battery.
4) Controls
45
Philips Centralized Solar System offers long consistent power supply based on
high quality Li-Fe battery, battery management system, MPPT photovoltaic
charger, which brings long lifetime and low maintenance. On top of that, the
bidirectional inverter can provide high quality power for the loads, to ensure
loads work on continuous quality power supply. An integrated ultra-fast AC
transfer switches ensure sensitive back-up loads working normally without
outage occurs.
5-Accessories
PV cable sub-system is for connecting PV panel and Charge Controller, Plug and
Play connector ensures the easy wiring, IP67 protection. Philips solar cable
subsystem is with connectors of plug-and play as well as fool-proof, which
ensures the easy installation and reliability. Cable subsystem includes PV cable,
luminaire extension cable, and battery cable.
46
Chapter 3
SOCKETS
47
Introduction:-
 Sockets are the electrical outlets, which supply the electrical
equipments & instruments by its needed power (current & voltage).
 Distribution of different types of sockets in a building depends mainly
on the type and use of that building.
Types of sockets:-
1. Single socket
2. Double socket
3. Power socket
4. Three phase socket
5. UPS socket
6. Weather proof socket
1) Single socket:
That can be described according to two standards:

According to Egyptian Code (EC):
V=250 volts, I=10, 13 or 16 Amperes with 250 VA
International Electro technical Commission (IEC):
48
2) Double socket:
Also can be described according to two standards

According to the Egyptian Code (EC):
According to International Electro technical. Commission (IEC):
3) Power socket:
49
With standard V=250 volts, I=20 or 30 Amperes with power range from 1000 VA
to 2000 VA.
Applications:-
Power sockets are used in places where motors can be found as:
Kitchens
Bath rooms (heaters, hand dryers)
4) Three phase socket:
With standard:
v=400 volts, I=16, 20, 30……………….100 Amperes (depend on load)
Applications:
This type is used with three phase loads like welding and drilling machines in
factories
50
5) UPS socket:
250 volts, I=10, 13or 16 Amperes with 250 VA

This type is used for computer loads and important loads the should be always
supplied.
6) Trunking Socket:
V = 250 V & I = 20 A & Outlet: 6, 12, and 18

Used in intensive care rooms and prospects room
51
7) ISOLATING SWITCH:
It’s a fused switch used forisolating the electrical equipment before maintenance
and it should have the same rating of the supplying circuit breaker.
8) Weather proof socket:
It is characterized with high IP to withstand water and dust

Can be described according two standards
According to the Egyptian Code (EC):
International Electro technical commission (IEC):
It is used in:
52
1. Kitchens
2. Bath room
3. Outdoor sockets
4. Corridors
Sockets type form control:-

1. Unswitched socket:
Contacts permanently connected to wiring therefore the appliance to connected
is turned on as soon as the plug is pushed into the socket.
2. switched socket:
A switch is added in the socket outlet and has an advantage of avoiding the arc
may be occur by making the socket is not switched on until after the plug has
been pushed in.
Types of switches:-
1. Single pole switch
2. It opens only the phase circuit
3. Used for switching the light circuit
Types of single pole switch:-

1. One way one gang switch
The single pole switch is the general purpose workhorse of switches.
Single pole switches turn a light, receptacle or device on and off from a single
53
Location. A characteristic of a single pole toggle switch is that it has an on and
off marking on the switch
2. Two way one gang switch

To control on only one group of loads (lamps) from two places
54
3. One way two gang switch
The double pole switch also has "on" and "off" markings and functions similar
to a single pole switch in that it turns something on and off from one location
Switch fuse
It’s a switch is with a fuse is connected in series with the fuse to protect
the load. As shown in the figure the fuse isn’t responsible for conduction it’s
only for protection.
It is used with the heavy loads like air conditioning devices, heaters and
ovens.
55
Socket mounting:-
It is divided in three types:
1. Wall mounting
On 30 cm from floor if there is not furniture.
On 120 cm from floor if there is furniture.
2. Floor mounting
It must have very high IP to withstand dust and water
3. Furniture mounting
Installation is refer to furniture position
Distribution of sockets:-
1. According to furniture demand
2. According to codes
It is divided into two places:-

Inside rooms:
Distance between two sockets is 4 meters
In corridors:
Distance between two sockets is 6 meters
Distribution board and wiring:-

According to the code any line carry 2000VA and to calculate number of sockets
per line :
According IEC:
Number of sockets per line=2000/200=10 sockets
According EC:
Number of sockets per line = 2000/250 = 8 sockets
So, we take (8:10 sockets in one line)
For double sockets (4:5 sockets in one line)
For UPS sockets must take one socket per line.
56
Also three phase sockets must be taken in one line
For power socket: 2000/2000 = 1 socket per line
Some notes from the Egyptian Electric code:
1- If the sockets are subjected to the mechanical damage so we must cover it
with a metal case and this case should be earthed. When a different level
of voltage of sockets every socket should be with a different shape and
color.
2- If a number of sockets is used in a room with area of 50 m² so they must
be fed from one phase .
3- If the rooms with area greater than 50 m² the sockets should be in a
different phases and every phase should supply a different separate area
and every socket case should be with a specific color.
4- When sockets are used on both sides of a wall , the horizontal distance
Between them must be at least 150 mm to avoid sound transmission
across it.
5- The sockets should be installed at a height between 30 and 40 cm over
the finished floor at office and residential areas except the kitchens and
bathrooms the sockets should be installed at a height of 120 cm to 135
cm.
6- The distance between the sockets and the vertical Colum shouldn’t
exceed 180 cm. and the distance between the sockets and the other
shouldn’t exceed 3.65 m
7- Sockets shouldn’t be installed on the surface of the labs. To avoid the
dust and moisture from leakage to the sockets.
57
ffkjhdf
58
TOTAL NUMBER OF SOCKETS IN OUR PROJECT
1) LOWER BASEMENT:
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION NUMBER
SINGLE SOCKET 16A , 0

250V
SINGLE SOCKET 16A ,
250V 0
F.F.L=30CM , WEATHER
PROOF
POWER SOCKET 20A,
250V
F.F.L=120CM , 44
WEATHER PROOF
DOUBLE SOCKET 16A ,

500V 0
F.F.L=30CM
ISOLATING SWITCH
20A , 250V , 0
F.F.L=120CM
TRUNKING SOCKET
20A , 250V , 0
F.F.L=150CM
SINGLE SOCKET UPS
16A , 250V 0
59
2) UPPER BASEMENT:

250V
SINGLE SOCKET 16A ,
250V 75
PROOF
POWER SOCKET 20A,
250V
F.F.L=120CM , 0
WEATHER PROOF
DOUBLE SOCKET 16A ,

500V 0
F.F.L=30CM
ISOLATING SWITCH
20A , 250V , 0
F.F.L=120CM
TRUNKING SOCKET
20A , 250V , 0
F.F.L=150CM
SINGLE SOCKET UPS
16A , 250V 0
60
3) GROUND FLOOR :

250V
SINGLE SOCKET 16A ,
250V 119
PROOF
POWER SOCKET 20A,
250V
F.F.L=120CM , 0
WEATHER PROOF
DOUBLE SOCKET 16A ,

500V 72
F.F.L=30CM
ISOLATING SWITCH
20A , 250V , 22
F.F.L=120CM
TRUNKING SOCKET
20A , 250V , 0
F.F.L=150CM
SINGLE SOCKET UPS
16A , 250V 0
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4) FIRST FLOOR:

250V
SINGLE SOCKET 16A ,
250V 118
PROOF
POWER SOCKET 20A,
250V
F.F.L=120CM , 6
WEATHER PROOF
DOUBLE SOCKET 16A ,

500V 158
F.F.L=30CM
ISOLATING SWITCH
20A , 250V , 54
F.F.L=120CM
TRUNKING SOCKET
20A , 250V , 0
F.F.L=150CM
SINGLE SOCKET UPS
16A , 250V 0
62
5) SECOND,THIRD,FOURTH AND FIFTH FLOOR :

250V
SINGLE SOCKET 16A ,
250V 115
PROOF
POWER SOCKET 20A,
250V
F.F.L=120CM , 2
WEATHER PROOF
DOUBLE SOCKET 16A ,

500V 159
F.F.L=30CM
ISOLATING SWITCH
20A , 250V , 61
F.F.L=120CM
TRUNKING SOCKET
20A , 250V , 0
F.F.L=150CM
SINGLE SOCKET UPS
16A , 250V 0
63
6) SIXTH FLOOR:

250V
SINGLE SOCKET 16A ,
250V 110
PROOF
POWER SOCKET 20A,
250V
F.F.L=120CM , 1
WEATHER PROOF
DOUBLE SOCKET 16A ,

500V 146
F.F.L=30CM
ISOLATING SWITCH
20A , 250V , 49
F.F.L=120CM
TRANKING SOCKET
20A , 250V , 13
F.F.L=150CM
SINGLE SOCKET UPS
16A , 250V 56
64
The legend we used for our project on:
65
Sample for socket distribution for an exam room :
Total sockets load :-
66
Chapter 4
Elevators
67
Introduction:-
Elevator is vertical transport equipment which is used to transport people or
goods from one floor to another inside the building, giving advantage of
comfortable and saving time.
Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction
cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, or pump hydraulic fluid to raise a
cylindrical piston like a jack.
Types of elevators
-According to design
Hydraulic Elevators:
They are elevators which are powered by a piston that travels inside a cylinder.
An electric motor pumps oil into the cylinder to move the piston. The piston
smoothly lifts the elevator cab. Electrical valves control the release of the oil. Fig
7.1
Fig 7.1
68
Traction Elevators:
They are the most common type of elevators. Elevator cars are pulled up by
means of rolling steel ropes over a deeply grooved pulley, which commonly
called a sheave in the industry. The weight of the car is balanced by a counter
weight. Sometimes two elevators are built so that their cars always move
synchronously in opposite directions, and are each other's counter weight.
Fig 7.2
Fig 7.2
-According to services
Passenger elevator:
This type is used only for transportation of people.
Generally passenger elevators in buildings of eight floors or fewer are hydraulic
or electric, which can reach speeds up to 200 feet per minute (1 m/s) hydraulic
and up to 500 feet per minute (152 m/min) electric. Fig 7.3
69
Fig 7.3
Goods elevator:
This type is used for transportation of goods and people, which are typically
larger and capable of carrying heavier loads than a passenger elevator, generally
from 2,300 to 4,500 kg. Fig 7.4
Fig 7.4
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Service elevator:
This type is used only by servants in hotel to produce foods, drinks, or any
service to guests' rooms. Fig 7.5
Fig 7.5
Performance of ideal elevator

To say that, this elevator is ideal, some performance of operation must be
achieved such as:
 minimum waiting time
 comfortable acceleration
 rapid transportation
 smooth/rapid slowing
 accurate leveling
 rapid loading/unloading
 quick/quiet door operation
 good visual travel direction/floor indicators
 easily operated controls
71
 comfortable lighting
 reliable emergency equipment
 smooth/safe operation of mechanical equipment
Safety in elevators
There is many method of safety must be done in elevator design such that to
ensure the safe operation of the elevator such that:
 Automatic interlock door.
 Never permit loading the elevators with person more than its rated
design.
 Guide rails.
 Safety gear & over speed governor.
 Emergency brake.
 Buffers (energy accumulation, energy dissipation).
 Door operation controller.
 Circuit breakers and protective devices for electricity.
 Alarm and intercom (for emergency).
Design of elevators:
To design the elevator car and its suitable motor we must study the TRAFFIC
ANALYSIS of the building which we will install this elevator in it.
How we study the traffic analysis of the building???
This study is depending on many factors:
 Type of building (Residential, commercial, administration, utility, hotel

…..Etc.)
 Utility building is the most populous building, due to very large number of
people use elevator service at short time.
 Highest of building.
 Number of people enters building.
 Mode of people movement/circulation.
 Type of transportation systems.
 Human behaviors and factors
72
 Circulation efficiency (location, arrangement & coordination).
 Fire & safety regulations.
 Quantity and quality of service.
 Building functions and lifts functions.
 Types and density of occupancy.
 Traffic patterns.
Basics take in consideration

 Average weight of person is 80 kg.
 Average area needed for person is 0.25 m2.
 Car height not less than 200 cm.
Resultant of traffic analysis

 Average time of the travel (which determine the speed of elevator
depending on height of building).
 Area of each car.
 Number of elevators which will be installed.
 Mechanical horse power needed to handle the car and the people and
corresponding electrical power needed from supply.
Method of calculation for elevator motor HP

To calculate HP of elevator motor, several steps should be performed as
following:
Step (1)
According to number of floors of hotel we select speed of elevator from
Egyptian code table as shown,
73
Speed (Meter/Second) Number of floors
1-1.5 5
1.75-2 10
2-2.5 15
3-3.5 20
3.5-4 25
4-5 30
Step (2)
We determine approximately the total mass of people and elevator where,
average mass of person from 80 kg
And N0. Of person per 1meter square = 4 person
Step (3)
From certain curve Fig 7.6 in Egyptian code, we select the output power of
elevator motor in Kw, then motor HP = output power/0.746
Fig 7.6
74
Step (4)
Select the standard of HP from the table
1HP 1.5HP 2HP 3HP 5HP 7.5HP
10HP 15HP 20HP 25HP 30HP 40HP
There are 4 Panel Boards of Lifts of this Project :

1-(DB/Lift-01) :
In this board , there are two Lifts :

First Lift :
Speed of Lift = 1.5 m/s
Area = 1.2 * 2 = 2.4 m Square
N0. Of person per 1meter square = 4 person
Average kg per 1 person = 80 Kg
Total Kg = 10 * 80 = 800 Kg
From curve Fig 7.6 in Egyptian code
Power needed in Kw = 10 Kw
Power in HP = 10/0.746 = 13.4 HP
Select the standard of HP from the table : 15 HP
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Second Lift :
Area = 7 m square , we divided it into 2 cabines .Each of them 3.5 m square .
Capacity of each cabin = 3.5 * 4 = 14 persons
Total Kg = 14 * 80 = 1120 Kg
So total power needed of Second Lift = 12 +12 = 24 kw
Power in HP = 24/0.746 = 32.17 HP
75
2-(DB/Lift-02) :
In this board , there are three Lifts , but the three Lifts have the same Area and
the same usage .
So we Select the HP for one Lift only .
The Calculation of each Lift :
Area = 1.2 * 2 = 2.4 m Square
Total Kg = 10 * 80 = 800 Kg
Power in HP = 10/0.746 = 13.4 HP
3-(DB/Lift-03) :
In this board, there are two Lifts, but the two Lifts have the same Area and the
same usage .
So we calculate and Select the HP for one Lift only .
The Calculation of each Lift :
Area = 1.2 * 2 = 2.4 m Square
Total Kg = 10 * 80 = 800 Kg
Power in HP = 10/0.746 = 13.4 HP
4-(DB/Lift-04) :
The Calculation and Selecting HP of Lifts in this board is the same of (DB/Lift-02).
76
CHAPTER 5
AIR CONDITIONERS
77
Introduction:-
Air Condition is the process of changing the properties of air (temperature and
humidity) to more favorable conditions. Air conditioner becomes one of the most
important devices that used widely inhomes, hospitals, shopping centers, and large
commercial centers.
The Purpose of Using Air Conditioner:

We use air conditioner to achieve:
1. Supplying fresh air and extracting the used air.
2. Cooling or heating so that the required room temperature is obtained.
3. Maintaining the required relative humidity
Types of Air Condition:-

1. Hvac ( heat ventilation air conditioner)
2. Direct expansion ( D.X ) type
3. Split type.
Hvac ( heat ventilation air conditioner) :

it consists of a main unit that includes :
1) CHILLER:
A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-
compression or absorption refrigeration cycle. This liquid can then be circulated
through a heat exchanger to cool equipment, or another process stream (such as air
or process water). As a necessary byproduct, refrigeration creates waste heat that
must be exhausted to ambient or, for greater efficiency, recovered for heating
purposes. Concerns in design and selection of chillers include performance,
efficiency, maintenance, and product life cycle environmental impact.
78
2) PUMP :
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by

mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the
method they use to move the fluid: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps.[1]
Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating or rotary), and

consume energy to perform mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate
via many energy sources, including manual operation, electricity, engines, or wind
power, come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications to large
industrial pumps.
79
Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from
wells, aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry forwater-
cooling and fuel injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil and natural gas or
for operating cooling towers.
3) FCU ( fan coil unit ) :

A Fan Coil Unit (FCU) is a simple device consisting of a heating and or cooling heat
exchanger or 'coil' and fan. It is part of an HVAC system found in residential,
commercial, and industrial buildings. A fan coil unit is a diverse device sometimes
using ductwork, and is used to control the temperature in the space where it is
installed, or serve multiple spaces. It is controlled either by a manual on/off switch
or by thermostat, this in turn controls the throughput of water to the heat exchanger
using a control valve and/or the fan speed.
4) AHU :
An air handler, or air handling unit (often abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to
regulate and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system.[1] An air handler is usually a large metal box containing a blower,
heating or cooling elements, filter racks or chambers, sound attenuators,
and dampers.[2] Air handlers usually connect to a ductwork ventilation system that
distributes the conditioned air through the building and returns it to the AHU.
Sometimes AHUs discharge (supply) and admit (return) air directly to and from the
space served without ductwork.
80
DX unit :
In the direct expansion or DX types of air centralconditioning plants the air used for
cooling space is directly chilled by the refrigerant in the cooling coil of the air
handling unit. Since the air is cooled directly by the refrigerant the cooling efficiency
of the DX plants is higher. However, it is not always feasible to carry the refrigerant
piping to the large distances hence, directexpansion or the DX type of central air
conditioning system is usually used for cooling the small buildings or the rooms on
the single floor.
81
3) split air conditioner :
A split air conditioner consists of two main parts: the outdoor unit and the indoor
unit. The outdoor unit is installed on or near the wall outside of the room or space
that you wish to cool. The unit houses the compressor, condenser coil and the
expansion coil or capillary tubing. The sleek-looking indoor unit contains the cooling
coil, a long blower and an air filter.
Calculation for air conditioner:-

1. Central Air Condition type
Step (1)
From table Fig 7.12 according to Egyptian code, we select the required m2/ton for
the desired place.
82
Step (2)
Determine the total area of the desired place which required to be cooled and obtain
the Ton of cooled air form the following relation
83
Step (3)
Covert Ton into KW thermal by multiplying Ton by 3.5
Step (4)
Calculate the total input electrical power for chiller as follow
Where, COP (Coefficient Of Performance): is a ratio of heating or cooling (Kw

thermal) provided to electrical energy consumed which is different from
manufacture to another .According to TOSHIBA company, we select COP = 4.25
Step (5)
Calculate the number of chillers' units by dividing the total Kw input electrical power
to the input Kw of one unit which is selectedfrom the following table Fig7.14
84
2. Split Air Conditioner
Step (1)
Determine the area of the desired place and its height
Step (2)
According to the following relations, after determining the height of place, we can
obtain the HP of split air conditioner
 If height is equal or less than 3 meter
 If height is more than 3 meter
Step (3)
Choosing the rated HP of split air condition from the followingtable
Single Phase Three Phase

1.5 HP 6 HP
2.25 HP 7 HP
3 HP
4 HP
5 HP
85
Air conditioning load of our project :
An example for air conditioner panel board in first floor:
86
CHAPTER 6
CABLES
87
Function of Cables:-
 Cables are used for a wide range of purposes, and each must be
tailored for that purpose.
 The primary function of cable is carrying the energy reliably between
the source and utilization equipments.
Types of cables:-
1-Stranded Cables:
Concentric Strand
A concentric stranded conductor consists of a central wire or core surrounded
by one or more layers of helically laid wires. Each layer after the first has six
more wires than the preceding layer. Except in compact stranding, each layer
is usually applied in a direction opposite to that of the layer under it. If the
core is a single wire and if it and all of the outer strands have the same
diameter, the first layer will contain six wires; the second, twelve; the third;
eighteen.
Bunch Strand
The term bunch stranding is applied to a collection of strands twisted
together in the same direction without regard to the geometric arrangement.
88
Rope Strand
A rope stranded conductor is a concentric stranded conductor each of whose
component strands is itself stranded. A rope stranded conductor is described
by giving the number of groups laid together to form the rope and the
number of wires in each group.
Sector Conductor
A sector conductor is a stranded conductor whose cross-section is
approximately the shape of a sector of a circle. A multiple conductor
insulated cable with sector conductors has a smaller diameter than the
corresponding cable with round conductors.
Segmental Conductor
A segmental conductor is a round, stranded conductor composed of three or
four sectors slightly insulated from one another. This construction has the
advantage of lower AC resistance due to increased surface area and skin
effect.
89
2-Co-axial cables:
A coaxial cable consists of four basic parts :
• Inner conductor (center conductor)
• Outer conductor (shield)
• Dielectric, which separates the inner and outer conductors
• Jacket, which is the outer polymer layer protecting the parts inside
Cables are selected according to:

1) Operating voltage
2) Operating frequency
3) Conductor type
4) Insulation level
5) Core number
6) Neutral and Earthing cable
7) Derating factors
8) Cross section area (mm2)
Construction of Cables:
Cable consists essentially of conductors to carry electric currents and
insulation to prevent leakage of current from the conductor. They may also
be provided with some form of overall covering having metallic and non-
metallic components to provide mechanical and possible corrosion protection
to that the insulation may continue to operate satisfactorily throughout the
life of the cable once the cable has been installed.
90
Cable insulation:-
Most cable insulation operate on low voltage, that is about 440 v, but for very
large installation, practically where the site is extensive and large loads are
carried over long distances, main cables operating at higher voltage are used.
In such cases the high voltage source might be provided from the public
electricity supply or from a private generating station on the site.
Cables are usually classified according to the type of insulation; used

Insulation must have following properties:
1- It should have a high specific resistance.
2- It should have high dielectric strength.
3- It should be tough and flexible. .
4- It should not absorb moisture from air or surroundings
5-It should be capable of withstanding high temperatures
6- It should be non-inflammable.
7- It should not be attacked by acids or alkalizes.
8- It should be capable of withstanding high rupturing voltages.
In actual applications: It is not possible to have all the above mentioned

qualities in one particular type of insulation but the selection of a particular
type of insulation to be used dependent upon the purpose for which the cable
is required. The main function of cable insulation is to confine the electricity
to the conductor thus the insulation must have a very high resistance, for
normal work the insulation is arranged^ to surround the conductor
throughout its length but for some overhead wires it is normally sufficient to
provide insulation at the point of suspension of the wire, the remainder of it
91
is insulated by the air surrounding it. Many tests are carried out on cable
insulation periodically, such as voltage tests.
Usually this test level is well below the DC strength of the cable. The
following are the chief types of insulation groups which can be used:
1. Rubber
2. Polyethylene
3. Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)
4. XLPE
5. Fibrous material such as paper
6. Silk, cotton enamel.
7. Vulcanized bitumen.
8. Paper (fibrous material) is the most common in use. Furthermore, paper is
impregnated with mineral oil greatly improves its dielectric strength;
therefore the value of breakdown stress is improved from 60kv peak/cm to
70 KV peak/cm.
Cable metallic sheath:-

A metallic sheath is provided over the insulation so as. To prevent the entry
of moisture into the insulation material. So it must be in contact with the
92
external layer of insulation. The material sheath is usually of lead or alloy and
in case of cables having copper as conductor sometimes aluminum is used for
providing metallic sheath.
Lead Sheath For underground installations:-

in conduits, ducts and raceways, a lead sheath may be used to protect
insulated cables from moisture. In locations where corrosive conditions may
be encountered, a jacket over the lead sheath is recommended. Commercially
pure lead is used on some lead-covered cables, which conforms to the
requirements of ASTM B29 and ICEA S-93-639 (NEMA WC74). Lead alloy
sheaths, containing added tin or antimony, are used where a harder sheath is
desired or where vibration may be encountered
Basket-Weave:-
Basket-weave armor is constructed of metal wires forming a braided outer
covering. The wires may be of galvanized steel, aluminum or bronze. This
armor is generally used on shipboard cables because it provides the
mechanical protection of an armored cable, yet is much lighter in weight than
other types of armored coverings. Materials and construction generally
comply with the requirements of IEEE Standard 1580 and various military
specifications. This type of armor is referred to as GSWB (galvanized steel
wire braid) in some international standards.
Protective covering over lead of cable:-

It's also called as bedding. It is necessary due to the reason that electrolytic
action and organic materials frequently found in soil attack lead thus
corroding it. Close-meshed, cotton type, hessian tape and paper tape can be
the used for bedding. Before using they must be dried and impregnated with
water proof insulating material.
93
The water proof insulating material used must
have the following properties:-
1) It should not crack with vibrations
2) It should not deteriorate with increase in temperature.
3) Material used must be capable of adhering property to sheath and
armoring.
4) It should not have any chemical action with the sheath and armoring.
Mechanical protection:-
As the insulating materials used in the cable manufacture are mechanically
weak, so they must be protected against mechanical damage. The mechanical
protection can be cither in the form of mild steel tape or galvanized steel
wires.
Steel-Tape Armoring:-
A steel tape is provided over the bedding. The second layer of steel should be
applied to overlap the tape edges of the previous layer and during of the
cable there should be no displacement between the two layers. Before using
the steel tapes, they are compounded with water proof compounds.
Disadvantage of the steel tape armoring:-

1) A short layer of the steel tape makes the cable unsuitable for tensile
stress
2) They are not very flexible.
Wire armoring:-
When tensile strength of the cable is required wire armoring is used and it has
been found that a single layer' of wire armoring provides better mechanical
94
protection as against two layers of steel tape. In order to reduce the sheath
loss, the wires used for armoring may be of high resistance material such as
COPPER SILICON-MANGANESE- ALLOY. Such cables have been best used for
crossing rivers and for vertical run.
Protection against fire:-

The bedding materials used over the health make the cable inflammable to
avoid fire hazard, the wire armoring is used directly over the sheath
sometimes fire resisting paint is provided over the armoring which perfectly
makes it fire proof. Cables are usually classified into five categories according
to the voltage for which they are manufactured.
Cables used in the project:-

Multicore Cables, with Stranded Copper Conductors PVC
Insulated and PVC Sheathed.
 Supply-install Cables, with multicore cables of stranded Copper conductors

are insulated with PVC compound, assembled together, covered with overall
jacket of PVC compound.
 Cables are produced according to IEC 60502 of BS 6346.
CP1-T103-U06
This is used in lighting, sockets and primary emergency distributions panel
cables.
CP1-T103-U08
This is used in power sockets cables.
CP1-T103-U09
This is used in power sockets, input feeder of primary running distributions
panel and input feeder of primary emergency distributions panel cables.
CP1-T103-U10
This is used in input feeder of emergency distributions panel cables.
95
Multicore Cables, with Stranded Aluminum Conductors PVC
Insulated, Steel Wire Armoured and PVC Sheathed.
 Supply-install Cables, multicore cables of stranded Aluminum conductors are
insulated with PVC compound, assembled together, armoured with steel
wires and covered with overall jacket of PVC compound.
 Cables are produced according to IEC 60502 of BS 6346.
AP1-T104-W11
This is used in input feeder of primary running distributions panel, input
feeder of sub-main emergency distributions panel and sub-main running
distributions panel cables.
AP1-T105-W15
This is used in input feeder of sub-main running distribution panel cables.
Types of Derating Factor:-

a) Ambient temperature derating factor
b) Ground temperature derating factor
c) Grouping factor
d) Burial depth Derating factor
e) Soil thermal resistivity
96
97
Methods of installation:-
1- Cable Trays
Several types of tray are used in different applications. A solid-bottom tray
provides the maximum protection to cables, but requires cutting the tray
or using fittings to enter or exit cables. A deep, solid enclosure for cables is
called a cable channel or cable trough
2- Different types of conduits

An electrical conduit is a tube used to protect and route electrical wiring in
a building or no building structure. Electrical conduit may be made of
metal, plastic, fiber, or fired clay. Most conduit is rigid, but flexible conduit
is used for some purposes.
98
3- Direct burial underground.
Direct-buried cable (DBC) is a kind of communications or
transmissions cable which is especially designed to be buried under the
ground without any kind of extra covering, sheathing, or piping to protect it.
Most direct-buried cable is built to specific tolerances
to heat, moisture, conductivity, and soil acidity. Unlike standard
telecommunications and power cables, which have only a thin layer of
insulation and a waterproof outer cover.
99
CHAPTER 7
CIRCUIT BREAKER
100
Introduction
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to
protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overcurrent or
overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after
protective relays detect a fault. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then
must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in
varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance
up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire
city.
Function of circuit breaker

Is to make and break the circuit under normal and abnormal conditions.
All circuit breakers perform the following functions:
• SENSE when an over current occurs.
• MEASURE the amount of over current.
• ACT by tripping the circuit breaker in a time frame necessary to prevent

damage to itself and the associated Load cables.
Types of circuit breakers
-According to arc quenching medium

Air C.B :
Air Blast C.B

Air Break C.B
101
Oil C.B:
Bulk Oil C.B

Minimum Oil C.B
SF6 C.B Vacuum C.B.
According to operating voltage
 Low voltage C.B:

(Less than 1 KV)
 Medium voltage C.B:

(From 1 KV to 66 KV)
 High voltage C.B:

 Extra high voltage C.B:

 Ultra high voltage C.B:

(Above 750KV)
Based on location
 Indoor (GIS)
 Outdoor (AIS)
-Based on external design (enclosure)

 Dead tank (earth tank)
 Live tank (tank potential =system voltage)
102
Low voltage circuit breaker
Low-voltage (less than 1,000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial
and industrial application, and include:
 Miniature circuit breaker (MCB(

 Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)
1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also
indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most
breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held or
locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or
"positive trip" operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
3. Contacts - allow current when touching and break the current when
moved apart.
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic strip - separates contacts in response to smaller, longer-term
overcurrents
6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip
current of the device after assembly.
7. Solenoid - separates contacts rapidly in response to high overcurrents
8. Arc divider/extinguisher
103
MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)
 Rated current not more than 100 A.
 Trip characteristics normally not adjustable.
 Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.
Molded Case Circuit Breaker(MCCB)
 Rated current up to 1000 A.

 Trip current may be adjustable.
 Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.
104
Air circuit breaker
The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any
other types of circuit breakers. The main aim of all kind of circuit breaker
is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing after current zero by creating a
situation where in the contact gap will withstand the system recovery
voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same but in different manner. For
interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage in excess of the supply voltage.
Arc voltage is defined as the minimum voltage required maintaining the
arc, its types:
I. Air break circuit breaker.

II. Air blast circuit breaker.
1-Air break circuit breaker
This type of circuit breakers is that kind of circuit breaker which operates in air
at atmospheric pressure. After development of oil circuit breaker, the medium
voltage air circuit breaker (ACB) is replaced completely by oil circuit breaker in
different countries. But in countries like France and Italy, ACBs are still
preferable choice up to voltage 15 KV(DC) and 12kv (AC). It is also good choice
to avoid the risk of oil fire, in case of oil circuit breaker. In America ACBs were
105
exclusively used for the system up to 15 KV until the development of new
vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers.
 Rated current: 400-3500A
 Used in dc circuits or ac circuits up to 12kv.
 Construction of air break circuit breaker

 Main contacts: have low resistance contact and are silver plated.
 Arcing contact: they are hard heat resistance and are usually of copper
alloy.
Advantage :
1) There is no chance of fire hazard caused by oil.

2) The breaking speed of circuit breaker is much higher during operation of air
blast circuit breaker.
3) Arc quenching is much faster during operation of air blast circuit breaker.
4) The duration of arc is same for all values of small as well as high currents
interruptions.
5) As the duration of arc is smaller, so lesser amount of heat realized from arc to
current carrying contacts hence the service life of the contacts becomes longer
6) The stability of the system can be well maintained as it depends on the speed
of operation of circuit breaker.
7) Requires much less maintenance compared to oil CB.
106
2-Air blast circuit breaker
Needs auxiliary compressed air system. These types of air circuit breaker were
used for the system voltage of 245 KV, 420 KV and even more, especially where
faster breaker operation was required. Circuit breaker has some specific
advantages over oil circuit breaker which are listed Air blast as
follows:
1. There is no chance of fire hazard caused by oil.

2. The breaking speed of circuit breaker is much higher during operation of air
blast circuit breaker.
3. Arc quenching is much faster during operation of air blast circuit breaker.
4. The duration of arc is same for all values of small as well as high currents
interruptions.
5. As the duration of arc is smaller, so lesser amount of heat realized from arc to
current carrying contacts hence the service life of the contacts becomes longer.
6. The stability of the system can be well maintained as it depends on the speed
of operation of circuit breaker.
-disadvantages of air blast circuit breakers:
1. In order to have frequent operations, it is necessary to have sufficiently high

capacity air compressor.
2. Frequent maintenance of compressor, associated air pipes and automatic
control equipment is also required.
3. Due to high speed current interruption there is always a chance of high rate
of rise of re-striking voltage and current chopping.
4. There also a chance of air pressure leakage from air pipes junctions.
-Medium-voltage circuit breakers

Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled
into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual
107
components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers
replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being
replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 40.5 kV). Like the high voltage
circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing
protective relays operated through current transformers. The characteristics of
MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-
voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors
andprotective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic
overcurrent sensors.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to
extinguish the arc:
Vacuum circuit breakers

With rated current up to 6300 A, and higher for generator circuit breakers.
These breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a
vacuum container. Long life bellows are designed to travel the 6 to 10 mm the
contacts must part. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 40,500
V, which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power systems.
Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul
than do air circuit breakers.
Advantages of Vacuum Circuit Breakers

 Vacuum circuit breakers does not require filling of any gas or oil. They do
not need auxiliary air system, oil handling and free from periodic
maintenance
 Rapid recovery of very high dielectric strength on current interruption so
that only half cycle or less arcing occurs after proper contact separation
 No emission of gases, hence pollution free
 Current interruption occurs at first current zero after contact separation
with no re-striking, making it exceptionally good for capacitor and cable
switching and long line drooping
 Very high power frequency and impulse withstand voltages with small
contact spacing, allowing ease of actuation and timing
 Non explosive and silent operation compared to air blast and SF6
breakers
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 Breaker unit is compact and self-contained. It can be installed at any
orientation
Disadvantages of Vacuum Circuit Breakers :
 Loss of vacuum due to transit damage or failure makes the entire

interruption useless and it cannot be repaired at site.
 It needs additional surge suppressors in parallel with each phase for
interruption of low magnetizing currents in certain range
 Vacuum circuit breakers are uneconomical above 36kV and SF6 breakers
having equivalent properties are economical. Hence for EHV (voltages
above 230kV ) systems SF6 circuit breakers are employed
 It is uneconomical to manufacture vacuum interrupters in small quantities
- High-voltage circuit breakers

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-
voltage breakers. The definition ofhigh voltage varies but in power transmission
work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition
by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers
are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective
relays operated through current transformers. Insubstations the protective
relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various
types of overload or ground/earth fault.
High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish
the arc.
 Bulk oil
 Minimum oil
 Air blast
 Vacuum
 SF6
 CO2
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SF6 Circuit Breakers
They are mostly employed for High voltage applications. Because of the above
said features and properties of SF6 gas they are mostly employed in switching
duties related to high voltage and extra high voltage applications.
SF6 Circuit Breakers Advantages :
 Excellent insulating, arc extinguishing, physical and chemical properties of

SF6 gas is greater advantage of SF6 circuit breakers.
 The gas is non-inflammable and chemically stable. The decomposition
products are non-explosive there is no risk of fire or explosion.
 Electrical clearances are very much reduced because of high dielectric
strength of SF6
 Outdoor EHV SF6 circuit breaker has less number of interrupters per pole
in comparison to the air-blast circuit breaker and minimum oil breaker.
Outdoor SF6 circuit breaker is simple, comparatively cheaper in cost,
maintenance free and compact
 Its performance is not affected due to variation in atmospheric conditions
 It gives noiseless operation it does not make sound like air-blast circuit
breaker during operation
110
 No frequent contact replacement-arcing time is small owing to
outstanding arc quenching properties of SF6 and therefore contact
erosion is less. Hence contacts do not suffer oxidation
 Therefore is no reduction in dielectric strength of SF6 since no carbon
particle is formed during the arcing
 Minimum maintenance. The breaker may require maintenance once in
four to ten years
 The sealed construction avoids the contamination by moisture, dust, sand
etc. No costly compressed air system is required as in the case of air blast
circuit breaker
 Same gas is re-circulated into the circuit thereby reducing the
requirement of SF6 gas.
Disadvantages:
 Imperfect joints leading to leakage of the SF6 gas. Continuous monitoring

devices are required
 SF6 gas is suffocating to some extent. In case of leakage in the breaker
tank SF6 gas being heavier than the air settles in the surroundings and
may lead to suffocation of the operating personnel. However it is not
poisonous
 Arced SF6 gas is poisonous and should not be inhaled
 The internal parts need thorough cleaning during periodic maintenance
under clean and dry environment. Dust of Teflon and sulphides should be
removed
 Special facilities are required for transportation of gas, transfer of gas and
maintenance of quality of the gas. The deterioration of quality of gas
affects the performance and hence reliability of the SF6 circuit breaker
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Residual-current device (RCD)
is a device to quickly disconnect current to prevent serious harm from an

ongoing electric shock. the device is more commonly known as a ground fault
circuit interrupter (GFCI), ground fault interrupter (GFI) or anappliance leakage
current interrupter (ALCI).
These electrical wiring devices disconnect a circuit when it detects that
the electric current is not balanced between the energized (line) conductor(s)
and the return (neutral) conductor. Under normal circumstances, these two
wires are expected to carry matching currents, and any difference usually
indicates that ashort circuit or other electrical anomaly is present. Even a small
leakage current can mean a risk of harm or death due to electric shock if the
leaking electric current passes through a human; a current of around
30 mA (0.030 amperes) is potentially sufficient to cause cardiac arrest or serious
harm if it persists for more than a small fraction of a second. RCDs/RCCBs are
designed to disconnect the conducting wires quickly enough to prevent serious
injury from such shocks. (This is commonly described as the RCD/RCCB being
"tripped".)
RCDs are designed to disconnect the circuit if there is a leakage current. By
detecting small leakage currents (typically 5–30 mA) and disconnecting quickly
enough (<300 ms).
An RCD does not provide protection against unexpected or dangerously high
current when current is flowing in the usual wires in the circuit, therefore it
112
cannot replace a fuse or protect against overheating or fire risk due to
overcurrent (overload) or short circuits if the fault does not lead to current
leakage. Therefore, RCDs are often used or integrated as a single product along
with some kind of circuit breaker, such as a fuse or miniature circuit breaker
(MCB), which adds protection in the event of excessive current in the circuit.
RCDs also cannot detect the situation where a human accidentally touches both
conductors at the same time, since the flow of current through an expected
device, an unexpected route, or a human, are indistinguishable if the current
returns through the expected conductor.
113
CHAPTER 8
PANEL-BOARD
114
Panelboard Definition
A panel board is a type of enclosure for overcurrent protection devices and the
busses and connections that provide power to these devices and their
associated circuits.
A Panelboard Is:
 Used to control light, heat, or power circuits
 Placed in a cabinet or cutout box
 Mounted in or against a wall
 Accessible only from the front
Distribution Board:
Distribution boards is a panel used to distribution inside the floors which is
divided to two main types…
A. Floor Main Panel :

It’s the panel beside the risers and contains main circuit breaker and many
circuit breakers it’s number depend on the number of sub panel in one floor and
the input of main panel is 3Ø cables from riser tap off to molded case circuit
breaker as a main breaker and the main breaker feed smaller molded case
circuit breaker depends on the number of subpanel.
main panel provide protection against over current fault and short circuit fault
which can be controlled by the rating selection of breakers and short circuit
level which it’s depend on the load rating and board distance from supply.
115
B. Subpanels
The subpanel is panels which it’s distributed inside the floor and its number
depend on the floor geometry and floor loads (sockets, lighting, and appliance).
The subpanel is nearly look like the main floor panel in construction it’s consist
of main breaker 3 Ø and sub breakers 1Ø which feeds directly to the loads
through wires to the loads.
although the main panel provides good protection but the subpanel is improve
overall system reliability because it’s avoiding trip all floor in case of fault in
any space inside the floor and trip only for local fault in its area.
116
Panelboard construction
Panelboards are available in different sizes with variations in construction. The
components that make up a panelboard, however, are similar. Panelboards
contain a can, interior, circuit protection devices, label, and trim.
A. Can:
The can is typically constructed of galvanized steel and houses the other
components. The can is also referred to as a box or enclosure. It is designed
to provide component and personnel protection. Removable blank end
panels allow the user to cut whatever conduit holes are necessary. Pre-
stamped knockouts are available as an option. Mounting studs are used to
support the interior or group mounted devices
117
B. Interior
The interior consists of several components, including overcurrent protection
devices, bus bars and insulated neutral bus bars. A lighting panel interior is
mounted to the four mounting studs in the can. Jacking screws (not shown)
allow adjustment of the interior within the enclosure.
118
C. Bus Bars
A bus bar is a conductor that serves as a common connection for two or
more circuits. Standard bus bars on Siemens panelboards are made of
aluminum, but copper bus bars are available as an option.
D. High Leg
Some power supply systems use a transformer with a three phase, four-wire
(3Ø4W), delta-connected secondary with grounded, center-tap connection
on one phase. The following illustration shows an example of such a system
with 240 volts phase-to-phase. The midpoint of one phase winding is
grounded to provide 120 volts between phase A and neutral and 120 volts
between phase C and neutral. Between phase B and neutral, however, the
voltage is 208 volts. This is referred to as the high leg.
119
E. Split Neutral
Siemens panelboards feature a split neutral design which means that neutral
connections are available on both sides of the panelboard. Split neutrals are
connected by means of an insulated neutral bus bar.
F. 200% Neutral
Some loads can cause harmonics and non-linear loading on a distribution
system. This requires special consideration when ordering a panelboard. One
way to deal with non-linear loads is to double the capacity of the panelboard
neutral. A 200% neutral is an available option on Siemens panelboards.
120
G. Circuit Protection Devices
While it is common for load centers to have plug-in branch circuit breakers,
circuit breakers used in panelboards for commercial and industrial
applications typically bolt on to the bus bars. For example, the following
illustration shows two BL circuit breakers, one is mounted to the panelboard
bus and the other is being mounted.
H. Circuit Identification
Specifications typically require panelboard circuit terminals to be labeled or
for a wiring diagram to be provided. One approach for numbering terminals
is to use odd numbers for poles on the panelboard’s right (your left as you
face the panelboard) and even numbers on the panelboard’s left. This is
sometimes referred to as NEMA numbering. For some specifications, vertical
numbering is required.
121
I. Panelboard Label
The label identifies the panelboard’s type, voltage rating, and ampacity.
Panelboard Location
Number and location of panelboards are determined by 2 important rules
A. First:
The floor is divided into zones according to electrical line, whereby, the one
lines doesn’t exceed 30 meter.
B. Second:
inside each zone, the number of boards are determined according to
industrial models at which there is different models (6 lines, 12 lines, 18
lines, 24 lines, 36 lines, 48 lines), and that requires determining where the
boards are placed. It’s preferable to be in the electrical room.
What is ATS?
ATS is an abbreviation for Automatic Transfer Switch; its function is to transfer
the feeding to the emergency panelboard in case of cutting out of electricity.
Normal panelboard:
It’s fed from one source which is the transformer, in case of cutting out of
electricity, it will stop too.
This board feeds normal loads, like: Air conditioners, water heaters, lighting
loads.
122
Emergency panelboards:
It works in the normal case and the main power source is the transformer.
In case of electricity cutting out, the auxiliary transformer is on. It takes 30
seconds or more to make the auxiliary generator works. The type of loads
which switched on by the emergency panel are the important loads, like:
elevators, refrigerators, part of lighting.
UPS panelboard:
It works in the normal case and its source is the transformer. At the instant
of cutting out of electricity, it’s switched on instantly till the generator is on
(about 30 seconds) at this instant the main source is the auxiliary generator.
It supplies the most important loads, like: intensive care rooms, operation
rooms, some of the computers.
Main panelboard
123
Subpanel board
124
CHAPTER 9
BUS DUCT
125
Introduction:-
It is a sheet metal duct containing either copper or aluminum bus bars for the
purpose of conducting a substantial current of electricity.
We use bus ducts instead of cables in case of high buildings because the cost of using
cables in high buildings is more expensive than using bus ducts for the same
buildings.
Specification of Bus duct:-

 Type of Bus duct according to :
A) Forms (B.B. Type)
B) Conductor
C) Arranged
D) Feeding
E) Loading
F) Accessories (Joints)
 Voltage operation
 Cross section area and weight
 Short circuit current rating
 Voltage Drop
 IP (index protection)
Types of Bus Duct:-
 According to forms
1) Air type
2) Sandwich type (COMPACT TYPE)
126
Compact Bus Duct
Air Bus Duct
 According to conductor
1) Copper (CU)
2) Aluminum (AL)
3) Aluminum copper coated
 According to arranged
1) Half Neutral (R + S + T + HN + E)
2) Full Neutral (R + S + T + FN + E)
 According to Feeding
1) Feeder Type
2) Plug in Type
127
 According to loading
128
 The accessories in the figure 1 are:
1) Flat Elbows
2) Edgewise Elbows
3) Corner Flat Elbows
4) 4 Corner Edgewise Elbows
5) Tees and Crosses
6) Transformer and Switchboard Flanges
7) Flexible joints
8) Spring Riser
9) Angle Hanger
10) End Closure
129
CHAPTER 10
LOAD ESTIMATION
130
Introduction:
Before specific electric power sources and distribution systems can be
considered, realistic preliminary load data must be compiled. The expected
electric power demand on intermediate substations, and on the main electric
power supply, shall be calculated from the connected load layout by applying
appropriate factors. Determine these factors by load analysis and by combining
loads progressively. To combine the loads, start at the ends of the smallest
feeders and work back to the Electric power source. Because all loads must be
on a common kilowatt (kW) or kilovolt- ampere (kVA) basis, it is necessary to
convert motor horsepower ratings to input kilowatts or kilovolt-amperes before
combining them with other loads already expressed in those terms. Preliminary
electric power load estimates can be made by using the approximate value of
one kilovolt-ampere of input per horsepower (HP) at full load.
TERMINOLOGY
Five terms are essential to the analysis of load characteristics: demand factor,
coincidence factor, diversity factor, load factor and maximum demand. These
terms are defined below.
DEMAND FACTOR:
The demand factor is the ratio of themaximumdemand on a system to the total
connected load of the system or EQUATION: Demand factor = Maximum
demand load Total load connected
COINCIDENCE FACTOR:
The coincidence factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part
under consideration, to the sum of the individual maximum demands of the
subdivisions or EQUATION: Coincidence factor = Maximum systemdemand Sum
of individual maximum demands
131
DIVERSITY FACTOR:
The diversity factor is the reciprocal of the coincidence factor or EQUATION:
Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum demands Maximum system
demand
LOAD FACTOR:
The load factor is the ratio of the average load over a designated period of time,
usually 1 year, to the maximum load occurring in that period or EQUATION:
Loadfactor = Average load Maximum load
MAXIMUM DEMAND:
The maximum demand is the integrated demand for a specified time interval,
i.e., 5 minutes, 15minutes, 30 minutes, or other appropriate time intervals,
rather than the instantaneous or peak demand.
Classification of electrical loads:

1- Load of lighting
2- Load of air conditioning devices and heating devices
3- Load of firefighting pumps and water heating devices
4- Load of small appliances (sockets – TVs – office devices)
5- Load of elevators
6- Load of light current devices (fire alarm – sound system – CCTV)
Methods of load estimation are two:

1- Preliminary load calculations
2- Final load calculations
132
133
Codes used in project:
1-NEC Code:
134
2-Egyptian Code:
Lighting load estimation:

The standard lighting load(watt/m2) differs according to the nature of the
building; the table shows here the standards for each building
Sockets load estimation:

Consider every socket has a load of 250VA. the sum of loads at thesingle line
is equal to 2000VA maximum.
The NEC code table:
135
136
Air conditioning load estimation:
The Egyptian code points out the calculations for AC
Elevators load calculations:

Estimation of primarily load of elevator:
1- Determine whether the machine used is with gears or without gears

2- Number of elevators inside the building
3- The speed of elevator
4- How much does the elevator weight
5- Demand factor of the number of elevators
By identifying factors in this steps; we can estimate the horse power for the
elevator.
-The Egyptian code for determining the speed
137
-Egyptian code for the gear-supported and gearless elevators
- Calculation of the weight depends on the weight of cabins and load inside the
cabin; so assume the cabin of weight 750 kg and a load of 5 persons each 80 kg
Therefore, 750+ 80x5= 1150 kg by then we can calculate the rating of the motor
using this curves:
138
-Demand factor table
Waterpump load estimation:
For low height building(about 3 floors) it can be fed from the main water pump.
For medium height (10 floors, 30 m height), a pump of 7.5 kw is used.
The power is estimated from an equation:
139
Firefighting pump load estimation:
It depends on the height of the building and the flow rate of the liquid and the
pressure of this rate
140
CHAPTER 11
FEEDING SYSTEM
141
Introduction:-
The electrical energy produced at the generating station is conveyed to
the consumers through a network of transmission and distribution
systems.
It is often difficult to draw a line between the transmission and
distribution systems of a large power system. It is impossible to
distinguish the two merely by their voltage because what was considered
as a high voltage a few years ago is now considered as a low voltage.
In general, distribution system is that part of power system which
distributes power to the consumers for utilization.
The transmission and distribution systems are similar to man’s circulatory
system. The transmission system may be compared with arteries in the
human body and distribution system with capillaries.
They serve the same purpose of supplying the ultimate consumer in the
city with the life giving blood of civilization–electricity.
In this chapter, we shall confine our attention to the general introduction
to distribution system.
Distribution System
The distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station
fed by the transmission system and the consumers ‘meters. It generally
consists of feeders, distributors and the service mains. Fig. 00.1 shows the
single line diagram of a typical low tension distribution system.
I. Feeders A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or

localized generating station) to the area where power is to be
distributed. Generally, no tapings are taken from the feeder so that
current in it remains the same throughout. The main consideration in
the design of a feeder is the current carrying capacity.
II. Distributor A distributor is a conductor from which tapings are taken
for supply to the consumers. The current through a distributor is not
constant because tapings are taken at various places along its length.
142
While designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main
consideration since the statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6% of
rated value at the consumers’ terminals.
III. Service mains A service mains is generally a small cable which
connects the distributor to the consumers’ terminals.
Fig 00.1
A.C. Distribution
Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in
the form of alternating current.
One important reason for the widespread use of alternating current in
preference to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can be
conveniently changed in magnitude by means of a transformer.
Transformer has made it possible to transmit AC. power at high voltage
and utilize it at a safe potential.
High transmission and distribution voltages have greatly reduced the
current in the conductors and the resulting line losses.
There is no definite line between transmission and distribution according
to voltage or bulk capacity. However, in general, the AC. distribution
system is the electrical system between the stepdown substation fed by
the transmission system and the consumers’ meters. The AC .distribution
system is classified into:
A. primary distribution system and
B. Secondary distribution system.
143
Primary distribution system It is that part of AC. distribution
system which operates at voltages somewhat higher than general
utilizations and handles large blocks of electrical energy than the average
low-voltage consumer uses. The voltage used for primary distribution
depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed and the distance of
the substation required to be fed. The most commonly used primary
distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6·6 kV and 3·3 kV. Due to economic
considerations, primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase, 3-wire
system.
Fig 00.2
Fig. 00.2 shows a typical primary distribution system. Electric power from
the generating station is transmitted at high voltage to the substation
located in or near the city. At this substation, voltage is stepped down to
11 kV with the help of step-down transformer. Power is supplied to
various substations for distribution or to big consumers at this voltage.
This forms the high voltage distribution or primary distribution.
Secondary distribution system It is that part of AC. distribution

system which includes the range of voltages at which the ultimate
consumer utilizes the electrical energy delivered to him. The secondary
distribution employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.
144
Fig 00.3
Fig. 00.3 shows a typical secondary distribution system. The primary

distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called
distribution substations. The substations are situated near the consumers
‘localities and contain step down transformers.
At each distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400V and
power is delivered by3-phase, 4-wire AC. system.
The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any phase and
neutral is 230V. The single phase domestic loads are connected between
any one phase and the neutral, whereas 3-phase 400 V motor loads are
connected across 3-phase lines directly.
Connection Schemes of Distribution System

All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant voltage system. In
practice, the following distribution circuits are generally used:
145
 Radial System In this system, separate feeders radiate from a
single substation and feed the distributors at one end only.
Fig. 00.3 shows a single line diagram of radial system AC. distribution.
The radial system is employed only when power is generated at low
voltage and the substation is located at the center of the load.
Fig 00.3(a)
Fig 00.3(b)
146
This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost.
However, it suffers from the following drawbacks:
a) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily
loaded.
b) The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor.
Therefore, any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the
consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the substation.
c) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be
subjected to serious voltage fluctuations when the load on the
distributor changes. Due to these limitations, this system is used for
short distances only.
 Ring main system In this system, the primaries of distribution

transformers form a loop. The loop circuit starts from the substation
bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and returns to
the substation.
Fig 00.4
147
Fig. 00.4 shows the single line diagram of ring main system for AC.
Distribution where substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS.
The distributors are tapped from different points M, O and Q of the
feeder through distribution transformers. The ring main system has the
following advantages:
a) There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
b) The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via *two feeders.
In the event of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of
supply is maintained. For example, suppose that fault occurs at any
point F of section SLM of the feeder. Then section SLM of the feeder
can be isolated for repairs and at the same time continuity of supply is
maintained to all the consumers via the feeder SRQPONM.
Classification of ring main units:
 According to operating voltage:

All ring main units used in medium voltage side (11kv or 22kv)
 According to spark cut field:
1. Sf6 ring main unit
2. Air ring main unit
Difference between sf6 &air ring main unit

Sf6 RMU Air RMU
Cost Expensive cheap
weight light heavy
size Compact size Larger size
148
Notes:
 Ring main unit should be equipped with earthed switches mechanically
interlocked
 Ring main unit should be located at a separate room with adjacent size
according to number of RMU inside this room
 Ring main unit room should be equipped with ventilation source ,
double doors open outwards, adjacent cable trench
 RMU should be with adjacent degree of protection
In Our Project:
We used 3 R.M.U (3R+1T) 12 KV
Technical Data
Rated Current
Ring Switch (630 A)
Transformer Switch (630 A)
Bus Bars (630 A)
Power Frequency test voltage (28 KV)
Impulse with stand voltage (75 KV)
Rated Frequency (50 Hz)
According to TEPCO Egypt Catalogue (Indoor)

Width 2150 mm
Height 1850 mm
Depth 760 mm
149
CHAPTER 12
TRANSFORMER
150
Introduction :
Transformer is one of the most important links in a power transmission and
distribution system. Transformer is an electrical device having no moving parts;
it transfers electric energy by mutual induction from one circuit to another at
same frequency with changed values of V and I. The ratio of change in voltage
level is directly proportional to the ratio of primary number of turns and
secondary number of turns.
Working principle of the transformer

Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When primary
winding is connected to an ac source an exciting current flows through the
winding. As the current is alternating it will produce an alternating flux in the
core which will be linked by both the primary and secondary windings.
It consists of two winding insulated from each other and wound on a common
core made up of magnetic material. Alternating voltage is connected across one
of the winding called primary winding. In both the windings emf is induced by
electromagnetic induction. And the second winding is the secondary winding of
transformer. Flux in the core will alternate at same frequency of the supply
voltage. Frequency of induced emf in secondary is the same as that of the
151
supply voltage. Magnitude of emf induced in secondary winding will depend
upon its number of turns. In a transformer if the number of turns in secondary
winding is less than that in the primary winding it is called step-down
transformer. In a transformer if the number of turns in secondary winding is
higher than that in the primary winding it is called step-up transformer.
Classification of transformers
Transformers can be classified on many basis, the followings are some of them:
1) According to Application:
1-Power transformer
Used in generation station to step-up Voltage to the main network voltage for
the reason of:
1-reducing the transmitting current and then reduce the cost of conductors and
tower to carry the heavy conductors. 2-reducing losses, reducing voltage drop
and then improving system performance.
2-Distribution transformer
Used in distribution substation to Step-down voltage and it differ from Power
transformer in rating.
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Difference between Power Transformer and
Distribution Transformer
Power transformers are used in

transmission network of higher voltages for
step-up and step down application (400 kV,
200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV) and are
generally rated above 200MVA. Distribution
transformers are used for lower voltage
distribution networks as a means to end
user connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV,
440V, 230V) and are generally rated less than 200 MVA
2- According to Construction
1) Core type :
1- For single phase transformer :
It may be 1 or 2 or 3 window with number of Legs as shown in figure .And the
transformer primary and secondary coils are wound on the legs.
2) For three phase transformer :
It consists of two windows with three legs.

Primary and secondary winding of each phase
are wound on one leg.
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3- Shell type
.1- For single phase transformer
It consists of two windows with three
legs. Primary and secondary winding are
wound on the middle leg.
2- For three phase transformer

It consists of six windows
3- According to Output voltage
1- Step-up transformer
2- Step-down transformer
If the number of primary winding, which is connected to the supply, is higher
than the number of secondary winding, Which are connected to the load ,it will
be step-down transformer and vice versa .
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4- According to Connections
1- star- star
2- Delta-Star
3- Star-delta
4- Delta-delta
The most common type is delta star connection:
Delta Star voltage and current :
Line voltage on Primary side = Phase voltage on Primary side. So

Transformation Ration (K) = Secondary Phase Voltage / Primary Phase Voltage
Secondary Phase Voltage = K * Primary Phase Voltage.
As Secondary in star connected:
Line voltage on Secondary side =√3 * Phase voltage on Secondary side.
Secondary Phase Voltage = K * Primary Phase Voltage. =K * (Line voltage on
Primary side)
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Advantages of Delta Star Connection :
1) The D-Y connection has no problem with third harmonic components.

2) Fewer numbers of turns are required.
3) The neutral available on the primary can be earthed to avoid distortion.
4) Neutral point allows both types of loads (single phase or three phases) to be
met.
5) Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactory.
Disadvantages of Delta Star Connection :
1) The secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary.

2) If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of
another transformer without phase shift, there would be a problem.
Application :
1) Commonly employed for distribution transformers.

2) Y connection on the LV side reduces insulation costs as the neutral point on
the LV side can be grounded.
3) Use with this connection is to step down the voltage.
5- According to Cooling medium

One of the main sources of losses and reasons for temperature rise in various
parts of a transformer are the magnetic circuit and windings.
So what are the actually reasons of heating the transformer?
Responsible for heat generation within the transformer are core loss, copper
loss in windings (I2R loss), stray loss in windings and stray loss due to leakage.
The heat generated due to losses must be dissipated without allowing the core,
windings and structural parts reaching high temperature which will cause
deterioration of insulation. So Transformers are classified according to their
method of cooling, as there are two types which are:
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1- Dry type transformer
These types of transformers are designed without oil around the core and
windings. It can be fully loaded (i.e. 100% from rating).
Dry type transformer never uses any insulating liquid where its winding with
core be immerged. Rather windings with core are kept within a sealed tank that
is pressurized with air.
Type of Dry Type Transformer:
The dry type transformer is of two types. They are
1. Cast Resin Dry Type Transformer ( CRT)
2. Vacuum pressure Impregnated Transformer ( VPI)
Cast Resin Dry Type Transformer ( CRT)
Cast resin dry type transformer (CRT) is used in the high moisture prone areas. It
is because of its primary and secondary windings are encapsulated with epoxy
resin. This encapsulation helps to prevent moisture to penetrate to affect the
winding material. Complete protection is achieved by this cast resin
encapsulation so that the transformer can work without disruption in highly
moisture prone area. Thus this transformer is non hygroscopic.
This type of transformer is available in ratings of 25 KVA to 12,500 KVA. with
insulation class of F (90°C Temp. Rise).
This type of transformer has some featured advantages
1) Better over load capacity.
2) Low partial discharge along with low loss. Hence efficiency is very good.
3) As it is with non inflammable winding insulation, it offers zero risk to fire
hazard. So it is suitable for indoor installation.
4) Can be fitted outdoor in IP 45 enclosure.
5) And off course non hygroscopic.
Vacuum Pressure Impregnated Transformer ( VPI)
This type of transformer is made with minimum flammable material as
insulation of windings. The windings of this transformer are made in foil or strip
in a continuous layer. But for higher voltages, the winding is made of disks that
are connected in series or parallel as per power rating with respect to voltage
level. The insulation of the winding is void free impregnation that is made with
class H polyester resin. The primary and secondary winding with core are laced
safely within a vacuum protective box. Moisture Ingress Protection is high and it
never gets affected by moisture. This type of transformer is available from 5
KVA to 30MVA with insulation grade F(155oC) and H(180oC). It’s with Protection
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up to IP56 . This type of transformer has several advantages, They are:
1. High mechanical strength.

2. Void free insulation.
3. No temperature fluctuation.
4. Easy maintenance.
5. Less prone to fire hazard.
Advantages of Dry Type Transformer
The main advantages of dry type transformer are given below.
 Safety for people and property.
 Maintenance and pollution-free solution.
 Easy installation.
 Side clearance is less.
 Environmentally friendly.
 Excellent capacity to support overloads.
 Reduced cost on civil installation works and fire protection systems.
 Excellent performance in case of seismic events.
 No fire hazard.
 Excellent resistance to short circuit currents.
 Long lasting due to low thermal and dielectric heating.
 Suited for damp and contaminated areas.
Disadvantages of Dry Type Transformer
But there are some disadvantages of dry type transformer, they are:
 Dry type transformer is long lasting and with less chance of winding failure.
But once it fails whole set up is to changed, i.e. complete change of high
voltage and low voltage winding with limb.
 For same power and voltage rating, dry type transformer is costlier than oil
cooled transformer.
Application of Dry Type Transformer
Dry type transformer are widely used in-
 Chemical, oil and gas industry
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 Environmentally sensitive areas (e.g. water protection areas)
 Fire-risk areas (e.g. forests)
 Inner-city substations
 Indoor and underground substations
 Renewable generation (e.g. off-shore wind turbines)
Important Factors to Design a Dry Type Transformer
The important design parameters for a dry type transformer are given below.
Choice of Insulation Type

Generally F and H class of insulation of insulation is used to insulate the primary
and secondary winding. It is because these classes have high temperature
withstand property, i.e. 155 degree Celsius for F and 180 degree Celsius for H
class of insulation. Generally varnish and polyester resin are used as insulation
of the winding. Apart from the temperature withstand capability, mechanical
strength; dielectric strength and resistance to thermal shock are the basic
capabilities that have to be fulfilled by the insulation selected for the windings.
Selection of Winding Material

Generally copper and aluminum are used to make the winding or coil. Though
copper is better conductor, aluminum conductor wound transformer possesses
low cost and weight. For the same current rating, copper conductor with less
cross section is used as the winding material in the transformer. Copper coil
provides more mechanical strength than aluminum coil.
Selection of Core Material with Low Hysteresis Loss
Core material selection is very important in transformer design. Core material
must possess high permeability and less hysteresis loss. But both cannot be
achieved in any core material. Generally silicon steel, CRGO etc are used to
allow minimum hysteresis loss with higher permeability.
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Regulation
When transformer secondary

voltage drops abruptly due to increase in load, this regulation is called poor
regulation. Poor regulation is due to transformer higher internal leakage
reactance. So, leakage reactance is kept within 2 % during design.
Life Expectancy
Life of the transformer depends on the breakdown of winding insulation due to
temperature rising effect in winding due to overloading. Normally class B, F and
H insulation is preferred for dry type transformer to withstand higher
temperature gradient including ambient temperature. So design of the
transformer must be done with respect to the rise of the temperature of
operating full load condition.
Losses
No load losses mean core loss and eddy current that is independent of loading
condition. But in loading condition copper loss occurs that includes the iron loss
to increase the value of voltage regulation, i.e. poor voltage regulation. Leakage
reactance and winding resistance must be within moderate value to minimize
this loss and better voltage regulation, thus higher efficiency.
Overloading
Over loading condition is harmful for transformer for long time span.
Overloading is the cause of overheating when transformer has to fulfill its
connected load demand. Hence huge amount of current makes copper loss in
the winding, and that causes transformer damage. To cool the winding, fan –
cooling system is provided in dry type transformer.
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K-factor
It is the ability of withstanding of heat generated by non sinusoidal current in
the transformer winding. Pure sine wave is not obtained in voltage and current
wave form. It is due to today’s various electronic devices uses. Several
harmonics are present in the voltage and current wave form. Robust design of a
transformer off course bothers k-factor to provide transformer long lasting life.
Insulation Level
In transformer design, insulation level adjustment is an important factor.
Generally insulation level is chosen as per basic impulse level and system over
voltage. Strong insulation level increases the life of a transformer.
2- Oil type transformer

In this type the coils and core are mounted in a tank filled with oil. It's loaded up
to (75-80) % of rating.
Insulation of windings
Paper is still used as basic insulation between turns and use varnish as
insulation of the conductor and the type of varnish is different according to the
operating voltage of the transformer.
Expansion tank (Conservator)
A small auxiliary oil tank mounted above the
transformer and connected to main tank by a
pipe. Its function is to keep transformer tank full
of oil.
Insulation oil
The coil used in transformer protects the paper from dirt and moisture and
removes the heat produced in the core and coils; it also acts as insulating
medium between winding and the outer body of transformer and between
other windings.
Oil must possess following properties
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1) High dielectric strength 2) Free from inorganic acid, alkali and corrosive
sulphur. 3) Low viscosity to provide good heat transfer. 4) Good resistance to
emulsion so that the oil may throw down any moisture entering the tank
instead of holding it.
Temperature gauge
Is to indicate hot oil or hottest spot
temperature. It is self contained weather
proof unit made of alarm contacts.
Oil gauge
Every transformer is fitted with an oil gauge to indicate the oil level present
inside the tank. It is provided with an alarm contact which gives an alarm when
the oil level drops beyond permissible height due to oil leak or due to any other
reason
Buchholz relay
First warning that fault is present is given by presence of bubbles in oil. It gives
an alarm in case of minor fault and to disconnect transformer from the supply
mains in case of severe faults.
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Breather
It is a chamber which prevents entry of moisture inside
the transformer tank. It is filled with drying agent such as
calcium chloride or silica gel. This absorbs moisture and
allows dry air to enter transformer tank. It is replaced
regularly.
Tap changer
It is a device fitted in the transformer which is used to
vary the voltage transformation ratio and there are two types:
1- Off load tap changer In this type the transformer must be disconnected to
change the tap changer
2- On load tap changer (OLTC) Unlike the previous type, this type provides
us the ability to change the tap changer while the transformer operates so this
type is much cost than first type.
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Bushing
Transformer Bushings are specially designed electrical terminals for taking out
winding ends (leads) through the openings provided on the top cover or wall of
the transformer tank and connecting to the incoming and outgoing lines.
Different Transformer Cooling methods are:

Air Cooling For Dry Type Transformers
•Air natural Type (A.N.)
•Air Forced type (A.F.)
Cooling For Oil Immersed Transformers
•Oil Natural Air Natural Type (O.N.A.N.)
•Oil Natural Air Forced Type (O.N.A.F.)
•Oil Forced Air Natural Type (O.F.A.N.)
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•Oil Forced Air Forced Type (O.F.A.F.)
Oil immersed Water Cooling
•Oil Natural Water Forced (O.N.W.F.)
•Oil Forced Water Forced (O.F.W.F.)
Parallel operation of transformers

Application of parallel transformers allows achieving the following benefits:
1) Reducing the total capacity of transformers by lowering the overall demand
load.
2) Reduction of electricity losses in transformers due to a possible disconnection
of unloaded transformers.
3) Improving the power quality due to the stable level of short circuit current
throughout the network.
4) Increasing the reliability of operation.
5) Possibility of placing transformers in operation phase-by-phase.
CONDITIONS for parallel Operation of Transformers:
1) Same voltage and Turns Ratio (both primary and secondary voltage rating is
same.
2) Same Percentage Impedance and X/R ratio.
3) Identical Position of Tap changer.
4) Same KVA ratings.
5) Same Phase angle shift (vector group are same).
6) Same Frequency rating.
7) Same Polarity.
8) Same Phase sequence.
Why is transformer rating in KVA?

Cu loss depends on Current and Iron loss depends upon voltage. Hence total loss
in transformer depends upon Volt- Ampere (VA) only and not on the phase
angle between voltage and current i.e., it is independent of load power factor.
Protection of transformer
Transformers are a critical and expensive component of the power system. Due
to the long lead time for repair of and replacement of transformers, a major
goal of transformer protection is limiting the damage to a faulted transformer.
Some protection functions, such as over excitation protection and temperature-
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based protection may aid this goal by identifying operating conditions that may
cause transformer failure. The comprehensive transformer protection provided
by multiple function protective relays is appropriate for critical transformers of
all applications.
The type of protection for the transformers varies depending on the application
and the importance of the transformer. Transformers are protected primarily
against faults and overloads. The type of protection used should minimize the
time of disconnection for faults within the transformer and to reduce the risk of
catastrophic failure to simplify eventual repair. Any extended operation of the
transformer under abnormal condition such as faults or overloads compromises
the life of the transformer, which means adequate protection should be
provided for quicker isolation of the transformer under such conditions.
1-Transformer overheating protection

The rating of a transformer is based on the temperature rise above an assumed
maximum ambient temperature; under this condition no sustained overload is
usually permissible. At a lower ambient temperature some degree of sustained
overload can be safely applied. Short-term overloads are also permissible to an
extent dependent on the previous loading conditions. The only certain
statement is that the winding must not overheat; a temperature of about 95oC
is considered to be the normal Fig (6.7.1.2) maximum working value beyond
which a further rise of 8oC-10oC, if sustained, will halve the insulation life of the
unit, Protection against overload is therefore based on winding temperature,
which is usually measured by a thermal image technique. Protection is arranged
to trip the transformer if excessive temperature is reached. The trip signal is
usually routed via a digital input of a protection relay on one side of the
transformer, with both alarm and trip facilities made available through
programmable logic in the relay. Intertripping between the relays on the two
sides of the transformer is usually applied to ensure total disconnection of the
transformer.
2-Transformer Over current Protection

Fuses may adequately protect small transformers, but larger ones require
overcurrent protection using a relay and circuit breaker, as fuses do not have
the required fault breaking capacity.
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1-Fuses
Fuses commonly protect small distribution transformers typically up to ratings
of 1 MVA at distribution voltages. In many cases no circuit breaker is provided,
making fuse protection the only available means of automatic isolation. The
fuse must have a rating well above the maximum transformer load current in
order to withstand the short duration overloads that may occur. Also, the fuses
must withstand the magnetizing inrush currents drawn when power
transformers are energized. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuses, although very
fast in operation with large fault currents, are extremely slow with currents of
less than three times their rated value. It follows that such fuses will do little to
protect the transformer, serving only to protect the system by disconnecting a
faulty transformer after the fault has reached an advanced stage. Fig (6.7.1.3.1)
shows typical ratings of fuses for use with 11kV transformers.
2-Over current Relays

With the advent of ring main units incorporating SF6 circuit breakers and
isolators, protection of distribution transformers can now be provided by
overcurrent trips (e.g. tripping controlled by time limit fuses connected across
the secondary winding of in-built current transformers) or by relays connected
to current transformers located on the transformer primary side. Over current
relays are also used on larger transformers provided with standard circuit
breaker control. Improvement in protection is obtained in two ways; the
excessive delays of the HRC fuse for lower fault currents are avoided and an
earth fault tripping element is provided in addition to the overcurrent feature.
The time delay characteristic should be chosen to discriminate with circuit
protection on the secondary side. A high set instantaneous relay element is
often provided, the current setting being chosen to avoid operation for a
secondary short circuit. This enables high speed clearance of primary terminal
short circuits.
3-Restricted Earth Fault Protection

Conventional earth fault protection using overcurrent elements fails to provide
adequate protection for transformer windings. This is particularly the case for a
star connected winding with impedance earthed neutral.
The degree of protection is very much improved by the application of restricted
earth fault protection. Restricted earth fault protection is often Fig (6.7.1.3.3)
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applied even when the neutral is solidly earthed. Since fault current then
remain at a high value even to the last turn of the winding, virtually complete
cover for earth faults is obtained. Both windings of a transformer can be
protected separately with restricted earth fault protection, thereby providing
high speed protection against earth faults for the whole transformer with
relatively simple equipment.
4-Differential Protection
The percentage differential protection or Merz-price protection based on the
circulating current principle can be used for protecting power transformers from
phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults. The principle of such a
protection scheme is the comparison of the currents entering and leaving the
primary and secondary sides of the power transformer
The vector differences (I1-I2) passes through the operating coil while the
average current (I1+I2)/2 passes through the restraining coil. In normal
conditions, the two currents at the two ends of the transformer are equal and
balance is maintained. So no current will flows in through the operating coil of
the relay and it will be inoperative. But when there is a phase to phase fault or
phase to ground fault in the transformer winding or terminals, this balance gets
disturbed. The difference current flows through the operating coil due to which
relay operates, tripping the circuit breakers.
In applying the differential protection with the power transformer, four
important points must be taken into considerations. These points are:
1. In a power transformer, the currents on the primary and secondary sides are
different by the transformer turns ratio. To compensate this difference, the
current ratios of the C.T.s on each side must be different. These ratios depend
on the line currents of the power transformer and the connection of C.T.s. The
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currents fed into the pilot wires from each end must be same under normal
conditions.
2. In case of power transformers, there is an inherent phase difference between
the voltage induced in high voltage winding and low voltage winding. This
introduces the phase difference between the C.T. secondary currents, which will
cause the relay to operate under normal conditions. So it is necessary to correct
this phase difference. To achieve this, the secondaries of C.T.s on star connected
side of a power transformer are connected in delta while the secondaries of
C.T.s on delta connected side of a power transformer are connected in star.
3. The neutrals of C.T. star and power transformer stars are grounded.
4. Many transformers have tap changing arrangement due to which there is a
possibility of flow of differential current. For this, the turns ratio of C.T.s on both
sides of the power transformer are provided with tap for of C.T.s on both sides
of the power transformer are provided with tap for their adjustment
4-Over fluxing Protection

Over fluxing arises principally from the following system conditions:
- High system voltage
- Low system frequency
- Geomagnetic disturbances
The latter results in low frequency earth currents circulating through a
transmission system. Since momentary system disturbances can cause
transient over fluxing that is dangerous, time delayed tripping is required.
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The normal protection is an IDMT or definite time characteristic, initiated if a
defined V/f threshold is exceeded. Often separate alarm and trip elements are
provided. The alarm function would be a definite time delayed and the trip
function would be an IDMT characteristic. A typical characteristic is shown
in figure. Geomagnetic disturbances may result in over fluxing without the V/f
threshold being exceeded.
Some relays provide a 5th harmonic detection feature, which can be used to
detect such a condition, as levels of this harmonic rise under over fluxing
conditions.
in our project :
The total demand load = 5278.24 kVA
For hospital a diversty factor of
0.9
Then the required kVA =
5278.24*0.9 =4750.42 kVA
Due to our calculation :

Our project will be fed from two dry transformer with enclosure each of them
2.5 MVA
In addition to a dry backup transformer with enclosure of 2.5 MVA according

to el sewedy catalogue
170
CHAPTER 13
DIESEL GENERATOR
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Introduction:
 A diesel generator is the combination of a diesel engine with an electric
generator (often an alternator) to generate electrical of engine-generator.
 A diesel compression-ignition engine often is designed to run on fuel oil, but
some types are adapted for other liquid fuels or natural gas energy, this is a
specific case.
Function:
Standby diesel generator is used to feed the very important loads in case the
main supply is being cut off.
Diesel generator is preferred to propane or natural gas due to many reasons:
 Longer Life - a well maintained liquid cooled diesel will run up to 40,000
hours before overhaul...air cooled natural gas or lP only will last 1,000 to
2,000 hours! Liquid Cooled Models may last up to 6,000 hours.
 Lower Maintenance - diesels do not require a spark ignition system
they fire on compression, thus no spark plugs, plug wires, distributor or coil
to fail.
 Improved Fuel Consumption - a 10kW propane fueled generator will
consume 2.8 gallons of propane per hour; a 10kW liquid cooled diesel will
only consume 0.8 gallons per hour.
The main differences between the gasoline

generator engine and the diesel generator engine
are:
The diesel generator engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and
compresses it, and that it then injects the fuel directly into the combustion
chamber (direct injection). It is the heat of the compressed air that lights the
fuel in a diesel engine.
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A gasoline engine intakes a mixture of gas and air, compresses it and ignites the
mixture with a spark. A diesel engine takes in just air, compresses it and then
injects fuel into the compressed air. The heat of the compressed air lights the
fuel spontaneously.
A gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a diesel engine
compresses at a ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1. The higher compression ratio of
the diesel engine leads to better efficiency.
Gasoline engines generally use either carburetion, in which the air and fuel is
mixed long before the air enters the cylinder, or port fuel injection, in which the
fuel is injected just prior to the intake stroke (outside the cylinder). Diesel
engines use direct fuel injection -- the diesel fuel is injected directly into the
cylinder.
Diesel engine cooling systems:

Diesel engines shall be liquid cooled. Liquid coolant systems consist of unit-
mounted or remote fan-cooled radiators and water-cooled heat exchangers.
Adequate freeze protection shall be provided for the engine cooling system.
Unit-mounted radiators are installed on the base of the generator set in front of
the engine. The mounted radiator with a radiator fan is typically the most
economical method of cooling an engine. The air stream drawn over the engine
by the fan is pushed through the radiator. This action provides surface cooling
for the engine together with cooling of the engine coolant in the radiator.
Radiator and fan cooling is independent of potentially interruptible utility
supplied cooling water. In addition, coolant can be treated rust inhibitors, anti-
freeze.
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Some installations require the radiator and fan be mounted separately from the
generator set. While these systems offer more versatility, might require less
power for generator room ventilation, and can use low-noise fans, these
systems are more expensive in original cost than the unit-mounted radiators.
Also, application of a remote radiator requires careful planning and design to
ensure proper cooling of the equipment. The design of this type of cooling
system requires a qualified consulting engineer with hydraulic cooling system
design experience.
Heat exchanger cooling eliminates the necessity of both a radiator and the
associated cooling fan. Raw water or cooling tower water is used for cooling the
engine coolant. Heat is radiated from the engine coolant to the heat exchanger.
The heat exchanger radiates heat to the raw water or cooling tower water. The
heat exchanger consists of tubing within a surrounding “shell.” Engine coolant in
the heat exchanger does not mix with the raw water or cooling tower water in
the tubes. Raw water or cooling tower water passing through the tubes absorbs
engine heat from the separated engine coolant in the heat exchanger shell.
Cooling towers and evaporative coolers are both used to dissipate diesel engine
heat to the atmosphere. They may be used where ambient air is sufficiently cool
and dry (low relative humidity) to absorb water vapor. As water is sprayed or
divided into many small streams, some will evaporate to the passing air. The air
which is now moist may be warmed by the water (if the water was originally
warmer than the air), thus removing more heat from the water. In a cooling
tower, the fluid to be cooled is exposed to the air. Approximately 80 percent of
the heat removed is due to evaporation. The tower may use atmospheric draft
or fans to move the air. Makeup water is required to replace that lost by
evaporation or entrained spray. Water treatment and blow down are necessary
because salts are concentrated by the evaporation. In an evaporative cooler, the
coolant passes through tubes. The tube bundle lies inside the cooling tower. The
cooling tower spray and air movement cool the tubes but do not mix with the
coolant.
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Engine coolant heaters
The diesel generators must be easily started in all seasons of the year.
Thermostatically controlled engine coolant heaters shall be provided to increase
starting reliability, increase engine life, and increase generator set load
acceptance. The engine water jacket heaters shall maintain the jacket water
temperature at not less than 90 F. All water jacket heaters shall be
automatically deactivated while the diesel engine is running. Thermostats are
used to control operation of the heaters by sensing coolant or engine block
temperature. Engine coolant heaters shall be connected to the normal
(commercial) power source.
Lubrication system
The bearings and moving parts of all diesel engines are lubricated by a full
pressure lubrication system. Large engines require a large quantity of oil, a
separate oil sump tank is installed to receive oil from the crankcase. The
lubricating oil pump draws oil from the sump tank through the strainers. Oil is
then discharged, under pressure, into the oil cooler. The oil then goes to a
header, located on the engine, with branches leading to the various parts of the
system.
Circulating lubricating oil absorbs heat from the engine. Frictional heat is
absorbed from the bearings. The oil film on the cylinder walls absorbs heat from
the combustion space before this oil film drains into the crankcase. Therefore,
heat must be dissipated from the oil by an oil cooler to keep the temperature
below manufacturer’s recommendation. Oil coolers should be placed in the oil
circuit after the lubricating oil filter. The oil filter then handles hot oil of lower
viscosity than if it received cooled oil.
The filter performance is better and the pressure drop through it is less with this
arrangement. Coolers are usually mounted on the side of the engine or on the
floor alongside of the engine base. Cooling water passes through the oil cooler
before entering the engine jacket. Consideration shall be given to providing
diesel engine prime movers with lubricating oil heaters to ensure quick starting
175
Engine protection:
Engines shall be equipped with automatic engine shutdown devices for high
jacket water temperature or high cylinder temperature, low lubricating oil
pressure or oil level, and engine over speed/high speed. If the generator engine
will be constantly attended, an alarm shall be permissible in lieu of the
shutdown devices.
In healthcare situations, hundreds of people may be relying on electrically run

equipment to furnish their health requirements, from intravenous feeding to
heart monitoring to oxygen intake to on-going surgical procedures. Electrical
power is essentially their life-line.
This generator which is used to supply power to the emergency loads in case
that the main supply fails due to any circumstances, this generator takes about
from 30 seconds to 1 minute to begin work.
176
This is a figure shows how does the generator link between the board panels
and its link with the emergency loads.
DPDT Transfer Switch

The DPDT transfer switch offers protection against dangerous back feed of
electricity from the generator into power lines.
It also minimizes potential fire hazards and other serious damage. Back feed
may make a generator try to supply load beyond its capacity and thus damage
both the generator and any connected equipment or appliances.
177
Some of the emergency loads the power should not be cut off from it for 1
second like surgery rooms and childbirth room and computers these sensitive
places the power can't be cut off from it so this need to use the Uninterruptible
power supply which is a battery that is fed from the main source supply during
normal operation when this main supply fails this (UPS) begin these emergency
loads until the standby generator start feeding all the emergency loads.
Installation Conditions of standby generator

1) The room should be great enough to contain the machine with its accessories
with the existing of spaces, which allow safe, right maintenance and the ability
of removing any part outside the room if any external maintenance is needed.
2) Good ventilation for this room is a must due to the large Radiated heat from
the generating unit.
3) The location of fuel tank and the feeding type are affected by the room
height, usually large tanks are located in the ground level, and pump is needed
to feed the machine with fuel.
4) We should care about exhaust path; it must be as short as Possible. Also we
must increase the cross section area of Exhaust pipe.
178
5) The connection between the machine and exhaust pipe must Be flexible to
prevent the vibration transfer to exhaust pipe, Which may damage it.
6) The cables exiting from the generator terminal box must be
Flexible and withstand mechanical and thermal stresses.
Factors of diesel generator selection

1) The required kilowatts or kilo-volt-ampere.
2) The required reserve capacity of the generator for future expansion in the
load.
3) The system voltage level.
4) The required operation mechanism.
5) The generator size and cost
Derating factors of diesel generator:

1) Load power factor
2) Altitude above sea level
3) The Ambient Temperature
4) Motors starting method
5) Variable frequency drive (VFD) motors
6) Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) loads
7) Medical imaging loads
8) Regenerative loads
9) Battery charger loads
10) Duty cycle
(1) Load power factor

Generator are designed for a worst power factor of 0.8 (lag). A lower power
factor demands a higher excitation and results in increased heating of the field
winding.
179
(2) Altitude above sea level
180
(3) The Ambient Temperature
(4) Motors starting method

The diesel generator must be large enough to stand the high starting current
involved. Induction motors generally have a high starting current and low power
factor during starting. To determine the size of the generator set required to
start a given induction motor
181
182
(5) Variable frequency drive (VFD) motors
Variable frequency drives are non-linear loads, induce Harmonic currents which
causes distortion in generator output voltage and overheating generator,
therefore larger generator size is required to limit these effects.
 for six-pulse VFD
A typical generator sizing factor is twice the running KW of the drive
 for pulse width modulated (PWM) VFD, or include filters to limit
current distortion to less than 10%,
Generator sizing factor is 1.4 times running KW of the drive
(6) Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) loads

Effects of UPS on diesel generator:
1) Efficiency (power conversion losses)
2) Harmonic current produced which causes voltage waveform distortion
and overheating.
3) Battery charging current.
According to GENERIC generator sizing guide

a) Passive and line interactive UPS: limit the total UPS loading to 15% - 20%
of the generator capacity.
b) Double-conversion UPS:
 Single phase models: limit the total UPS loading to 25% of the generator
capacity
 Single phase Minuteman UPS models: limit the total UPS loading to 50%
of generator capacity
 Three phase models with filters (current distortion < 10%): limit the UPS
loading to 80% of the generator capacity
183
(7) Medical imaging loads (CAT scan, MRI, and X-ray
equipment)
 The generator set should be sized to limit the voltage dip to 10 percent to
protect image quality.
 Selection of diesel generator for Medical imaging loads
(8) Regenerative loads (elevators, cranes and hoists)

Diesel generator has to be oversized to absorb power generated from this loads
during braking, failure to absorb this energy will lead to over speeding and shut
down of generator
To avoid problems it is best to follow a couple of simple rules:
1) The elevator load on the generator should be assumed to Be at least
twice the lift motor nameplate rating;
2) The elevator load should be less than 20% of the total load on the
Generator.
(9) Battery charger loads

A battery charger is a non-linear load requiring an oversized alternator based on
the number of rectifiers (pulses) up to 2.5 times the steady-state running load
for three- pulse; to 1.15 times the steady-state running load for 12-pulse.
184
(10) Duty cycle
There are three duty classifications for generator set
A) Standby: - used as a backup to utility power supply no overload capacity
B) Prime power: - generator is the primary source for variable Loads 10%
overload capacity is added for generator size
C) Continuous: generator is the primary source for constant Loads. 30%
Overload capacity is added for generator size
Type KVA Load Power Factor

Lighting 53.60 1.00
UPS 52.00 1.00
Lifts 167.70 1.00
Pumps 137.50 1.00
Super Market 99.40 1.00
Fans 165.00 1.00
D.X. 168.75 1.00
Generator
185
Altitude above sea level Temperature Motor Starting
1.00 0.88 1.00
1.00 0.88 1.00
1.00 0.88 1.00
1.00 0.88 2.00
1.00 0.88 1.00
1.00 0.88 1.00
1.00 0.88 1.00
VFD Motors U.P.S. Total KVA

1.00 1.00 60.91
1.00 1.25 73.86
2.00 1.00 381.14
1.00 1.00 312.50
1.00 1.00 112.95
1.00 1.00 187.50
1.00 1.00 191.76
1320.63
186
In Our Project:
We used 1 generator of rating 1405 KVA according to Cummins
Catalogue without acoustic treatment with Room Dimensions:
Length 7500 mm
Width 4000 mm
Height 3500 mm
187
CHAPTER 14
Uninterrupted Power
Supply “UPS”
188
Introduction:-
The varied types of UPSs and their attributes often cause confusion in the
data center industry. For example, it is widely believed that there are only
two types of UPS systems, namely standby UPS and online UPS. These
two commonly used terms do not correctly describe many of the UPS
systems available.
Many misunderstandings about UPS systems are cleared up when the
different types of UPS topologies are properly identified. UPS topology
indicates the basic nature of the UPS design. Various vendors routinely
produce models with similar designs, or topologies, but with very
different performance characteristics.
Common design approaches are reviewed here, including brief
explanations about how each topology works. This will help you to
properly identify and compare systems.
UPS types:-
A variety of design approaches are used to implement UPS systems, each
with distinct performance characteristics. The most common design
approaches are as follows:
• Standby
• Line Interactive
• Standby-Ferro
• Double Conversion On-Line
• Delta Conversion On-Line
1)The Standby UPS
189
The Standby UPS is the most common type used for Personal Computers.
In the block diagram illustrated in Figure 1, the transfer switch is set to
choose the filtered AC input as the primary power source (solid line path),
and switches to the battery / inverter as the backup source should the
primary source fail. When that Happens, the transfer switch must operate
to switch the load over to the battery / inverter backup power
Source (dashed path). The inverter only starts when the power fails,
hence the name "Standby." High efficiency, small size, and low cost are
the main benefits of this design. With proper filter and surge circuitry,
These systems can also provide adequate noise filtration and surge
suppression.
Figure 1 – Standby UPS
Operating principle
a) Normal mode
• The load is supplied from the Ac-input.
• The battery is charged through charger from the Ac-input.
• The inverter is on passive standby.
b) Stored energy mode
• The load is supplied from the battery through the inverter.
• The UPS continues to operate on battery power for the duration of the
backup time or until the Ac-input supply voltage returns to within the
specified tolerance, at which point the UPS returns to its normal mode.
190
Advantages
1) Simple design
2) Low cost
3) Small size
Disadvantages
1) No real isolation of the load from the distribution system.

2) Long transferring (switching) time.
2) The Line Interactive UPS

The Line Interactive UPS, illustrated in Figure 2, is the most common
design used for small business, Web, and departmental servers. In this
design, the battery-to-AC power converter (inverter) is always connected
to the output of the UPS. Operating the inverter in reverse during times
when the input AC power is normal provides battery charging.
When the input power fails, the transfer switch opens and the power
flows from the battery to the UPS output. With the inverter always on
and connected to the output, this design provides additional filtering and
yields reduced switching transients when compared with the Standby UPS
topology.
In addition, the Line Interactive design usually incorporates a tap-
changing transformer. This adds voltage regulation by adjusting
transformer taps as the input voltage varies. Voltage regulation is an
important feature when low voltage conditions exist, otherwise the UPS
would transfer to battery and then eventually down the load. This more
frequent battery usage can cause premature battery failure. However, the
inverter can also be designed such that its failure will still permit power
flow from the AC input to the output, which eliminates the potential of
single point failure and effectively provides for two independent power
paths. High efficiency, small size, low cost and high reliability coupled
with the ability to correct low or high line voltage conditions make this
the dominant type of UPS in the 0.5-5kVA power range.
191
Operating principle
a) Normal mode
• The load is supplied from the Ac-input power via a parallel connection
of the UPS inverter with the Ac main.
• The inverter charges the battery (reversible operation).
• When the input power fails, the transfer switch opens and the power
flows from the battery to the UPS output.
• The inverter and battery continue to support load power until the end
of the stored energy time or the Ac-input return to within UPS preset
tolerances, at which point the UPS returns to normal mode
Advantages
1. Low cost.
Disadvantages
1. No real isolation of the load from the distribution system.

2. Low efficiency.
3. Poor protection against overvoltage.
192
3) The Standby-Ferro UPS
The Standby-Ferro UPS was once the dominant form of UPS in the 3-
15kVA range. This design depends on a special saturating transformer
that has three windings (power connections). The primary power path is
from AC input, through a transfer switch, through the transformer, and to
the output. In the case of a power failure, the transfer switch is opened,
and the inverter picks up the output load.
In the Standby-Ferro design, the inverter is in the standby mode, and is
energized when the input power fails and the transfer switch is opened.
The transformer has a special "Ferro-resonant" capability, which provides
limited voltage regulation and output waveform "shaping". The isolation
from AC power transients provided by the Ferro transformer is as good as
or better than any filter available. But the Ferro transformer itself creates
severe output voltage distortion and transients, which can be worse than
a poor AC connection.
Even though it is a standby UPS by design, the Standby-Ferro generates a
great deal of heat because the Ferro-resonant transformer is inherently
inefficient. These transformers are also large relative to regular isolation
transformers; so standby-Ferro UPS are generally quite large and heavy.
standby-Ferro UPS systems are frequently represented as On-Line units,
even though they have a transfer switch, the inverter operates in the
standby mode, and they exhibit a transfer characteristic during an AC
power failure. Figure 3 illustrates this Standby-Ferro topology.
193
High reliability and excellent line filtering are this design’s strengths.
However, the design has very low efficiency combined with instability
when used with some generators and newer power-factor corrected
computers, causing the popularity of this design to decrease significantly.
The principal reason why Standby-Ferro UPS systems are no longer
commonly used is that they can be fundamentally unstable when
operating a modern computer power supply load. All large servers and
routers use “Power Factor Corrected” power supplies which draw only
sinusoidal current from the utility, much like an incandescent bulb. This
smooth current draw is achieved using capacitors, devices which ‘lead'
the applied voltage, Ferro resonant UPS system utilize heavy core
transformers which have an inductive characteristic, meaning that the
current 'lags' the voltage. The combination of these two items form what
is referred to as a 'tank' circuit. Resonance or 'ringing' in a tank circuit can
cause high currents, which jeopardize the connected load.
4-The Double Conversion On-Line UPS
This is the most common type of UPS above 10kVA. The block diagram of
the Double Conversion On-Line UPS, illustrated in Figure 4, is the same as
the Standby, except that the primary power path is the inverter instead of
the AC main.
Figure 4 – Double Conversion On-Line UPS
194
In the Double Conversion On-Line design, failure of the input AC does not
cause activation of the transfer Switch, because the input AC is charging
the backup battery source which provides power to the output inverter.
Therefore, during an input AC power failure, on-line operation results in
no transfer time.
Both the battery charger and the inverter convert the entire load power
flow in this design, resulting in reduced efficiency with its associated
increased heat generation.
This UPS provides nearly ideal electrical output performance. But the
constant wear on the power components reduces reliability over other
designs and the energy consumed by the electrical power inefficiency is a
significant part of the life-cycle cost of the UPS. Also, the input power
drawn by the large battery charger is often non-linear and can interfere
with building power wiring or cause problems with Standby generators.
Operating principle
a) Normal mode
The load is continuously supplied via the rectifier/charger – inverter
combination.
When the Ac-input voltage goes outside UPS preset tolerances or fails,
the inverter and battery continue to support load power until the end of
the stored energy time or the Ac-input return to within UPS preset
tolerances, at which point the UPS returns to normal mode.
Advantages
1. Isolation of the load from the distribution system.
2. Instantaneous transfer to stored energy mode.
Disadvantages
1. High cost.
195
5-The Delta Conversion On-Line UPS
This UPS design, illustrated in Figure 5, is a newer, 10 year old technology

introduced to eliminate the drawbacks of the Double Conversion On-Line
design and is available in sizes ranging from 5kVA to 1.6MW.
Similar to the Double Conversion On-Line design, the Delta Conversion
On-Line UPS always has the inverter supplying the load voltage. However,
the additional Delta Converter also contributes power to the inverter
output. Under conditions of AC failure or disturbances, this design
exhibits behavior identical to the double Conversion On-Line.
Figure 5 – Delta Conversion On-Line UPS
Summary of UPS types

The following table shows some of the characteristics of the various UPS
types. Some attributes of a UPS, like efficiency, are dictated by the choice
of UPS type. Since implementation and manufactured quality more
strongly impact characteristics such as reliability, these factors must be
evaluated in addition to these design attributes.
196
Loads of UPS
197
So we choose UPS ( 60 KVA ) according to astrid
catalogue ( HALLEY E ) Model.
198
CHAPTER 15
SHORT CIRCUIT
&
VOLTAGE DROP
199
Introduction:-
Knowledge of 3-phase symmetrical short-circuits current values (Isc) at
strategic points of an installation is necessary in order to dimension
switchgear (fault current rating); cables (thermal withstand rating);
protective devices (discriminative trip settings) and so on...
In the following chapter a 3-phase short-circuit for a distributed electrical
system fed through a typical HV/LV distribution transformer will be
examined.
Except in very unusual circumstances, this type of fault is the most severe,
and is certainly the simplest to calculate.
The simplified calculations and practical rules which follow give
conservative results of sufficient accuracy, in the large majority of cases,
for installation design purposes.
(3-phase) short-circuit current (Isc) at any point

within a LV installation:
In a 3-phase installation Isc at any point is given by:
Where:
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of
the power supply transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault
location (in Ω)
Method of calculating ZT:

Each component of an installation (HV network, transformer, cable,
circuit breaker, bus bar, and so on...) is characterized by its impedance Z,
comprising an element of resistance (R) and an inductive reactance (X). It
may be noted that capacitive reactances are not important in short-circuit
current calculations.
200
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the
sides of a right-angled triangle.
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and
to calculate the R and X values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network all the resistive
elements in the section are added arithmetically; likewise for the
reactances, to give RT and XT. The impedance (Z) for the combined
sections concerned is then calculated from
A-Determination of the impedance of the HV network:

Network upstream of the HV/LV transformer (see following table )
The 3-phase short-circuits fault level in kA or in MVA is given by the
power supply authority concerned, from which equivalent impedance can
be deduced.
S.C.KVA Us(volt) Rsc (m.ohm) Xsc (m.ohm)

250 , 000 230 0.095 0.633
500 , 000 230 0.047 0.316
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the
impedance to an equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
Where:
Zs = impedance of the HV voltage network, expressed in milli-ohms
Uo = phase-to-phase no-load LV voltage, expressed in volts
Psc = HV 3-phase short-circuit fault level, expressed in kVA
201
B-Transformers impedance :
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is
given by the formula:
U20 = open-circuit secondary phase-to phase voltage expressed in volts

Pn = rating of the transformer (in kVA)
Usc = the short-circuit impedance voltage of the transformer expressed in
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total
losses as follows:
Where:
Pcu = total losses in watts
In = nominal full-load current in amps
Rtr = resistance of one phase of the transformer in milli-ohms (the LV and
corresponding HV winding for one LV phase are included in this resistance
value).
For an approximate calculation Rtr may be ignored since X ≈ Z in standard

distribution type transformers.
202
Transformer Oil-immersed transformer Cast-resin transformer
KVA Usc Rtr Xtr Ztr Usc Rtr Xtr Ztr
mΩ
% mΩ mΩ % mΩ mΩ mΩ
50 4 70.3 107 128
100 4 28 57.5 64 6 33.5 100.4 105.8
160 4 14.7 37.5 40 6 18.6 63.5 66.2
250 4 8.3 24.2 25.6 6 10.7 41 42.4
315 4 6.28 19.3 20.3 6 8.2 32.6 33.6
400 4 4.6 15.3 16 6 6.1 25.8 26.5
500 4 3.52 12.3 12.8 6 4.6 20.7 21.2
630 4 2.62 9.82 10.16 6 3.5 16.4 16.8
800 4.5 2.55 8.63 9 6 2.6 13 13.3
1000 5 1.94 7.76 8 6 1.9 10.4 10.6
1250 5 1.51 6.78 7.04 6 1.5 8.3 8.4
1600 6 1.13 5.89 6 6 1.1 6.5 6.6
2000 6 0.9 5.53 5.6 6 0.8 5.2 5.3
2500 6 0.9 4.1 4.2 6 0.6 4.2 4.2
C-Circuit breakers:
In LV circuits, the impedance of circuit breakers upstream of the fault
location must be taken into account. The reactance value conventionally
assumed is 0.15 mΩ per CB, while the resistance is neglected.
D-Busbars:
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is
practically all reactive, and amounts to approximately 0.15 mΩ/meter
203
Short circuit curent(ka) S rated of transformer (kva)
3.6 100
4.5 125
5.8 160
7.2 200
9 250
11.4 315
14.4 400
18 500
22.7 630
23.1 800
28.9 1000
36.1 1250
37 1600
46.2 2000
57.7 2500
length for LV busbars (doubling the spacing between the bars increases
the reactance by about 10% only).
204
E-Circuit conductors:
The resistance of a conductor is given by the formula:
Where:
ρ = the resistivity constant of the conductor material at the normal
operating temperature being:
 22.5 mΩ.mm2/m for copper
 36 mΩ.mm2/m for aluminum
L = length of the conductor in m
S = C.S.A. of conductor in mm2
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For

C.S.A. of less than 50 mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of
other information, a value of 0.08 mΩ/meter may be used (for 50 Hz
systems) or 0.096 mΩ/meter (for 60 Hz systems). For prefabricated bus-
trunking and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the manufacturer should
be consulted.
F-Fault-arc resistance:
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of
resistance.
The resistance is not stable and its average value is low, but at low
voltage this resistance is sufficient to reduce the fault-current to some
extent. Experience has shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively ease the current-breaking
duty of a CB, but affords no relief for its fault current making duty.
205
Voltage drop calculation:-
After applying de-rating to the cables according to the nature and the way of
the installation. We must choose calculate voltage drop in the cables and it
shouldn’t exceed 5% or 8% in case of emergency and for Some standard
(3:6%).
Why we make voltage drop calculation?

 The reduction in voltage by a ratio of 1% make incandescent lamps light
reduce 3%.
 Some devices that used in homes that operates with motors. Any reduction
in voltage make the devices motors draw more current if this current
increased by 10% the breaker will not sense this current if it continue for a
long time it may burn the motorized devices.
Methods of voltage drop calculation.

There is 4 methods to calculate the voltage drop in cables.
First method
It is the most accurate method by using this equation.
Factors affecting the cable:

R : Cable resistance.
X : cable reactance.
p.f: power factor.
Iph: The phase current.
Second method
Or it can be more simplified as below
206
We notice here that either the R or X of the cable is negligible , and this is
logical in small cross sectional area cables.
Third method
By using the tables of catalogue of cable companies, from these tables we use
the voltage drop mV/M/A. And this method use the cable length and the
current passing through the cable.
For example:-
Cable with cross sectional area 70 mm2 and with insulation PVC/PVC and its
installation will be trefoil. The voltage drop will be 0.534 mv/AMP/Meter . If
the cable length is 500 m and current passing across it is 100 A. So voltage
drop inside through the cable is 100*500*0.534 = 26.7 Volt.
207
If the impedance of the cable is known in per unit. So the voltage drop from
this equation
Some notes about voltage drop in cables

 for single phase the V.D is multiplied by 2.
 For three phase the V.D is multiplied by 1.732.
 The voltage drop in three phase as a ratio of line voltage.
 Most of Companies tables are given multiplied by 2 for single phase and 1.73
for three phase.
A real example from our project

A transformer of 2500KVA has a percentage impedance of 6 %. The voltage
drop across the transformer terminal is 0.06*400 ,
400 is the secondary voltage of the transformer.
So voltage drop 0.06*400 = 24 Volt.
The bus bar voltage drop from the transformer to the main distribution board is
negligible.
And we used bus bar from the main distribution of the transformer to the main
board of the zone so we neglect the voltage drop of it.
208
CHAPTER 16
POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION
209
Introduction:-
The active power P (in kW) is the real power transmitted to loads such as
motors, lamps, heaters, and computers … The electrical active power is
transformed into mechanical power, heat or light.
The reactive power Q (in KVAR) is used only to supply the magnetic circuits of
machines, motors and transformers.
The apparent power S (in kVA) is the vector combination of active and reactive
power.
Power factor (pf):
Is the ratio of the active (true) power absorbed by the load to the apparent
power.
Power triangle
S=P+JQ= VI
P=|S| COS Ø =VI COS Ø
Q=|S| Sin Ø =VI sin Ø
PF=P/S=COS Ø
210
The power factor is dimensionless and range between 0 and 1
When the nature of the load is purely resistive the KVAR or the reactive
component will be nil and thus the angle φ will be equal to 0 degrees and the
power factor will be equal to unity.
For Inductive loads: There will be a reactive Power and so power factor
is lagging (the current lags behind the voltage so the power factor is said to be
lagging).
For Capacitive loads: There will be a reactive Power and so power
factor is leading (the current leads the voltage so the power factor is said to be
leading).
Why do we need power factor correction:-

The circulation of reactive power in the electrical network hasmajor technical
and economic consequences. For the same active power P, a higher reactive
power means a higher apparent power and thus, a higher current must be
supplied.
Due to this higher supplied current, circulation of reactive energy on
distribution networks results in:
●Overload of transformers
●Higher temperature rise of the supply cables
●Additional losses
●Large voltage drops
●Higher energy consumption and cost
●Less distributed active power.
For these reasons we need to make
Power Factor Correction

Note:
● In Egypt, the power factor penalty depends on how measured power

factor is below 0.9.
211
For example:
● If factory has annual power pill 1,000,000 LE and has average power factor
0.7, so this factory will pay penalty to the electricity company which equal:
= (0.9-0.7) x 0.5 x 1000000 =100,000 LE add to the annual power pill
● If factory has annual power pill 1,000,000 LE and has average power factor
0.95, so this factory will have discount from the electricity company which
equal:
=(0.95-0.92) x 0.5 x 1000000 =15,000 LE remove from the annual pill.
Importance of power factor improvement:-
212
1) limination of power factor penalty :
Improves your system power factor, reduces total KVA saving your money
on your electric power bill.
2) Additional Capacity in Electrical System :
Increase system capacity by reducing loading ( KVA) on transformers, saving you
from making new capital investment to serve new electrical loads.
3) Reduction of Distribution System Currents :
A load or a plant consuming power P and reactive power Q under voltage V
draws a current I
4) Reduction of I2R Loss :

When power factor improved reduce the drawn current by the load and since
power loss is proportional to current squared (PLOSS=I^2*R), so improving the
power factor reduce loss in the used conductors.
Reduces system losses, saving energy costs and allowing your equipment to run
of reduction in the drawing current.
5) Reduction inCross Sections Of Feeders And Cables :
Improving load power factor means reduction in conductor cross section as a
result of reduction in the drawing current
6) Reduce voltage drop
213
TYPES OF REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION
SYSTEM:-
1) Static VAR COMPENSATION By using bank of capacitor
1.1) Fixed capacitors :
Consists of capacitor bank connected in parallel with the network, the

total Reactive power of capacitor bank is provided by the assembly of
capacitors of identical or different unit powers.
The bank is energized by a contactor that simultaneously supplies the
capacitors (A single step).so this arrangement is employed to form a
constant level of Compensation.
Drawbacks of fixed power factor correction are the Danger of Excess
capacitance can cause leading Power Factor at light load operation
conditions.
1.2) Automatic power factor correction system (Automatic capacitor

bank):
Consists of several capacitor banks of identical or different powers
(several steps), energized separately according to the value of the power
factor to be corrected.
Types of switching in APFC System:

1) Contactor Switching
2) Thyristor Switching
Power Factor sensing is done by the APFC Relay (Reactive Power

Controller), which sends the control signal to the switching device
(Contactor/Thyristor).
● The switching device takes the command (order) from the relay and
switches the required Capacitor stages.
214
Synchronous condenser :
Synchronous condenser is a Synchronous motor at certain condition, this
condition is:
1-Synchronous motor running at no-load
2-Synchronous motor operates at over-excited. (Lead current).
Disadvantage:
1- Have losses.
2- The maintenance cost is high.
3- It produces noise.
Location of Capacitors
There are several places to be chosen to install the correction capacitors,
these choices are as the following:
1-Individual compensation:
Capacitors are installed at individual load directly.
Advantages:
Significant reactive currents no longer exist in the installation, so it reduces the
size of all cables as well as the cable losses.
2-Group compensation:
Capacitors are installed at distribution points for group of loads.
Disadvantages:
Reduces reactive current flows in cables before capacitors units (upstream of
215
local distribution board), but the reactive current still flows in all conductors
after capacitors units (downstream of local distribution board), so the sizing of
these cables, and power losses in them, are not improved by the Group
compensation.
3- Overall compensation:
Capacitors are installed at the main bus bar.
Disadvantages:
Reduces reactive current flows in cables before capacitors units (upstream of
main LV distribution board), but the reactive current still flows in all conductors
after capacitors units (downstream of main LV distribution board), so the sizing
of these cables, and power losses in them, are not improved by the overall
compensation.
How to make power factor correction?

● Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power
circuit closer to 1 by adding capacitors in parallel with load to supply load by
part of required reactive power instead of take all these reactive powers from
supply ,so the amount of the taking reactive power from the supply is
reduced and since the amount of active power is constant (power of
connected loads), So the amount of apparent power that drawn by the load
from the source is reduced.
216
Calculation of the Capacitors Ratings
Static capacitors units that used for power factor improvements are
normally rated in terms of KVAR.
To calculate the KVAR required for particular load power factor improvement,
three information’s are necessary:
1-The load power or KW of the system or load.

2-The existing power factor.
3-The desired power factor.
First method
Fig. (a) Shows a typical required reactive power

Qc with power factor correction form cos φ1 to
cos φ2 for load power P in KW
Qc= Q1 - Q2
Qc= P tan Ø1 - P tanØ2
Qc = P (tan Ø1 – tan Ø2)
C =Qc / (2Π f V²)
217
Where
Qc: The capacitor rating required for power factor correction (KVAR) (reactive
power supplied from capacitor)
P: The load active power
C: The capacitor capacitance, F: The system frequency
V: The capacitor terminal voltage, Cos Ø1: The initial power factor
Cos Ø2: The new high power factor (desired power factor)
(tan φ1 - tan φ2) : The correction factor
Second method
By using table
Get the inter section between the desired power factor and the old power
factor QC=intersection*P
Where
P: active power in (KW)
218
EXAMPLE: Factory has total power 666KVA and PF=0.75 and
we required make PF correction to be 0.93 ,calculate KVAR of
capacitor .
Total power of Factory p=0.75*666=500KW
FIRST Method
COS Øold =0.75  Øold = Cos-1 (0.75) =41.409 Degree
Cos Ønew =0.93  Ønew = Cos-1 (0.93)=21.65 Degree
219
Qc = P [ Tan Øold –Tan Ønew ]
=500[Tan (41.409) - Tan (21.56)]
= 244 KVAR
 Second Method
By using the table
The intersection between the row of Cos Ø=0.75
1- (before correction) & the the row Cos Ø=0.75

2-(after correction) indicate the value of 0.487 KVAR of compensation per
KW of load
Qc = 500 x 0.487 = 244 KVAR
In Our Project:
For Transformer (1):
Total KW = Total KVA * P.F = 2278.9 * 0.8 = 1823.12 KW
QC = P [ Tan Øold –Tan Ønew ]

= 1823.12 [Tan (Cos-1 (0.8)) – Tan (Cos-1 (0.95))] = 765 KVAR ≈ 775 KVAR
As the transformer is more than 2 MVA:

Power Factor Correction Panel is (75 KVAR + 14 x 50 KVAR)
Fixed step Variable step
Irating = Icap. = 1.5 x KVAR
IC.B = safety factor x Icap. = 1.1 x 1.3 x 1.5 x KVAR
220
Where:-
Safety Factor is 10 % over load above the normal capacity.
30% they must be able to take surges due to any harmonics in the
circuit.
IC.B = 1.1 x 1.3 x 1.5 x 775 = 1550 A
So we choose 1600 A M.C.C.B and we use bus bar of rating 1600 A
(Compact Type)
For Transformer (2):
Total KW = Total KVA * P.F = 2270.1 * 0.8 = 1816 KW
QC = P [ Tan Øold –Tan Ønew ]

= 1816 [Tan (Cos-1 (0.8)) – Tan (Cos-1 (0.95))] = 765.1 KVAR ≈ 775 KVAR
As the transformer is more than 2 MVA:

Power Factor Correction Panel is (75 KVAR + 14 x 50 KVAR)
Fixed step Variable step
Irating = Icap. = 1.5 x KVAR
IC.B = safety factor x Icap. = 1.1 x 1.3 x 1.5 x KVAR
Where:-
Safety Factor is 10 % over load above the normal capacity.
30% they must be able to take surges due to any harmonics in the
circuit.
IC.B = 1.1 x 1.3 x 1.5 x 775 = 1550 A
So we choose 1600 A M.C.C.B and we use bus bar of rating 1600 A
(Compact Type).
221
CHAPTER 17
EARTHING
222
Introduction:-
Why we make earthing ?
1) To make the high faulty current to go to earth through a low resistance.
2) Mainly to enable a system or equipment to be disconnected from the source
of energy so as to avoid the effects of excessive currents produced under earth
fault conditions.
3) To prevent damage to electrical apparatus.
4) To dissipate lightning strikes.
5) To protect people working in the electric site from electric shock due to
touching any metal part that should not be carrying current in the normal
operation.
6) More than 1000 people are killed each year in the U.S.A due to electric
current.
Necessary definitions
 Earth
Conductive mass of the earth .whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally as zero.
 Earth electrode
Conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with, and providing and
electrical connection to earth.
 Earth electrode resistance
Resistance of an earth electrode to earth.
 Earth fault current
Fault current which flows to earth.
 Earthing conductor
Protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal (MET) of an
installation to an earth electrode or to the means of earthing
 Main Earthing Terminal (MET)
Terminal or bar provided for connection; including equipotential bonding
conductors and conductors for functional earthing
223
 Protective conductor
Conductor used for some measures of protection against electric shock and
intended for connecting together any of the following parts:-
 The main earthing terminal(MET)
 Earth electrode
 Earth point of the source
 PEN conductor
Conductor combining the functions of both protective conductor and neutral
conductor.
 Neutral conductor
Conductor connected to the neutral point of the system and capable of
contributing to the transmission of electric energy.
 Earthing system
One or more earth electrode with earthing conductor capable of being
connecting to a main earthing terminal (MET).
 Earth grid
Earth electrode in the form of two overlapping groups of buried in the same
rectangular area; usually laid approximately at right angles to each other with
electrode bonded at each intersection.
Earthing systems
Figure 1
224
System types are defined by two letters:
TN system
As in IEC 60364 includes several sub-systems:
225
Operating technique
Switching upon occurrence of the first insulation fault.
Technique for protecting persons

Imperative interconnection and earthing of exposed conductive parts.
Switching on occurrence of the first fault via an over current protective device
(circuit-breaker or fuse).
Advantages
A) The TNC system may be less costly upon installation (elimination of one
switchgear pole and one conductor).
B) Use of over current protective devices to ensure protection against indirect
contact.
Disadvantages
A) Switching on occurrence of the first insulation fault.
B) The TNC system involves the use of fixed and rigid trunkings (see
section413.1.3.2 of standard IEC 60364-4).
C) Requires earthing connections to be evenly placed in the installation so that the
protective conductor remains at the same potential as the earth.
226
D) A tripping check on occurrence of the insulation fault should be carried out, if
possible, when the network is being designed using calculations, and must be
performed during commissioning using measurements; this check is the only
guarantee that the system operates both on commissioning and during
operation, as well as after any kind of work on the network (modification
,extension).
E) Passage of the protective conductor in the same trunkings as the live conductors
of the corresponding circuits.
F) Often requires extra equipotential bonding.
G) Third and multiples of third harmonics circulate in the protective conductor
(TNC system).
H) The fire risk is higher and, moreover, it cannot be used in places presenting a
fire risk (TNC system).
I) Upon occurrence of an insulation fault, the short-circuit current is high and may
cause damage to equipment or electromagnetic disturbance.
T-T system
Operating technique
Switching upon occurrence of the first insulation fault.

Earthing of exposed conductive parts combined with the compulsory use of
RCDs (at least one at the head of the installation).
All exposed conductive parts protected by the same RCD must be connected to
the same earth.
Simultaneously accessible exposed conductive parts must be
connected to the same earth.
Advantages
A) The simplest system to design, implement, monitor and use.
B) Does not require permanent monitoring during use (only a periodic Inspection
test of the RCDs may be necessary).
C) Moreover, the presence of RCDs prevents the risk of fire when their Sensitivity
is below or equal to 500 mA (standard IEC 60364-4).
D) Easy location of faults.
227
E) Upon occurrence of an insulation fault, the short-circuit current is small.
Figure 2
Disadvantages
A) Switching upon occurrence of the first insulation fault.
B) Use of an RCD on each outgoing feeder to obtain total selectivity Special
measures must be taken for the loads or parts of the installation causing high
leakage currents during normal operation in order to avoid spurious tripping
(feed the loads by insulating transformers or use high threshold RCDs,
compatible with the exposed conductive part earth resistance)
I-T system
Operating technique
Permanent insulation monitoring.
First insulation fault indication.
Compulsory fault location and clearance.
Switching if two insulation faults occur at the same time (double fault).

Interconnection and earthing of exposed conductive parts.
First fault monitoring by a permanent insulation monitor.
228
Switching upon occurrence of the second fault by over current protective
devices (circuit-breakers or fuses).
Advantages
A) System providing the best service continuity during use.
B) When an insulation fault occurs, the short-circuit current is very low.
Figure 3
Disadvantages
A) Requires maintenance personnel to monitor the system during use.
B) Requires a good level of network insulation (which means that the network
must be broken up if widespread and that loads with high leakage current must
be supplied by insulating transformers).
C) Tripping checks for two simultaneous faults should be carried out if possible
when the network is being designed using calculation, and must be performed
during commissioning using measurement.
D) Overvoltage limiters must be installed.
E) Requires all the installation’s exposed conductive parts to be Equipotential
bonded; if this is not possible RCDs must be installed.
F) Avoid distributing the neutral conductor. In the IT system, it is in fact
recommended not to distribute the neutral for the following reasons:
if the neutral conductor is distributed, a fault affecting it will eliminate the
229
advantages attached to the IT system;
if the neutral is distributed, it must be protected (except for specific cases);
The fact of not distributing the neutral facilitates the choice of over current
protective devices and fault location.
G) Locating faults is difficult in widespread networks.
H) When an insulation fault in relation to the earth occurs, the voltage of the two
unaffected phases in relation to the earth takes on the value of the phase-to-
phase voltage. Equipment must therefore be selected with this in mind
Application of earthing system

(T-T) system used for standby power supply “UPS”.
(T-T) or (I-T) system used in load with high fault current “motor”.
(T-T) or (I-T) system used in control or monitoring device.
(TN-S) system used in furnaces.
(TN-S) system used for very long network.
Figure 4
230
Comparison of Earthing systems
In Our Project we use (I-T) earth system

Component of Ground
1-Grounding Rod (electrode)
2-Ground rod Clamp
3-Ground Wire
231
Variables that effected on the ground resistance
Length (depth) of ground electrode

By doubling the length of ground electrode, we can reduce the ground
resistance by 40%.
Diameter of ground electrode
By doubling the diameter of ground electrode, we can reduce the ground
resistance by 10%.
No. of ground electrodes
We can use multiple ground electrodes to reduce ground resistance
Spacing between two electrodes needs to be equal to depth of electrodes
Soil Resistivity
It's a measure of how much the soil resists the flow of electricity.
Soil resistivity effected by
 Soil resistivity effected by
 Soil composition
 Moisture content
 Temperature
 Adding chemical salts
Soil resistivity measurement
Firstly, we measure the soil resistivity by "Four-point method" called 'WENNERS
"method:
Then, ρ = 2*π*a*R
Where, a= distance between electrodes (Meters).
R= reading of Megger (Ω).
Calculations
Theortical calculation method
Resistance of one vertical electrode is given by:
232
Where:-
R is the resistance of single rod or pipe, in ohms (Ω);
L is the length of rod, in meter (m);
d is the diameter of rod or pipe, in meters (m);
ρ is the soil resistivity in ohm meter (Ω.m).
Total Resistance for n rods in case of

vertical parallel electrodes arranged hollow square
Where:
R is the resistance of the rod in isolation, in Ω;
S is the distance between adjacent rods, in m;
ρ is the resistivity of soil, in Ω.m;
λ is a factor given in Table 4 or Table 5;
n is the number of electrodes
233
In Our Project
Assume its soil is loam soil
So, its soil resistivity = 100 Ω-m.

The Length of Electrode = 2.4 m .
The Diameter of Electrode = 0.0172 m .
From the Relation :
R=39.9 Ω
Let Number of Electrodes (n) a long the Side of the Square = 6 Electrodes
Then from the table 2 , we get the value of factor ( λ) = 6.63
And the value of S = 2 m .
From the Relation :
So the factor (a) = 0.2

The number of electrodes around the square is N = 4(n-1).
SO N= 4(6-1)= 20 Electrodes
From the Relation :
Rn=4.63 Ω
234
CHAPTER 18
LIGHT CURRENT
SYSTEMS
235
FIRE ALARM SYSTEM
236
Aim of fire alarm system:-
An automatic fire detection system is designed to detect a fire in its incipient
stage and to automatically initiate programed control function.All Fire Alarm
Systems essentially operate on the same principle. If a detector detects smoke
or heat or someone operates a break glass unit (manual break point), then
alarm sounders operate to warn others in the building that there may be a fire
and to evacuate and save life. The choice of fire alarm system depends on the
building structure, the purpose and use of building.
Main components of fire alarm system:

1- Detectors
2-Manual call points
3-outputs (Sounders, Flashers and etc.)
4-control panel
5-power supply
6-cables
1) Detectors: (inputs of fire alarm system):

A-smoke detector:
It mainly used to detect the visible and invisible combustion gases emanating
from fires.
It has two types:
1) Optical (photoelectric) smoke detector:
The best for detecting the smokes produced in home fires. It has light sensor
that sense the scattered reversed light due to reach of any smoke then activate
the siren of the danger. It consists of a photo cell and a light source and are
normally applied where a fire is expected to generate large amount of visible
particles of combustion. The principle of operation is that smoke entering the
path of a light source will block the light and prevent it from striking a photo
cell, thus generating an alarm.
237
Optical smoke detector
According to NFPA:
The distance between any two
smoke detectors should be 15
meters
2) Ionization smoke detector:

It's better for detecting the smoke generated by commercial installation. It
capable of detecting the presence of both visible and invisible particles, but it
more sensitive to invisible particles. It consists of a source, detection circuit and
ionization chamber containing a small radioactive alpha source. When particles
of combustion enter the ionization chamber, they will attract themselves to the
charged particles and reduce their flow. The detector circuitry will sense this
flow reduction and generate an alarm signal. Generally smoke detector used in
places where the smokes are not required. Such as (laboraties, corridors ,bed
rooms and ect.)
238
Ionization smoke detector
B-Heat detector:
It mainly used to detect the up normal rapid rise of temperature.
Heat detectors are normally used in environments where a smoke detector
might generate false alarms for example kitchens or shower rooms.
It has two types:
1) Rate of rise heat detector:
It's which differentiate the temperature with respect to time. It will be activated
when undesired temperature rise occurs.
2) Fixed temperature heat detector:

It will generate an alarm signal when the temperature of the internal detection
element reaches its rated operating temperature. Used in places that normally
has change in temperature.
Heat detector
239
According to NFPA :
the distance between each two heat
detectors shouldn’t exceed 8 meters.
C-Beam detector:
Smoke detector includes one wired transmitter/receiver unit. When smoke
enters the area between the unit and the reflector it causes a reduction in the
signal. The alarm is activated when the smoke level reaches the predetermined
threshold. Used in wide open areas.
240
Beam detector
Operation of reflective type optical beam smoke

detector
D-Multi detector:
This detector combines optical smoke detector and heat detector.
Used in electrical rooms.
-Sense to heat and smoke.
-Used in (electrical rooms , machines rooms )
-Cover area of max. radius (4m)
241
E-Duct detector:
Used in air conditioning pipes.designed for prevention of smoke recirculation in
areas by the air handling systems. Fans, blowers, and complete systems may be
shut down in the event of smoke detection.
242
2) Manual call points:
Manual call point is used to initiate an alarm signal. It can be manual alarm
system or part of automatic alarm system. Under normal conditions push
button will be in the depressed condition. In the case of fire when the glass
cover is broken, the push button will be released by the spring action and will
actuate an alarm at the control panel through its switching contacts.
In addition to this, there will be an LED indicator on the monitor module for
visual indication to locate the call point easily. Manual call points should be
mounted on all escapes routes, and at all exit points from the floors of a
building. A fire alarm call point should be installed at a height of 1.4m above
floor level at easily accessible positions. This includes on exit routes, at the entry
floor landing of staircases and at all exits to the open air.
A fire alarm call point should also be spaced so that one may always be found
within a maximum distance of 30m apart and the maximum distance between
two call points
45m.
Manual call point
3) Fire alarm system output:

The notification appliances types are:
Audible: Horns – Bells –Sounders –Sirens – speakers
Visual: Strobes.
Physicals: Bed Shakers.
Olfactory: Smell.
243
Audible Devices:
Bell (give sound alarm):
Strobe light flash (give flash alarm):
Speaker (give alarm recorded message):
244
Horn (outdoor bell):
4) Control panel:
Main Controller:
The brains of the system, It Provides power to the system, monitors inputs
And controls outputs through various circuits. It performs other functions.
Types of fire alarm control panel (FACP):

1-conventional system:
In a Conventional Fire Alarm System, a number of call points and detectors are
wired to the Fire Alarm Control Panel in Zones. A Zone is a circuit and
typically one would wire a circuit per floor or fire compartment. The Fire
Alarm Control Panel has a number of Zone Lamps. A group of initiating devices
is used to protect a certain area, if any of those devices senses a fire, an
alarm is sent without detection of the zone of fire or which device sends an
alarm.
245
Conventional fire alarm system
The Control Panel is wired to a minimum of two sounder circuits which could
contain bells, electronic sounders or other audible devices. Each circuit has an
end of line device which is used for monitoring purposes.
2-Addressable system:
It is similar to a Conventional System except that the Control Panel can
determine exactly which detector or call point has initiated the alarm. The
detection circuit is wired as a loop and up to 200 devices may be connected to
each loop.
The address in each detector is set by switches and the Control Panel is
programmed to display the information required when that particular detector
is operated, so it help to determine quickly the correct location of fire .Used in
large buildings or systems require more complications.
246
There are other types of this system but more intelligent:
Wireless fire alarm systems are an effective alternative to traditional wired fire
alarm systems for all applications. It is a simple concept, which provides many
unique benefits and is a full analogue addressable fire detection system without
the need for cable.
5) Power supply:
1- Normal supply
The normal supply for the system should be derived from the public supply
system.
2- Standby supplies:
Secondary batteries; the most commonly used type of standby supply is a
secondary battery with an automatic charger . For small fire alarm systems;
batteries are normally built into the fire alarm control panel. On the medium
and larger sized Fire Alarm systems, the standby batteries will often not fit
within the control panel.
6) Cables:
Heat resistant copper cable with PVC insulation of 1.5 or 2.5 mm²
Fire resistance cables usually used have a 0cores of 1.5 mm²
For distances less than 1000 M the 1.5 mm2 is used for higher distance 2
*2.5 mm² is used
247
248
Other components used in this system:
Repeaters:
The repeater panels are connected to the main panel, but the user can’t reset
any Alarms. The main control is from the main panel any message can appear in
any repeater panel also the user of the main panels can send a message to the
other repeater.
Control Module:
The control modules are usually used for controlling something for example in
case of fire there is control module to open the doors of the safety regions, to
turn off the chiller and to turn on the shutters and so on.
Isolator:
In case of faults or short circuits in the detector so the detector is provided with
isolators so If a fault occur between in the loop the detectors that the fault
between them opens and isolate the fault.
The interface between the other systems:

We should make interface with the following systems:
1- Elevator:
To make the elevators in case of fire go to the ground floor automatically
2- Audio System:
To send a warning message in case of fire to make people pay attention and be
ready to escape.
3- CCTV:
To make the cameras make zoom in the area where the detector made alarm to
check is there a fire or a false alarm.
249
4- Fire Pump:
To operate the fire pump in case of fire to pump water to fight the fire.
5- Main Distribution board:

To turn off the electric power from the building
The legend we used for our project:
250
Some notes about fire alarm system design:
An example from our single line diagram :
251
Example from the first floor fire alarm system :
Example for FACP & monitor module & control

module:
252
In our project we used the following :
253
254
Introduction:-
Restaurants, hospitals, office buildings, malls, hotels and many other
businesses rely on a specific kind of sound system. These systems are
referred to as (distributed audio systems).
Construction:-
Input amplification and control output

-Microphone - Amplifier -Speakers
-CD player - Matrix switch
- Radio FM - Mixer
1) Input devices, which convert sound energy into an electric signal.

2) Signal processors which enhance the signal characteristics to
avoid occurrence distortion.
3) Amplifiers which add power to the signal without otherwise

changing its content.
4) Output devices, which convert the signal which ampliformed into

sound energy.
255
Components of sound systems:-
1) Microphone
Converts sound to electrical signal It has two types:
 Wire Microphone
 Wireless Microphone
256
2) Mixer
 The mixer provides the ability to connect effects processors to add
reverb, echo, delay, etc. to the sound.
Functions of mixer:
 Add sound effects
 Filteration
Mixer divided into two main parts:
1) The master section:

 The master section controls the output of the mixer to all of the
various other components.
 These might include crossovers, equalizers, effects processing devices
(delays, reverbs, compressors, etcetera) and monitors.
2)The channel:
A mixer usually handles 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, or 48 channels or inputs.
Individual channel equalization and balancing on the Mixer.
257
3) Amplifier
 The amplifier receives the combined or mixed signal from the
mixer.
 The amplifier supplies the power to drive the speakers.
4) Speaker
Types of speakers:
A) Indoor speakers
1) Wall mounted
 Works essentially the same way as a

regular speaker.
 However, instead of being inside a
cabinet; it is mounted in a frame and set
into the wall.
2) Ceiling mounted
258
B) Outdoor speakers
Are designed to perform well despite rain, heat, snow, and ice.
C) Floor standing speakers

Floor-standing speakers tend to be more expensive than other smaller
speakers, but they're hard to beat for big, room-filling sound. In general,
they are larger than other types of speakers, reproduce a wide range of
frequencies.
D) Mega phone speakers
used to cover large area
259
5) CD player
6) Radio FM
7) Matrix Switch
 Control each zone's audio settings individually, ensuring the best
match between media source and destination playback.
260
8) Rack
AUDIO CABLES OF SYSTEM :-
• There are two main types of audio cable we will look at: Single core /
shielded (unbalanced) and One pair / shielded (balanced)
• In a single core / shielded cable, the single core is used for the +ve, and
the shield is used for the –ve
• A one pair / shielded cable has one core as the +ve, and the other core is
ve. The shield is earthed
261
DESIGN OF SYSTEM :-
• We select speaker by determine the noise level and application we find
no of speakers by two methods :
A: from the speaker data sheet determine the speaker coverage and then
find no by dividing area of the place on speaker coverage.
B: by knowing length , width and height of the place we

can determine no from standard tables.
TABLE OF DESIGN:-
• We find watt of Amp by producting no of connecting speakers on
Amp and speaker watt , then we select the suitable AMP.
NOTES :-
• It is prefer to connect
speakers parallel to avoid
fault all speakers
• We must connect
speakers with correct
polarity to avoid out
phasing that effect on
sound quality.
Calculations:-
 Steps for distributing speakers:
1) Determine the speaker spacing(D)
D=2(H-1) B
Where:
H: height of speaker from floor
262
B: constant
A: angle of loud speaker emission
2) Determine the speak coverage Coverage area=pi*(D/2)2

3) Determine the number of speakers
No. of Speakers=area of the place/coverage area
Single line diagram

246 speaker
8 amplifers
263
TELEPHONE SYSTEM
264
Introduction:-
 Communication system is consists of not only the telephone devices

but also a network of switched transmission circuit.
 The device uses a microphone in the handset to convert the sound
waves to electrical signals, which are sent through the telephone
network to the other phone, where they are converted back to sound
waves by an earphone in the handset.
 The telephone network, consisting of a worldwide net of telephone
lines, fibrotic cables, microwave transmission, cellular networks,
communications satellites, and undersea telephone cables connected
by switching centers, allows any telephone in the world to
communicate with any other.
Major elements of communication system

 Telephone devices or any other apparatus attached through the
telephone line.
 Various techniques used to signal and control the operation of the
communication network.
 Transmission.
 Switching.
265
Main components of telephone system:-
1) PABX (private automatic branch exchange)
Private Automatic Branch Exchanges are the links between business

organizations and the outside world. Incoming calls are received by the
PABX unit and distributed by a live operator, a hosting service or by an
integrated voice guidance system. A contemporary PABX system consists
of a switching network, internal telephone stations, outside lines to the
telephone company and a console for operator control of incoming calls.
PABX systems offer a variety of user advantages.
For implementing PAPX system must include:
1) Group of batteries.
2) Battery charger.
3) Transformation switch.
4) Main distribution frame (M.D.F).
266
2) Main distribution frame (MDF)
• Main Distribution Frame (MDF) is a distribution

frame on one part of which the external trunk
cables entering a facility terminate, and on another
part of which the internal user.
• Subscriber lines and trunk cabling to any
intermediate distribution frames terminate.
3) Intermediate distribution frame (IDF)
An intermediate distribution frame (IDF) is a

free-standing or wall-mounted rack for
managing and interconnecting the
telecommunications cable between end
user devices and a main distribution frame
(MDF). For example, an IDF might be located
on each floor of a multi-floor building
routing the cabling down the walls to an
MDF on the first floor. The MDF would
contain cabling that would interconnect to
the phone company or to other buildings.
267
4) Telephone box
Provide connection of
telephone lines. Should have
50% additional lines for future
expansion.
5) Telephone socket
It is a metallic box containing the

parts for connection of lines. These
sockets distributed according to
furniture needs.
6) Telephone cable
4copper wires (2 pairs), called (RJ

11) Telephone lines must be
isolated using plastic of minimum
diameter of 0.6mm2 and it must
have various colors for identifying
the lines. Telephone connections
must be completely isolated from
other electrical connections
268
Single Line Diagram from our project
688 telephone socket

16 telephone box
269
MATV SYSTEM
270
Introduction:-
MATV stands for Master Antenna Television.
MATV systems allow multiple receivers (TV & FM) to receive signals from
a single (Master) antenna, as opposed to individual antennas for each
receiver. MATV systems are separated into two portions, the ‘Head End’
and the ‘Distribution System’. When these two portions are planned and
engineered using suitable MATV equipment and the appropriate
installation techniques, signals will be distributed without loss of signal
quality.
Main component of MATV System:-

1- The MATV Head End Unit.
2- Amplifiers.
3- Tap offs.
4- Splitters.
5- Cables.
6- TV sockets.
1-The MATV Head End Unit:

The Head End of a MATV system usually consists of an antenna which
receives broadcast signals, processing equipment to filter the signals and
a distribution amplifier to amplify the signals to compensate for
distribution losses. Antennas, amplifiers, taps, filters and attenuators are
used in this portion of the system.
271
2- Amplifiers:
Amplifiers increase the strength of
signals received to a level greater than
the losses in the distribution system.
The amplifier gain determines the level
of signal increase, which should be high
enough to provide an acceptable signal
level to all televisions in the system.
3-Tap offs:
Taps divide a small portion of the signal on the
trunk line to tap lines.
272
4-Splitters:
Splitters divide the signal from a trunk
line into equal portions to the outputs.
5-Cables:
Video cabling should be cabled
with RG-6, quad shield, 75-Ohm
coaxial cable. Coaxial cable is a
concentric transmission line. It
consists of a central conductor, a
dielectric medium (such as
polyethylene) which fixes the
spacing between the central
conductor and an outer shield
(such as copper braid or aluminum
foil) and a weatherproof outer
jacket (usually PVC).
273
6-TV sockets.
Single Line Diagram of MATV System:-

23 amplifiers
23 (32 way) splitters
8 three way tap offs
546 television socket
274
CCTV SYSTEM
275
Introduction:-
Closed circuit television (C.C.TV) system: Operates on closed loop basis,
Used for recording images on video and Main function is for surveillance
in security system.
Main element of CCTV

 camera
 video matrix
 digital video recorder [DVR]
 monitor
 control keypad
 wiring system
1) The camera
The most important part of a CCTV system is the camera. Without a good
camera, the whole system will only offer low quality pictures when
professionals talk about cameras they talk about the camera and the lens
Types of cameras:
 Fixed camera
An ordinary camera and be on a stable stand and it has two types:
1) Dome type 2) Box type
276
 Pan tilt zoom cameras (PTZ)
Is a camera that is capable of remote directional and zoom control.
 Motorizing camera
277
 Day and night camera
Is a security camera that can see the picture during the day hours, when
there is enough sunlight, and during the night in total darkness or
minimum illumination.
2) Multiplexer
Multiplexer To add more flexibility to the system if the system is going to

have more than one camera. The multiplexer offers a variety of different
options. The multiplexers come with different setups but often they have
the ability to connect at least four cameras as input channels.
278
3) Monitor
The monitor displays the images that are captured by camera.
4) Digital video recorder (DVR)

The DVR offers high technology and many functions. The most common
way to connect the camera to the DVR is via a network cable. The great
thing with the DVR is that the images are stored on a hard drive.
279
5) Video Matrix Switch
Is an electronic switch designed to route video signals from multiple input

sources, such as computers, surveillance cameras, and DVD players, to
one or more display devices, such as monitors, projectors, and TVs.
6) Control keyboard
This keyboard controller can control high speed dome cameras,slow dome
camera ,zoom camera, etc.
280
7) Cables
Cables of CCTV are divided into three types :-
 Signal cable
Coaxial cable RG 6
 Power and control cable
El-sewedy copper cable 1(2*2.5)
Notes
For distance more than 750m it is better to use fibrotic cable.

CCTV panel located at security man room.
Fed from 220 V & 50 HZ AC Power Supply.
281
In our Project
 We used ceiling mounted fixed camera at some places such (entrance
to medical center, corridor…)
 wall mounted movable camera at some places such(garage and super
market)
 Example:
282
Single line diagram
5 DVR
5 Monitor
1 control keyboard
23 outdoor movable day night camera
40 indoor dome ceiling mounted day night camera
283
NURSE CALL SYSTEM
284
Introduction:-
Call and communication systems – also known as (Nurse Call Systems) are
designed especially to help people in emergency situations, to save lives
and to prevent dangers. The complexity of these systems ranges from
simple call functionality to complex systems which are oriented to the
requirements of modern care services.
Nurse call systems are call systems with the help of which persons can be
summoned or sought or information can be forwarded. Typical for these
systems is a variable degree of danger that can occur for the caller or
other party if calls are not indicated as the result of a malfunction or
malfunctions are not recognized in time.
These requirements often exist in:

• Hospitals
• Homes for the elderly and senior citizens
• Retirement homes
• care institutions
• Forensic clinics
• Prisons
• Homes for the disabled
• Accessible toilets for the disabled in public Facilities
Call systems are independent systems. They possess their own supply or
transmission network, independently of third-party systems, that must be
controlled and monitored by the devices of the call system themselves.
Call system devices may carry out telecommunications, media technology
and information technology functions, in order to be able to offer the user
(e.g. the patient) a complete, easy-to-use and perfectly matched service
package. These functions are, for instance, light control, radio reception,
remote control of TV equipment, multi-media, telephone connection and
debt collection functions.
The system must be protected by means of secure cut-off points against
the transmission of impermissible higher voltages and must be
functionally completely independent of third-party systems that are
attached to the call system. The exchange of data with other security and
285
communication systems may only take place via interfaces that are
certified by the manufacturer of the call system.
Main components of the system:
1) Control unit :
It is the central element in the system, which

connect the patient nurses station and be dealt
with by the nurse, which consists of a group of
button.
2) Annunciator/Control Panel:
Emergency signals are identified at the annunciator/control panel by a

rapid
flashing of the associated station indicator LED, call LED and emergency
LED; in addition to a rapid pulsating tone. Routine calls are indicated by
the steady illumination of the
station selector LED, call LED,
and a slow pulsating tone. The
tone may be canceled for routine
calls by depressing the tone
on/off button.
286
3) Bed Room Station:
A call is registered at the nurse station,

corridor light and corridor zone light (if
installed) when the call cord button is used,
or if the call cord is accidentally
removed from the jack on the panel. The
station includes a call-placed indicator
that lights when a call is placed and a cancel
button mounted on an attractive.
4) Call Cords:
are oxygen safe call cords certified

safe for use by all patients receiving
oxygen therapy. These waterproof and
impact resistant call cords have
completely sealed push buttons.
5) Emergency Station:
Emergency Station is for use in any location where

activation of an emergency
signal is required. All electronic components are
mounted on a circuit board.
The specially designed and mounted LED is
completely sealed in plastic.
287
6) Code Station:
Code Station is used to operate all system

code signals (except supervised code blue
applications). It may be used independently or
connected with other call stations. Placing a
code call is accomplished by pulling the slide
switch located at the center of the panel to
the down position. Returning the slide-switch
to the up position cancels the call.
7) Duty Station:
Duty Station provides an indication of

incoming calls in work areas away from the
nurse call master station. Normal calls are
indicated both visibly by steady
illumination of the solid-state LED light, and
audibly by a slow pulsating tone.
Emergency calls take precedence and are
indicated by flashing of the LED light
and a rapid pulsating tone. A tone-off switch
permits silencing of the tone signal
for routine level calls only.
288
8) Emergency switch:
may be used as an emergency switch or as a staff-assist

emergency call switch. The large mushroom style button
is easily activated, so that calls may be placed using an
elbow, shoulder, etc., when using the hands is
inconvenient or inappropriate. Calls are cancelled by
turning the mushroom-style button Clockwise
9) Corridor Zone Light:

Corridor Zone Light provides visual indication of calls
when used with a nurse call system, emergency call
system, or similar applications.
Nurse call system cables :
289
290
Example for first floor from SLD :
Our project legend for nurse call system single

line diagram:
291
References
1) IEC for electrical distribution
2) NEC for electrical distribution
3) El-Sweedy cables catalogue
4) Schneider catalogue
5) Philips & dialux for indoor lighting design catalogue
6) THE LECTURES
7) Internet Searches
8) Electrical Installation. Dr/M.Jelany
9) Electrical transformers. Dr/M.Jelany
10) Astrid catalogue
11) Cummins Catalogue
12) Power system distribution. Dr/ Abdelmonaem
shaban
13) Electrical Protection . Dr/ M.Jelany
292

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Acknowledgement

We would like to express our deep gratitude and

Types of lighting schemes:

b) Avoid uncomfortable glare from luminaries.

c) Avoidance of eye fatigue caused by the harsh brightness from outside

d) Windows should have shades, blinds, draperies, low-transmission

e) Patient rooms should be able to be darkened totally for sleep or

f) The reflectance of room surfaces is an important factor in the efficient

h) Reduce the effect of Veiling reflections by certain lighting distributions

Description : Recessed Mounted led luminaire 60Cm

Luminaire housing : Luminaire housing of zinc coated steel

Reflector : OLC micro lens optic, made of

Lamps : Philips foretime led line 3R

Degree of protection : IP40

Color index White color (4000K)

Manufacturer : Similar to Philip Catalogue (BBS460 W60L60

Luminaire housing : Luminaire housing of zinc coated steel

Reflector : VAR ,pc

Control Gear : No ballast

Lamps : Philips fortimo led line 1R

Degree of protection : IP20

Color index : White color (4000K)

Manufacturer : Similar to Philips Catalogue (RC120B W30L120

Application : ‫سوبر ماركت‬

Description : Surface mounted luminaire 132*10 cm ,17w

Luminaire housing : sheet steel, laquerred

Reflector : Narrow (NB)

Control Gear : No ballast

Lamps : Philips Fortimo LEDline 3R

Degree of protection : IP66

Color index : White color (4000K)

Manufacturer : Similar to philips Catalogue (WT460C L1300

Application : ‫ اوفيس‬, ‫ غرف كهرباء‬, ‫ جراج‬, ‫مخازن‬

Description : Recessed Mounted led luminaire 60Cm x60Cm ,

Luminaire housing : polycarbonate

Dimension : 59.6 * 59.6 cm

Lamps : Replaceable LED module

Degree of protection : IP65

Color index White color (4000K)

Manufacturer : Similar to philips Catalogue (CR434B 1xLED48/840

Application : ‫ صالة افاقة‬, ‫ عناية مركزة‬, ‫ عمليات‬, ‫تحاليل‬

Description : Surface mounted luminaire 134*24 cm ,35w

Luminaire housing : polycarbonate and sheet

Lamps : Philips Fortimo LED Line 1R

Degree of protection : IP40

Color index White color (4000K)

Manufacturer : Similar to philips Catalogue (SM480C 1xLED35S/840

Description : Recessed downlight led luminaire, 14w

Luminaire housing : die-cast aluminum

Lamps : Non replaceable LED module

Degree of protection : IP20

Color index White color (4000K)

Manufacturer : Similar to philips Catalogue (DN460B 1xLED11S/840

Which Way To Go...LED vs Fluorescent

1. Frequent Switching Causes Early Failures

Each start cycle slightly erodes the electron-emitting surface of the

2. Fluorescent Bulbs Contain Mercury