ELEX 1105, Topic 1.

10
Practical Considerations
SI Prefixes
Value Prefix Symbol
10-12 pico p
10-9 nano n
10-6 micro μ
10-3 milli m
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
Engineering Notation
In this course write the results of calculations in engineering
notation, with 3½ significant figures.
• 3½ significant figures means 4 sig figs if the first digit is 1,
otherwise 3 sig figs.
• Engineering notation means that the number to the left of the
decimal is in the range [1…999] and prefixes are used on the SI
units.
• Prefixes are for 10n, where n is divisible by 3: T, G, M, k, m, µ, n,
p, f.
• Engineers don’t generally use centi, deci, hecta or deka.
• Examples:
422 A 38.2 mΩ 4.67 µW
12.21 W 12.34 MΩ 145.3 pV 1864 mS
• Your calculator probably has an ENG notation feature.
• In Excel, you cannot easily specify significant figures, but you
can make the exponent to be divisible by three using the
##0.000E+0 number format.
• Exceptions:
• Meter readings - Write the number as it appears on the
instrument. Include the first unsteady digit only if you can
judge the middle value. Never record the second or third
unsteady digit.
• Discrepancies & deviations - Never give more than two
significant figures. One sig fig is preferred.
 1V 1V
= = 0.001 A = 1 mA
1 kΩ 1000 Ω

• So, volts divided by kiloohms is milliamps.

• Kiloohms times milliamps is volts.
• Similarly, volts over megaohms is microamps.
• Don’t use this shortcut with power - it’s too easy to screw up.
• In fact, you might choose never to use this shortcut at all.
Power ratings of resistors
• The resistors that came in your parts kits are rated at 1/8 W.
• Most of the lab resistors are rated at ¼ W.
• That does NOT mean that when you put voltage across them,
they will dissipate 1/8 W or ¼ W.
• It means that the manufacturer claims that they will operate
correctly and safely if they don’t have to carry more than that
power.
• Exceeding the power rating might be okay, it might cause
temporary over-resistance, it might damage or destroy the
resistor and it may start a fire.
Voltmeters & Ammeters and Ohmmeters
Ammeters measure current. They need the whole current to flow
through them. They have a very low resistance.
Voltmeters measure voltage. A voltmeter has very high resistance,
so very little current flows through it. You wire it between two
points to find the voltage difference.

A A
V V R V R V
 A A
V V R V R V

We assume that our voltmeters are ideal: They have infinite

resistance.
We assume that out ammeters are ideal: They have zero
resistance.
Usually, either of these circuits will work to measure the voltage
across the resistor and the current through it.
 A A
V V R V R V

Near the end of the course, we will discuss the extreme cases
where the fact that a voltmeter’s resistance is not infinite, and an
ammeter’s resistance is not zero will affect the measurement and
even the circuit operation.
Ohmmeters
We can think of an ohmmeter as a voltage source, an ammeter, a
voltmeter and a calculator, with two terminals to attach to a
resistor.

The meter supplies voltage, measures the voltage and current,

and calculates the resistance by Ohm’s Law.
NEVER CONNECT AN OHMMETER TO A LIVE CIRCUIT.
Remove the resistor of interest from any other circuitry before
connecting it to the ohmmeter.
Fuses
A fuse is a thin piece of wire with some resistance and a low
melting point. It is carefully designed to melt after it has been at a
certain current for a certain time. It melts sooner if the current is
higher.
Symbols:

Usual symbol Used in power systems.

Fuse design is actually very involved. If this really interests you,
the Power Option’s protection courses include 3-4 hours on fuses.
Fuses in Ammeters
• An ammeter is a delicate instrument, but sometimes a lot of
current will go through it.
• To prevent damage, most ammeters have a fuse in series.
• Sometimes a very expensive fuse.
• If you are measuring current, and you get nothing, one of the
first steps should be to check the fuse.
• Our lab ammeter (the GW 3½ digit meter) has a 2-A fuse, so
always keep the current limiting of the power supply below
2 A.
Building Circuits with Instruments
• Think of voltmeters as being outside your circuit. Build the
whole circuit without voltmeters, and then connect the
voltmeters.
• You cannot do that with ammeters. Ammeters are a part of the
circuit; the current must flow through them. So, add the
ammeter when its time comes, as dictated by the situation.
Grabber Leads