A one-to-one map (function) remain a function even when x and y are

interchanged.
. Many valued function.

Note:
A function can be completely determned from:

1. Its rule or

2. Its graph or

3. The set of ordered pair making it up.

For f a function say that (x, y) ∈ f to mean x is a first element i.e. the
independent for the function f and y is the second element or the dependent

variable for the function f .

For the graph displayed immediately behind, we have (x1 , y0 ) ∈ f and
(x2 , y0 ) ∈ f .

The function f is 1 − 1 or one-tone or one-to-one or injetive. If and only if

(x1 , y0 ) ∈ f and (x2 , y0 ) ∈ f
=⇒ (means) X1 = X2 .

An advantage of injective function is that when the role or X and Y

interchanged, we shall have a function
Continuous Function: A function in which the graph is drawn without
heling dues pen from the paper.
This is that function whose graph can be drawn without listing the pen from

the paper.

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

P0 (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , n∈N

N := {1, 2, 3, . . . , n, . . . } = the set of all natural numbers

N0 := {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, . . . , } = {0} ∪ N
If n = 3

P3 (x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

P5 (x) = a5 x5 + a4 x4 + a3 x3 + a1 x + a0

Pn (x) is called a polynomial function of degree n if an 6= 0

2
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
P (x)
R(x) = ; P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials.
Q(x)
x3 + 4x2 + 5
y =
x−2
A polynomial function is a rational function with the degrees of.

TRIGONOMETRY FUNCTIONS

If any point P on a circle with centre at the origin and radius one has coor-
dinate 9cx, y) and if OP

makes an angle θ with the positive x−axis then

y
sin θ = =y
1
x
cos θ = =x
1
N.B. −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1.
The graph of sin θ of y = sin θ

Note: 3600 = 2π (Radius measure)

3
y = sin θ or f (θ) = sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

or f : θ 7−→ sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

Anti-clockwise rotation is taken to be +ve and clockwise rotation is taken
the be negative.

Definition: If f (x + p) = f (x) for all values of x, then f is a periodic

function with period p. The smallest positive value of p is called the period
of f .

sin θ = sin(θ + 2π) = sin(θ + 2π + 2π) = sin(θ + 6π) = · · · = sin(θ + 2π(n − 1))

= sin(θ + 2π(n − 1) + 2π) = sin(θ + 2πn), n ∈ N, −∞ < θ < ∞

RADIANS MEASURE (X c )

Periodic Extension
y = sin θ
f (θ = sin θ 0 ≤ θ < 2π
sin θ = sin(θ + 2π) for θ ∈ R, n ∈ Z
Periodic extension of the sine function

4
Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }.

1. sin(7500 ) = sin(7500 + 2π)

= sin(3700 + 360 + 2π)

= sin(3900 + 4π)

= sin(300 + 6π)

= sin 300

2. sin(−4500 ) = sin(2700 + 4π) = sin 2700

General Rule

sin θ = sin(θ + 2π) − inf ty < θ < +∞

sin θ = sin(θ + 2π) = sin(θ + 2π + 2π)

= sin(θ + 6π) = · · · = sin[θ + 2π(n − 1)]

= sin(θ + 2π(n − 1) + 2π)

= sin(θ + 2πn), n ∈ N (1)

Ofcourse,

sin θ = sin(θ + pi0)

(2)
... sin θ = sin(θ + xπ), n ∈ N

Graph of cos θ

5
 cos θ = cos(θ + 2π), −∞ < θ < ∞

cos θ = cos(θ + 2πn), n ∈ Z

sin θ y
Tangent Function We define tan θ = =
cos θ x

Graph of tan θ

θ 00 900 1800 2700 3600

f (θ) = tan θ 0 ∞ 0 0−∞ 0
=⇒ sin(θ + 2π(−n(= sin(θ − 2πn) = sin(θ − 2πn) ∀ n ∈ N

... sin θ = sin(θ + 2πn) = n ∈ Z from (2) & (3)

6
 cos θ = cos(θ + 2π) −∞<θ <∞

cos θ = cos(θ + 2πn) n ∈ Z

cosecθ, secantθ and cotangentθ

1 1
cosecθ = = , y 6= 0
sin θ y
1 1
sec θ = = , x= 6 0
cos θ x
1 x
cot θ = = , y 6= 0
tan θ y

Graph of y = cosecθ on the same axis as y = sin θ

Relationship between the basic curve and others

7
 cos(θ − π) = − cos θ
 π
sin θ − = − cos θ
 θ
3π
sin −θ = − cos θ
θ
 
3π
cos +θ = sin θ
θ

sin −θ = − sin θ

cos −θ = cos θ
A function f is odd if f (−x) = −f (x).
... sin is an odd function.

A function f is even if f (−x) = f (x).

... cos is an even function.

Problem 1

8
1.1 Determine each of the following without using a calculator or table.

π π π π
(a) sin (b) sec (c) cosec (d) tan π3 (e) cos
4 6 2 3

1.2 Sketch the sine curve

1.3 Use the curve in 1.2 to read off each of the following as cir-
cular function of θ
π    
 3π 3π
(a) sin +θ (b) sin θ − (c) sin −θ (d) sin(θ − π)
2 2 2

Problem 2
Give three examples of odd function and two of even functions.

Problem 3
Use the addition formula to prove the following

1
(i) cos x cos z = (cos(x + z) + cos(x − z))
2
1
(ii) sinx sin z = (cos(x − 2) − cos(x + 2))
2
1
(iii) sin x cos z = (sin(x + z) + sin(x − z))
2

Problem 4
With the aid of the substitution

x + z = u and x − z = V

Prove that the produce formula becomes the following

9
 U +V U −V
(a) cos U + cos V = 2 cos × cos
2 2
U +V U −V
(b) cos U − cos V = 2 sin × sin
2 2
U +V U −V
(c) sin U + sin V = 2 sin × cos
2 2
 
U +V U −V
(d) sin U − sin V = 2 cos sin
2 2

Limits of Functions
o
The limit of f (x) as x approaches the point x is the value that f (x) ap-
o
proaches as X− X becomes indefinitely small.

Symbolically limo
x→X

x 2 − a2
f (x) 7−→ .
x−a
Symbolically
x 2 − a2
lim f (x) = lim .
x→∞ x→a x − a

If we are close to a and not at a it is never zero.

x 2 − a2
1. f (x) = lim =
x→∞ x−a
(x + a)(x − a)
=
(x − a)
= x + a if x 6= a

x2 − a2
... lim = lim x + a = 2a.
x→a x − a x→a

x 3 − a3 (x − a)(x2 + ax + ∞)
2. lim = lim
x→∞ x − a x→a (x − a)
= x2 + x + a if x 6= a

10
 x 3 − a3
lim = lim x2 + ax + a2 = 3a2
x→a x − a x→a

Ax2 + Bx + C
3. f (x) =
ax2 + bx + C
. If ∞ is being considered the
. should be turned around.
f (x) =?

lim
x→∞
Ax2 + Bx + C x2 A + B x1 + xc2 −→ A
2
− 2 = 1 c x → ∞ if a 6= 0
ax + bx + c x a + b x + x2 a
Arithmetic of Functions
f and g are two functions. Then

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

y = ax2 + bx

f (x) = ax2 , g(x) = bx (f + g)f (x) + g(x) = ax2 + bx

f + g is the sum of the two function.

Product

(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)

e.g. (x2 − a) = f (x)

1
g(x) =
x−a
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
1
= (x2 − a) ·
(x − a)

11
Quotient
 
f f (x)
(x) =
g g(x)
e.g. f (x) = (x2 − a2 ), g(x) = (x − a)
Then,
x 2 − a2
 
f
(x) =
g x−a
A+0+0 A
x→∞· = .
a+0+0 a
Application of Techniques of Limits
sin θ
lim
θ→0 θ

Area of 4OBD = Area of sector 4OBC

≤ Area of 4OBC
1
Area of = OB × DN
2
1
= sin θ
2
1
Area of 4OBC = OB × OB tan θ
2
1
= tan θ
2
θ
Area of sector OBP D = πr2
2π
θ
=
2
Area of a sector is the proportion of an angle against the proportion of the
whole circle.
sin θ 1 θ 1
lim = sin θ ≤ = tan θ
θ→0
 θ 2 2 2
1 θ 1
÷ sin θ = 1 ≤ ≤
2 sin θ cos θ

12
lim cos θ = 1
θ→∞
θ θ
=1≤ ≤ 1 lim =1
sin θ θ→0 sin θ
θ
lim =1
θ→0 sin θ
sin θ
lim =1
θ→0 θ

E.G.2

x 3 − a3 (x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 )
lim = lim
x→a x − a x→a (x − a)
x−a
= lim lim x2 + ax + a2
x→a x − a x→a

E.G. 3
sin 2(x − 1)
lim
x→1 x3 − 1

sin 2(x − 1) sin 2(x − 1)

3
=
x −1 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)
sin θ −→ 2 sin 2(x − 1)
but θ → 0 1 where 2(x − 1) = θ
θ 2(x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)

sin 2(x − 1) sin 2(x − 1) 1

lim 3
= 2 lim lim 2
x→1 x −1 x→1 2(x − 1) x→1 x + x + 1
1
= 2×1×
3
2
=
3

13
E.G. 4

1 − cos θ 2 sin2 12 θ − 1 + 1
lim = lim
θ→0 θ x→0 θ
2 1
2 sin 2 θ
= lim
θ→0 θ
sin2 21 θ sin 21 θ 1
= lim 1 = lim 1 lim sin θ
θ→0
2
θ θ→0
2
θ θ→0 2
=1×0

=0

Determine each of the following:

λn − a0
1. lim
x→a x − a

1 − cos πx
2. lim
x→0 x2
√ √
1 + sin x − 1 − sin x
3. lim
x→0 tan2 x

4. lim x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 2
x→1

1 − cos mt
5. lim , m, n ∈ N
t→0 1 − cos nt

1−cos X
6. limx→0 X2

Problems

sin x
1. Assume lim =1
x→0x
1 − cos 2x
Compute lim
x→0 x

2. Compute each of the following:

14
 p p
(3a − x) − (x + a)
(a) lim
x→0 4x − 4a
p p
(3 − x) − (x − 1)
(b) lim
x→2 6 − 3x
2
x −1
(c) lim
x→1 x − 1
x−1
(d) lim √
x→1 x−1
(e) lim (2x2 − 1)
x→1
1
(f) lim √
x→1 x
cos pθ − sin qθ
(g) lim , p&q are positive integers.
θ→0 θ2

Let P and Q be the points on the continuous curve y = f (x) given by x = a

and x = a and x = a + h

In the figure a, h is taken to be positive, but it can be either positive or

negative. The gradient of the chord P Q is QR/P R, which equals

f (a + h) − f (a)
h

Keep P fixed and let Q move along the curve towards P . As h tends to zero
f (a + h) − f (a) also tends to zero. If the gradient of P Q tendsto a limit,

15
giving the gradient of the curve at P , this limit will be the value at x = 0 of

a new function. This is known as the derived function of the function f and
d
is denoted by f 0 or f (x) or Df (x). The value of the derived function f 0
dx
at any point is called the derivative and is equal to the gradient of the cure

y = f (x) at that point. The derivative is defined by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
Differentiation
f is a function with graph

Tangemt os a ;ome tjat touches a point on a curve.

In (1) point P (x, y)

In (2) point P1 (x1 , y1 ), P2 (x2 , y2 )

y1 − y2
lim
x1 → x x1 − x2
x2 → x

y − y1
lim slope
x1 →x x − x1

f (x) − f (x1 )
lim
x1 →x x − x1
It it exists is the derivative of f at x.
y − y1
is a difference quotient.
x − x1

16
The limiting derivative of a difference quotient is called differentiation.

Notation
d
The derivative or f at x is denoted by (Df )(x) or f (x) or f 0 (x)
dx
f (x) − f (x1 )
(D.f )(x) = lim
x1 →x x − x1

First Principles

1. The constant function f = C

f (x) − f (x1 )
(D.f )(x) = lim
x1 →xx − x1
C −C
= lim =0
x1 →x x − x1

2. The ideality function I(x) = x or y = x

f (x) − f (x1 )
(D.f )(x) = lim
x1 →x x − x1
x − x1
= lim
x1 →x x − x1

= 1.

x n − an
3. lim = nan−1
x→a x − a

4. f := x → xn n∈N

f (x) − f (x1 )
(D.f )(x) = lim
x1 →x x − x1
x − xn
n
= lim
x1 →x x − x1

= nxn−1

17
Sum of Two Functions

f and g are differentiable at x with their derivatives.

1. (Df )(x), (D.g)(x) respectively. Then f + g is also differentiable at x

with D(f + g)(x) = (D.f )(x) − (D.g)(x).
Reason:

(f + g)(x1 + 4x) − (f + g)(x) f (x + 4x) + g(x + 4x) − f (x) − g(x)

=
4x 4x
f (x + 4x) − f (x) g(x + 4x) − g(x)
= +
4x 4x

4x → 0 (D.f )(x) + (D.g)(x)

... D(f + g)(x) = (D.f )(x) + (D.g)(x)

Product of Two Functions

2. Then −f is a differentiable at x with

D(f g)(x) = f (x)D.g(x) + (Df )(x).g(x)

(f.g)(x + 4x) (f.g)(x)
−
4x 4x
f (x + 4x)g(x + 4x) − f (x)g(x)
=
4x
f (x + 4x)g(x + 4x) − f (x + 4x)g(x) + f (x + 4x)g(x) − f (x)g(x)
=
4x
f (x + 4x)g(x + 4x) − f (x + 4x)g(x) f (x + 4x)g(x) − f (x)g(x)
= +
4x 4x
f (x + 4x)g(x + 4x) − g(x) f (x + 4x) − f (x)g(x)
= +
4x 4x
−→
4x → 0 = f (x)(D.g)(x) + (D.f )(x)g(x).

18
Quotient of Two Functions
 
D g1 (x) =?
1
g
(x = 4x) − g1 (x0
= lim
4x→0 4x
 
1 1 1
= lim −
4x→0 4x g(x = 4x) g(x)
 
1 g(x) − g(x + 4x)
=
4x g(x + 4x)g(x)
 
1 g(x) − g(x + 4x)
= lim
4x→x g(x) 4x
(D.g)(x)
= − .
[g(x)]2
If f and g are differentiable
 
D fg exists and
 
f g4f 2
D = g
g f 4g
Reason:
   
f 1
D = D( f ·
g g
 
1 1
= f.D + Df
g g
f (−Dg) 1
= + Df
g2 g
−f Dg + gDf
=
g2
g4f − f 4g
=
g2

lim Df (u(x)) Du(x).

4x→0

Let h = f ◦ U .

19
Then h is differentiable at x. If and only if U is differentiable at x and f is

differential at U (x). In this case,

(Df )u · (Du)x
(Dh)(x) = (Df )(u(x))(Du)(x)

f := x 7−→ sin x
(D sin)(x)

f (x + 4x) − f (x) sin(x + 4x) − sin x

=
4x 4x
2 2x + 4x 4x
= cos sin
4x 2 2
4x
cos(2x + 4x) sin 2
= 4x
2 2
lim = cos x
4x→0

(D sin)x = cos x

(D cos)(x) =?

4x+2x
sin 4x


cos(x + 4x) − cos x −2 sin 2 2
=
4x 4x
lim = − sin x
4x→0

E.G. 1
h = (2x − 5)(x5 + 3x + 2) or y = x6 cos x
h = fg
f (x) = (2x − 5) Dy = x6 D(cos x) + cos x D(x6 )
g(x) = (x5 + 3x + 2) = x6 (− sin x) + 6x5 cos x
Dh = f 4g + g4f = 6x5 cos x − x6 sin x

20
(Dg)(x) = D(x3 ) + D(3x) + D(2)

= 5x5−1 + 3 + 0

= 5x4 + 3.

(Df )(x) = D(2x) + D(−5)

= 2+0

= 2

Dh = (2x − 5)(5x4 + 3) + 2(x5 + 3x + 2)

E.G. 2

1
h(x) =
X5 + 3x + 2
U (x) = x5 + 3x + 2

1
f (u(x)) =
x5 + 3x + 2
h0 = f 0 (u) · D(u)

D(f ) = −1 − U −2

D(u) = 5x4 + 3

D(h) = −U −2 + 5x4 + 3

= −(x5 + 3x + 2)−2 · 5x4 + 3

E.G. 3

f := x 7−→ sec x

21
 1 1
sec x = when g(x) = cos x
cos x g(x)
−Dg(x)
(D sec)(x) =
g 2 (x)
−(− sin x)
(D sec)x =
cos2 x
sin x
=
cos2 x
sin x 1
= ·
cos x cos x
= tan x · sec x

= sec x tan x

Problems

1. Determine each of the following:

 
d 1 d
(a) √ (b) (sin x cos x)
dx 2
x − 3x − x dx

d 2 d
(c) (x + 5)2 (d) (sin x)
dx dx
2. Use a geometric approach to show that

1 − cos x
lim =0
x→0 x
sin x
3. Assume lim = φ.
x→0 x

Show that function f given by

sin x


 if x 6= 0
f := x 7−→ x


1 if x = 0
is differentiable at x = 0 and find (Df )(0)

22
Higher Derivative

x 7−→ f (x) 7−→ (Df )(x) 7−→ (D(Df ))(x)

D(Df ) = (D2 f )(x)

(D(D(Df )))(x) = (D3 f )(x)
..
.
(D . . . Df )(x) = (Dn f )(x)
D(Df ) = lim4x→0 (Df )(x+4x)−Df
4x
(x)

Df
2
D(Df ) = D f
(D)(D)(Df ) = (D3 f )(x)
DDD(Df ) = (D4 f )(x)
..
.
DDD . . . Df = (Dn f )(x)
| {z }
n tuples

D4 (sin x) = (D(D(D(D sin x)))

= DD(D cos x)

= DD(− sin x)

= D(− cos x)

= sin x

E.G. 1

(D3 sin)(x) = [D(D(D sin))](x)

= D(4 cos x)

= D(− sin x)

= − cos x

23
Linearization (Application of Differentiation)

y − y0
Slope of the straight line = (Df )x0 = .
x − x0
y − y0 = (Df )(x0 )[x − x0 ].

This is the linearization of the curve at (x0 , y0 ).

Approximation Errors and Small Chances

If f is a function

f (x + 4x) − f (x)
(Df )(x) = lim
4x→0 4x

For small 4x
4y f (x + 4x) − f (x)
= = (Df )(x).
4x 4x
For Error (change between the value of x and the value near it).

f (x + 4x) − f (x) + (Df )(x)

For Error (change between the value of x and the value near it).

f (x + 4x) − f (x) + (Df )(x)4x

For Approximation (value of x)

f (x + 4x) + f (x) + (Df )(x)4x.

24
E.G.

Estimate (0.999)10
(0.999)10 = (1 − 0.001)10

Now consider
f (x) = (x)10

then
f (x + 4x) = [1 + (0001)]10

x = 1 = 4x = −0.001

f (x + 4x) + f (x) + (Df )(x)4x

f [1 + (−00001)]10 + f (1) + 10(1)(−0.001)

(0.999)10 + [1 + −0.001]10

+ (1)0 + 10(1)(−0.001)

+ 1 − 0.01

= 0.99

E.G.
A sphere of radius r and volume V
4
V = πr3 .
3
Let 4r = small change in r
Arising from measuring the radius
4v = the corresponding change in volume.

If the error of measurement arising from r = 21 is ±0.5 find the corre-

sponding error in the volume.

25
Solution

4 3
V = πr
3
4V d
= (V )
4r dr
dv
Error = 4r
dr

If r = 21 and 4r = 0.5
Then
  
dv
4v = 0.5
dr r=21
4πr2


+ r=21
0.5

+ 4π(21)2 × 0.5

+ 2772.

Problem
√
3
Calculate 0.5 without using a calculator or any other technical aid.

Extrema

X0 and X2 = local maximum

V1 = local minimum

26
X2 = Absolute maximum

e = Absolute local minimum.

Given a function R. It is said to have a maximum at the point X − X − 0
if f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) for all x and f (x0 ) is the absolute maximum point.

f is said to have a relative maximum at x0 if ∃n δ > 0] = [X − X0 | < δ =⇒

f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) and f (x0 ) is called a relative maximum.
Given a function f , it is said to have a minimum at the point X − X0 if

f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) for all x and f (x0 ) is the absolute minimum point.
f is said to have a relative minimum at X0 if ∃ d > 0 such that |X − X0 | <
δ =⇒ f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) and f (x0 ) is called a relative minimum.

−5x + 3 if x < X0
f (X0 + 4x) − f (x0 )
x 7−→
4x
+4X − 3 if x > X0
When −ε = 4x -ve When ε > 0

−5(x0 − ε) + 3 − (−5x0 ) − 3 5ε
= = −5
−ε −ε

When ε = 4x +ve

4(x0 + ε)−8 − (4x0 ) + 8 4ε

= =4
ε ε

Second Derivative test

27
For a function f ,

Df (x0 ) = 0 for it to have a max. or min

(D(Df ))(x0 ) > 0 for minimum

(D(Df ))x0 < 0 for maximum

Df must exist at and around the point in question i.e. X0

(Df )(x0 ) = 0

(D(Df ))x0 < 0

=⇒ Point of inflexion.

E.G. 1
Suppose the value of a car depreciates in such a manner that its value in
naira t years after it was purchased is given by:

2000
f (t) = 50 +
t+1

(a) What is the rate of depreciation when the car is three years old?

(b) How does the rate of depreciation at the end of two years compare with

the end of three years.

(c) By how much has the car depreciated during the 3rd year?

28
Solution
−2000
(a) f 0 (3) =
(t + 1)2 t=3
−2000
= = −125 Naira per year
16
−2000
(b) f 0 (2) =
(t + 1)2 t=2
−2000 2
= = −222
9 9
2
f 0 (2) − f 0 (3) − 222 + 125 = −97.2 Naira.
9
(c) = (a).

E.G. 2
A rocket is fired up. Its distance in cm above the ground at the end of t
seconds is given by

y = 640t − 16t2 . Describe the motion of the rocket.

Solution

y 0 = 640 − 32t

y 0 = −32

When velocity = 0
640
t= = 20.
32
Then

y = 640(20) − 16(20)2 =⇒ maximum height reached.

= 12800 − 6400

= 6400

29
Curve Sketching

To sketch a curve of the graph of a function.

1. Determine when the graph crosses the X-axis i.e. y = 0.

2. Determine where the graph crosses the y-axis i.e. X = 0.

3. Determine the behaviour of the graph when X is very large.

4. Determine the behaviour of the graph when Y is very large

5. Determine the turning points i.e. the extrema and the point if inflexion.

6. Polynomials are continuous and smooth i.e. they do not have sharp
corner.
Moreover, between any two maxima there is a minimum and vice-versa.

7. Rational functions are in most parts smooth, they have blow-up points

(Asymptotes)

y = [X] =⇒ y is an integer < x

It is called the greatest integer function.

1
If x = y=0
2
If x = 578999 y = 5.
Step function

30
Linear Function

y = mx + c

Quadratic Graph

y = ax2 + bx + c

y = |X|

 X if X ≥ 0
y =
−X if X < 0


E.G. 1
f (x) = 7y = 4x3 − 5x2 = 2x − 1.

When
X = 0, y = −1
y = 0 then 4x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 1 = 0

31
(x − 1) is a factor.

4x2 − x + 1
x − 1 4x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 1
−(4x3 − 4x2 )
−x2 + 2x − 1
−(−x2 + x)
x−1
x−1 (1, 0)
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= complex number
2a
Dy = 12x2 − 10x + 2.

At the T.P. Dy = 0
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x =
p2a
10 ± 100 − 4(12)(4)
=
√ 24
10 ± 4
=
24
10 + 2 10 − 2
= or
24 24
1 1
x = or
2 3
D3 y = 24x − 10|x= 1 < 0
3

D2 y|x= 1
3
1 1
is a max. ia a min.
3 2

32
 1
when x =
2

y = 4x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 1
1 1 1
= 4( )2 − 5( )2 + 2( ) − 1
3 3 3
4 5 2
= − + −1
27 9 3
4 − 15 + 18 − 27
=
27
−20
= .
27

When

1 1 1 1
x= = 4( )3 − 5( )2 + 2( ) − 1
2 2 2 2
4 5
= − =1
8 4
4 − 10 6 −3
= =− =
8 8 4

When x is large and +ve, y is large and +ve

When x is large and -ve, y is large and -ve.

x2 − 1
1.
x2 + 1

2. y = 4x3 − 5x2 − 2x − 1

1
3. y =
x
33
Solution

f (x) = y = 4x3 − 5x2 − 2x − 1

(Df )(x) = 12x2 − 10x − 2

At A.P. = 0
12x2 + 2x − 12x − 2 = 0
2(6x + 1) − 2(6x + 1) = 0
(6x + 1)(2x − 2)
1
x = 1 or − .
6
(Df )(x) = 24x − 10 24x − 10|x=1 = 14 min 24x − 10|x= −1 = −14 max .
6

3 2
y = 4(1) − 5(1) − 2(1) − 1 = 4 − 5 · 2 − 1 = −1
 2    
1 1 1 4 5 1 −4 − 30 + 72 − 216
y=4 − −5 − −2 −1=− − + −1 =
6 6 6 216 36 3 216
−175 −89
= =
216 108
x2 − 1
f (x) = y =
x2 + 1
x = 0, y = −1 (0, −1)
y = 0, x = ±1 ⇒ x2 − 1 = 0

(1, 0)
; (−1, 0)
Express X in terms of y
x2 − 1
y= 2
x +1

34
 x2 − 1 = y(x2 + 1)
x2 − 1 = yx2 + y
x2 − yx2 = y + 1
x2 (1 − y) = y + 1
y+1
x2 =
r1−y
y+1
x=
1−y
For x to be real 1 − y > 0 i.e. y < 1.
x −→ +∞
1
x2 + 1 1− x2 −→
f (x) = 2
= 1 x→∞1
x +1 1+ x2
−→
f (x) x → −∞ = 1

Determine the T.P.

2x(x2 + 1) − 2x(x2 − 1)
(Df )(x) =
(x2 + 1)2
2x(2)
=
(x2 + 1)2

At T.P.

2x(2)
= 0 =⇒ x = 0
(x2 + 1)2
1
f (x) = y =
x
x=0 y=∞
y=0 x=∞

−1
(Df )(x) =
x2

35
 1
(1) y =
|x|
2x2
(2) y = 2
x −1

(3) y = x3 − 3x2 − 6

Integration

f : R −→ R
Z
I = f (x)dx
That function which when differentiated gives f (x).

I = indefinite integral of f is Anti-derivative of f or primitive of f .

dI
i.e. = f (x).
dx
E.G. 1
Z
I = x2 dx
dI
Find I such that = X 2.
dx
x3 x3
 
d
I= +C i.e. +C = x2
3 dx 3
E.G. 2
Z
I = cos x dx

= sin x + C

Reason:
d
(sin x + C) = cos x
dx
Integration as Area Under a Curve

36
Let A(x) be the area under the curve y = f (x) from the limit X = a0 to

X = X.
Then A(X + 4x) the area under the curve from X = a0 to X = X + 4x.
A(X + 4x) − A(x) + f (x)4x

A(X + 4x) − Ax
+ f (x)
4x

dA(x) A(x + 4x) − A(x)

= lim = f (x)
dx 4x→0 4x
... By the definition of integral
Z
A(x) = f (x)dx + C.

Properties of Indefinite Integrals

1. If f and g are two integrable functions, then

Z Z Z
(f + g)(x)dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx

Reason.
Z
(f + g)(x)dx := H(x)

Z
f (x)dx := F (x)

Z
g(x)dx := G(x)

dH(x)
= (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
dx
dF (x) dG(x)
= f (x) − = g(x)
dx dx
37
 d dF (x) dG(x)
(F (x) + G(x)) = +
dx dx dx
= f (x) + g(x) (∗∗)
dH(x) d dF (x) dG(x)
= (F (x) + G(x) = +
dx dx dx dx

H(x) = f (x) + g(x).

Z Z Z
.
By definition .. (f + g)(x)dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.

E.G.
Z Z Z
2 5 2
(x + x )dx = x dx + x5 dx
x3 x6
= + + C.
3 6

2. Suppose f is an integrable function and a is a constant

Z Z
(af )(0)dx = a f (x)dx.
Z
Reason. Suppose f (x)dx = F (x)
Then

d d
(aF (x) + C) = a F (x) + 0
dx dx
= af (x)

By definition
Z Z
... a(f (x0dx = a f (x)dx

f is a functin and [a, b] are interval.

Z b
.
.. f (x)dx
a

38
 The definite integral of f w.r.t. x within that limit a and b and it

means
Z b
f (x)dx := [f (x)]ba := [f (b) − f (a)]
a

x 3
x3
Z 
2 27 1
x dx = = −
1 3 1 3 3
26 2
= =8
3 3

Properties of Definite Integrals

Z b Z c Z b
1. f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
0 0 c
Reason: f (b) − f (a) = f (c) − f (a) + f (b) − f (c)
Z b Z c Z b
... f (x)dx = f (x)dx+ f (x)dx
a a c

Z b Z a
2. f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
a b
Reason:

f (b) − f (a) = [f (a) − f (b)]

= f (b) − f (a)

39
E.G.
2 2
x2
Z 
(x + 3)dx = + 3x
1 2
 1 
1
= (2 + 6) +3
2
7 9
= 8− = .
2 2
Z 1  2 1
x
(x + 3)dx = + 3x
2 2
  2
1
= + 3 − (2 + 6)
2
7 9
= −5=− .
2 2
Z b
Area under the curve f (x) limit a and b is f (x)dx.
a

Reason:

A(x) = f (x) + C
Z b
f (x)dx = f (b)f (a)
a

= A(b) − C − (A(a) − C)

= A(b) − A(a)

40
 b 3
x2
Z 
9
Xdx = =
c 2 0 2

Find the Area under the curve y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 2.

3. Find the area enclosed between the curve y = x2 and y = x.

Z 1 Z 1 Z
2
xdx − x dx = (x − x2 )dx
0 0
 2 1
x x3
= −
2 3 0
1 1 1
= − =
2 3 6

Integration by Substitution
Suppose y is a function of X and y is a function of U which is a function of

41
X. Then y = y(u) and u = u(x).
Z
dy dy du
= · =⇒ y = f (x)dx
dx du dx
 Z
dy dy du
= =⇒ y = f (u)du
du dx dx

E.G. Find
Z
(2x + 3)2 dx
Z
I = (2xrs)2 dx
dI
= (2x + 5)3
dx

Put u = 2x + 5

du
= 2
dx 
dI dI du
=
du dx dx
(2x + s)2
=
2
u5
=
Z2 3
U
I = du
2
U4
= +C
8
(2x + 5)4
= +C
8

42
Find
Z
sin(ax + b)dx
Z
I = sin(ax + b)dx
dI
= sin(ax + b)
dx

Let U = ax + b

dI du
= =a
du dx 
dI dI du
=
du dx dx
sin U
=
Za
sin u
I =
a
Z
1
= sin u
a
− cos u
= +C
a
− cos(ax + b)
=
a

43
Solution

1 − cos 2x
1. lim
x→∞ x
1 − (cos2 x − sin2 x)
= lim
x→0 x
1 − (1 − sin2 x − sin2 x)
= lim
x→0 x
1 − 1 + 2 sin2 x
= lim
x→0 x
2
2 sin x
= lim
x→0 x
sin x
= 2 lim lim sin x
x→0 x

= 2×1×0

= 0
p p
(3a − x) − (x + a)
2(a) lim
x→a 4(x − a)
p p √ p
( (3a − x) − (x + a)) × ( 3a − x + (2x + a))
= lim p p
x→a 4(x − a)( (3a − x) + (x + a))
3a − x − x − a
= lim p p
x→a 4(x − a)( (3a − x) + (x + a))
2a − 2x
= lim p p
x→a 4(x − a)( (3a − x) + (x + a))
−2(x − a)
= lim p p
x→a 4(x − a)( (3a − x) + (x + a))
−1
= lim p √
x→a 2( (3a − x) + ( x + a))
−1
= √ √
2( 3a + 2a)

44
 x2 − 1
(c) lim
x→1 x − 1

(x − 1)(x + 1)
= lim
x→1 (x − 1)
(x − 1)
= lim lim (x + 1)
x→1 (x − 1) x→1

= 1×2

= 2

x−1
(d) lim √
x→1 x−1
√
x − 1( 2 − 1)
= lim p p
x→1 ( (x − 1))( (x − 1))
p
(x − 1)( (x − 1))
= lim
x→1 (x − 1)
(x − 1) p
= lim lim (x − 1)
x→1 (x − 1) x→1

= 1×0

= 0

(e) lim (2x2 − 1)

x→1

= 2(1)2 − 1

= 2−1

= 1

45
 1
(f) lim √
x→1 x
1
= √
1
1
=
1
= 1

46