IMAGE INTERPRETATION & ANALYSIS

VISUAL IMAGE INTERPRETATION

DR. PRASHANTH J
NIT SILCHAR
 INTRODUCTION
• The main aim of remote sensing is to extract meaningful
information from an satellite image.
• This process is the sixth element of remote sensing process.
• Interpretation and analysis of remote sensing imagery
involves the identification and/or measurement of various
targets in an image in order to extract useful information
about them.
 INTRODUCTION
• Targets in remote sensing images may be any feature or object
which can be observed in an image, and have the following
characteristics:
➢Targets may be a point, line, or area feature. This means that
they can have any form, from a bus in a parking lot or plane on
a runway, to a bridge or roadway, to a large expanse of water
or a field.
➢The target must be distinguishable; it must contrast with other
features around it in the image.
• Much interpretation and identification of targets in remote sensing imagery is
performed manually or visually, i.e. by a human interpreter.
• In many cases this is done using imagery displayed in a pictorial or photograph-
type format, independent of what type of sensor was used to collect the data
and how the data were collected. In this case we refer to the data as being in
analog format.
• Remote sensing images can also be represented in a computer as arrays of pixels,
with each pixel corresponding to a digital number, representing the brightness
level of that pixel in the image. In this case, the data are in a digital format.
• Visual interpretation involves visual analysis of aerial photographs and satellite
images.
• When the interpretation is carried out with the help of computer software, it is
known as digital interpretation.
• Digital interpretation may be used to enhance data as a prelude to visual
interpretation.
• However, rarely is digital processing and analysis carried out as a complete
replacement for manual interpretation. Often, it is done to supplement and assist
the human analyst.
 DATA SELECTION CRITERIA

• Information requirements and constraints

• Availability and cost
 TYPES OF DATA PRODUCTS
• Pictorial data:
• The pictorial data products give information of objects on the earth surface in the form of
photographs or images.
• The pictorial products provided by aircrafts are called aerial photographs.
• The pictorial data products provided by satellites are called satellite images.

• Digital data:
• A digital data product is called digital image.
• A digital image is a two-dimensional array of pixels (picture elements).
• Each pixel represents an area on the earth’s surface and has an intensity value (represented
by a digital number) and a location address (referenced by its row and column number).
 VISUAL IMAGE INTERPRETATION
• Visual image interpretation is a process of identifying
features seen on the images by an analyst/interpreter
and communication of information obtained from these
images to others for evaluating their significance.
• Aerial photo interpretation is a process of examining
and extracting useful information from aerial
photographs.
• Satellite image interpretation is an art of examining
images for the purpose of identifying objects and
judging their significance.
• During the process, some features may be easily identifiable while others may
not, depending upon your own perceptions and experience.
• The reliability of information collected from aerial photographs depends on the
quality of aerial photographs, instruments used for interpretation, working
conditions and personal experience with photo interpretation techniques.
• In addition, preliminary knowledge of the area of interest which comprises of its
geographic location, past and present climate conditions, vegetation and
published literature are always useful for accurate identification of features.
• Information extraction from imageries is based on the characteristics of image
features, such as size, shape, tone, texture, shadow, pattern and association.
• Tone refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects in an image.
• Tone is the fundamental element for distinguishing between different
targets or features. Variations in tone also allows the elements of
shape, texture, and pattern of objects to be distinguished.
• Ground objects of different colour reflect the incident radiation
differently depending upon the incident wave length, physical and
chemical constituents of the objects.
• The imagery as recorded in remote sensing is in different shades or
tones.
• Tone is expressed qualitatively as light, medium and dark. Tone

• In thermal imagery objects at higher temperature are recorded of

lighter tone compared to objects at lower temperature, which appear
of medium to darker tone.
• Size of objects in an image is a function of scale.
• It is important to assess the size of a target relative to other objects in
a scene, as well as the absolute size, to aid in the interpretation of that
target.
• A quick approximation of target size can be direct interpretation to an
appropriate result more quickly.
Size
• Shape refers to the general form, structure, or outline of individual
objects.
• Shape can be a very distinctive clue for interpretation.
• Straight edge shapes typically represent urban or agricultural (field)
targets, while natural features, such as forest edges, are generally
more irregular in shape, except where man has created a road or clear
cuts.
Shape
• Texture refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular
areas of an image.
• Rough textures would consist of a mottled tone where the grey levels change
abruptly in a small area, whereas smooth textures would have very little tonal
variation.
• Smooth textures are most often the result of uniform, even surfaces, such as Texture
fields, asphalt, or grasslands.
• Pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of visibly discernible objects.
• Typically an orderly repetition of similar tones and textures will produce a
distinctive and ultimately recognizable pattern.
• Orchards with evenly spaced trees and urban streets with regularly spaced houses
are good examples of pattern.
Pattern
• Shadow is also helpful in interpretation as it may provide an idea of the
profile and relative height of a target or targets which may make
identification easier.
• However, shadows can also reduce or eliminate interpretation in their area
of influence, since targets within shadows are much less (or not at all)
discernible from their surroundings.
• Shadow is also useful for enhancing or identifying topography and Shadow
landforms, particularly in radar imagery.
• Association takes into account the relationship between other recognizable
objects or features in proximity to the target of interest.
• The identification of features that one would expect to associate with other
features may provide information to facilitate identification.
• In our example, a lake is associated with boats, a marina, and adjacent Association
recreational land.
• Though this approach is simple and straight forward, it has following short
comings:
• i) The range of grey values product on a film or print is limited in comparison to what
can be recorded in digital form,
• ii) Human eye can recognize limited number of colour tones, so full advantage of
radiometric resolution cannot be used,
• iii) Visual interpretation poses serious limitation when we want to combine data from
various sources.
 INTERPRETATION KEYS
• The image interpretation process can involve various levels of complexity from a
simple direct recognition of objects in the scene to the inference of site conditions.
• Keys that provide useful reference of refresher materials and valuable training
aids for novice interpreters are called image interpretation keys.
• Ideally, it consists of two basic parts
(i) a collection of annotated or captioned images (stereo pairs) illustrative of the
features or conditions to be identified, and
(ii) a graphic or word description that sets forth in some systematic fashion the image
recognition characteristics of those features or conditions.
 TYPES OF INTERPRETATION KEYS

• Selective key: A selective key is also called reference key which contains numerous
example images with supporting text.
• Elimination key: An elimination key is arranged so that the interpretation proceeds
step by step from the general to the specific, and leads to the elimination of all
features or conditions except the one being identified. Elimination keys are also
called dichotomous keys.
• Elimination key gives more positive answers than selective keys.
• But the elimination key sometimes gives more erroneous answers if the interpreter is forced to
make uncertain choice between any two unfamiliar image characteristics.
• The elimination key is used and successfully employed for agricultural studies, and forestry
applications.
• An important point is that, these keys are normally developed and used on a region-by-region and
season-by-season basis that is these keys are dependent upon location and season.
• Generally, keys are more easily constructed and reliably used for the cultural feature
identification and extraction, of objects like houses, bridges, roads, water tanks, vegetation and
land form.
• Therefore, temporal aspects are also important for image interpretation because of changes of the
earth surface features.
Left: Cheetah with tear lines on
face.
Right: Leopard

Left: Cheetahs have solid spots.

Right: Leopard with rosette
markings.
 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR PHOTO INTERPRETATION
• The following procedure can be adopted for both aerial photo and remote sensed
imagery:
• Preliminary examination
• Interpretation
• Detailed examination
• Compilation
PRELIMINARY STAGE
• In this stage it is necessary for the interpreter to become familiar with the site and its surrounding
area. At this examination, easily identifiable images are correlated with ground features such as
roads, rivers etc.
• The principle of working from "whole to part" is also followed here from overall viewing of
terrain using aerial photos. This is achieved by making a photo-mosaic of the aerial photos (by
joining successive and overlapping photos and removing common area).

DETAILED EXAMINATION
• The next stage, the detailed examination is to examine overlapping photos under a stereoscope to
see the third dimension. viz: topography of the terrain and its variation.
• Overlays are then prepared by tracing from the photos or tracing paper showing features, which
have been identified.
INTERPRETATION STAGE
• Many times the stages of detailed examination and interpretation can be combined and
can be carried out side by side. Some of the general and common features to be noted
from aerial photos, which are common to most of the project are as follows:
• Topography - hills, valleys, flood plain, lakes, steep and gentle slopes, depression, quarries,
embankments, coastal features etc.
• Drainage and drainage patterns-springs, seepage, major rivers, streams, channels, marshy
lands, ponds, lakes etc.
• General geology viz: soil boundaries, soil types
• Exiting hazards like abandoned mining sites, trenches, buried foundation etc.
• Site history such as earlier use of presently abandoned buildings, waste land, removal of
vegetation etc.
COMPILATION STAGE
• Consists of making maps from aerial photos and showing features of significance as
identified by interpretation.
• Depending upon the topography and tilt of the photos, any existing photogrammetric
methods such as rectification may be employed to get a final map with symbols
depicting the features of the terrain and other information of the terrain such as land use
etc.
 EQUIPMENT FOR IMAGE PROCESSING
• Light Tables
• Rulers
• Stereoscopes
• Magnifiers
• Planimeters
• Parallax bar
• Zoom Transfer scope
EXAMPLE
Look for patterns, shapes, and textures
• Volcanoes and craters
are circular, and
mountain ranges tend
to run in long,
sometimes wavy lines.
Color changes
• Clouds are white and gray, and they
tend to have texture just as they do
when viewed from the ground.
• Clouds also cast dark shadows on the
ground that mirror the shape of the
cloud. Some high, thin clouds are
detectable only by the shadow they
cast.
• Smoke is often smoother than clouds
and ranges in color from brown to
gray. Smoke from oil fires is black.
• Haze is usually featureless and pale
gray or a dingy white. Dense haze is
opaque, but you can see through
thinner haze.
• White haze may be natural fog, but it
may also be pollution.
 Courtesy: Plelades Satellite Image, 2017

Courtesy: Plelades Satellite Image, 2017

TAJ MAHAL, AGRA PALM ISLANDS, DUBAI