Hotel Distributionمشروع توزيع الكهرباء لفندق كامل

Fayoum University
Faculty of Engineering
Elec. Power Department
B.S.C. Project 2009

Supervisors
Dr. Emad Dabbis
Dr. Gehan El Shazly
(Hotel building)
Prepared by:
- Abd allah Salah Eldin Mohammed
- Abd elrahman Mohammed Abd elate
- Ahmed Nasr Fathi
- Ali Ahmed abd Eltawab
- Emry Elsayed Abdo
- Hamade Saber Mahmoued
- Mokhtar Said Ibrahim Ahmed
- Omar Mohammed Salama
Acknowledgment
In the name of Allah the all merciful,

Praise to Allah for helping us to accomplish this
documentation.
Many thanks to my Profs. Of the department for

helping us by there lectures which were really a good
source of information to us,
Special thanks to Dr. Emad dabbis , Dr. Gehan el
shazly and eng. Aymen said who helps us to

arrange. Our ideas, the steps to begin the project to
its end by giving us information and explanation that
helps to achieve the project.
Utilization and Distribution
Preface
Over view about our project
* Design an electrical feeding for a hotel which consists of:
12 th floor plan
Typical floor plan
Pool deck level
Mezzanine floor plan
Ground floor plan
Basement floor plan
* The main steps of project:

-determine the required types and location of luminaries for each room of
each building by MATLAB program.
-determine power and mechanical loads.
-design feeders for all loads circuit by MATLAB program
-achieved phase balance bet. Three phase power system by EXCEL
program.
-specifying the appropriate cable cross section area for each circuit by
MATLAB program.
-specifying the appropriate C.B rating for each feeder and branch circuit.
-accomplishing the short circuit and voltage drop analysis for the entire
system of loads
-specifying the ratings of transformer and emergency generator
-earthing system.
-firing alarm system.
- telephone data system
V
BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface
CH. 1 IN DOOR LIGHT …………………………………………………1:23
CH. 2 SOCKETS ……….………………………………………………….24:25
CH. 3 CABLES ……….……………………………………………………26:66
CH. 4 PROTECTION SYSTEM ………………………………………….67:71
CH. 5 MECHANICAL LOADS …………………………………………...72:88
CH. 6 EMERGENCY ………………………………………………………89:113
CH. 7 EARTHING ………………………………………………………..114:142
CH. 8 FIRE ALARM ……………………………………………………..143:169
CH. 9 TRANSFORMER AND GENERATOR ………………………..162:170
CH. 10 OUT DOOR LIGHTING ……………………………………....171:173
APPENDIX
REFFERENCES
Chapter 1
Indoor Lighting
1.1. Introduction:
Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of human

beings ultimately depend upon the light where there is no natural light ,
use of artificial light is made. Artificial lighting produced electrically on
account of its cleanliness, ease of control, reliability, steady output as
well as its low cost is playing an increasingly important part in modern
every day life. Optimization of light is becoming more important what
ever the Application Street or medical, in door or architectural lighting
one of the main requirements is to optimize the uniformity of the lite area
taking into account the environment and minimizing blooming effects. A
basic understanding of lighting fundamentals is essential for specifiers
and decision-makers who are evaluating lighting upgrades. This
document provides a brief overview of design parameters, technologies,
and terminology used in the lighting industry. Good lighting has a lot of
benefits where it decreases fatigue a protect health , eye , nervous system
and reducing accidents , the science of illumination engineering is
therefore becoming of major importance.
1
Chapter 1 Lighting
1.2. Illumination
From Physics we can derive models, called "illumination ", of how
light reflects from surfaces and produces what we perceive as color. In
general, light leaves some light source, illumination is the result of the
light on surfaces in which it falls thus the illumination makes the surface
look more or less bright with a certain color and this brightness and color
which the eye sees and interprets as something useful or pleasant or other
wise.
(i.e. A lamp or the sun is reflected from many surfaces and then finally
reflected to our eyes, or through an image plane of a camera).
1.3. Quantity of Illumination
1.3.1 Light Output:

The most common measure of light output (or luminous flux) is the
lumen. Light sources are labeled with an output rating in lumens. For
example, a T12 40-watt fluorescent lamp may have a rating of 3050
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Chapter 1 Lighting
lumens. Similarly, a light fixture's output can be expressed in lumens. As

lamps and fixtures age become dirty, their lumen output decreases (i.e.,
lumen depreciation occurs). Most lamp ratings are based on initial lumens
(i.e., when the lamp is new). It can be explained in another way as
maintenance factor which is know by the ratio of illumination under
normal working conditions to the illumination when the lamps are
perfectly clean.
1.3.2 Light Level:
Light intensity measured on a plane at a specific location is called

luminance. Luminance is measured in foot-candles, which are workplace
lumens per square foot. You can measure luminance using a light meter
located on the work surface where tasks are performed. Using simple
arithmetic and manufacturers' photometric data, you can predict
luminance for a defined space. (Lox is the metric unit for luminance,
measured in lumens per square meter. To convert foot-candles to lox,
multiply foot-candles by 10.76.)
1.3.3. Brightness:
Another measurement of light is luminance, sometimes called

brightness. This measures light "leaving" a surface in a particular
direction, and considers the luminance on the surface and the reflectance
of the surface.
The human eye does not see luminance; it sees luminance. Therefore, the
amount of light delivered into the space and the reflectance of the
surfaces in the space affects your ability to see.
3
Chapter 1 Lighting
1.3.4 Quantity Measures:
• Luminous flux is defined as a total quantity of light energy emitted

per second from a luminous body commonly called light output
and is measured in lumens (lm) the conception of luminous flux
helps us to specify the output and efficiency of a given light source.
• Luminance is called light level and is measured in foot-candles
(fact).
• Luminance is defined as the luminance intensity per unit projected
area of either a surface source of light or reflecting surface as is
denoted by (L) where { L=I/A COS }.
1.3.5. Determining Target Light Levels:
When designing a new or upgraded lighting system, one must be

careful to avoid over lighting a space. In the past, spaces were designed
for as much as 200 foot-candles in places where 50 foot-candles may not
only be adequate, but superior. This was partly due to the misconception
that the more light in a space, the higher the quality. Not only does over
lighting waste energy, but it can also reduce lighting quality. Refer to
Exhibit 2 for light levels recommended by the Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America.
Within a listed range of luminance, three factors dictate the proper

level: age of the occupant(s), speed and accuracy requirements, and
background contrast. For example, to light a space that uses computers,
the overhead light fixtures should provide up to 30 fact of ambient
lighting. The task lights should provide the additional foot-candles
needed to achieve a total luminance of up to 50 facts for reading and
writing. For luminance recommendations for specific visual tasks, refer to
4
Chapter 1 Lighting
the IES Lighting Handbook, 1993, or to the IES Recommended Practice

No. 24 (for VDT lighting).
The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America has

developed a procedure for determining the appropriate average light level
for a particular space. This procedure (used extensively by designers and
engineers (recommends a target light level by considering the following:
• The task(s) being performed (contrast, size, etc.)

• the ages of the occupants
• the importance of speed and accuracy
Then, the appropriate type and quantity of lamps and light fixtures may
be selected based on the following:
• fixture efficiency
• lamp lumen output
• the reflectance of surrounding surfaces the effects of light losses
from lamp lumen depreciation and dirt accumulation
• room size and shape
• availability of natural light (daylight)
1.4. Quality of Illumination

Improvements in lighting quality can yield high dividends for US
businesses. Gains in worker productivity may result by providing
corrected light levels with reduced glare. Although the cost of energy for
lighting is substantial, it is small compared with the cost of labor.
Therefore, these gains in productivity may be even more valuable than
the energy savings associated with new lighting technologies. In retail
5
Chapter 1 Lighting
spaces, attractive and comfortable lighting designs can attract clientele

and enhance sales.
Three quality issues are addressed in this section.
• glare
• uniformity of luminance
• color rendition
1.4.1 Glare:
It is the brightness within the field of vision of such a character as to

cause annoyance, discomfort, Interference with vision or eye fatigue.
• Lumen:
It is the unit of luminous flux and is defined as the amount of luminous

flux given out in a space represented
• Luminous Intensity:
It is the luminous flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle,
measured in the direction in which the intensity is required. It is denoted
by I and is measured in candela (cd) or lumens / steradian.
• Luminous Flux:
It is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from
a luminous body. It is denoted by symbol  and measured in lumens.
• Lux or Meter Candle:
It is defined as the luminous flux falling per meter square on the surface
which is every where perpendicular to the rays of light from a source of
one candle power and one meter away from it.
6
Chapter 1 Lighting
1.4.2 Uniformity of Illuminance on Tasks:
The uniformity of illuminance is a quality issue that addresses how

evenly light spreads over a task area. Although a room's average
illuminance may be appropriate, two factors may compromise uniformity.
• improper fixture placement based on the luminaire's spacing

criteria (ratio of maxim recommended fixture spacing distance to
mounting height above task height)
• Fixtures that are retrofit with reflectors that narrow the light
distribution.
1.4.3 Non-uniform illuminance causes several problems:
• inadequate light levels in some areas

• visual discomfort when tasks require frequent shifting of view from
underlit to overlit areas
• bright spots and patches of light on floors and walls that cause
distraction and generate a low quality appearance
1.5. HOW TO CALCULATE LUMEN?

1.5.1 Luminaires in Regular Arrays:
Where
E = average Illuminance (lx)

N = no. of luminaires
n = no. of lamps in each luminaire
F = flux from one bare lamp
UF = utilization factor
MF = maintenance factor, allowing for effects of dirt and
depreciation
A f = area of working plane or floor
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Chapter 1 Lighting
• Utilization Factor:
The Utilization Factor (UF) is the proportion of light flux emitted by

the lamps which reaches the working plane. Luminaire manufacturers
issues tables of utilization factors for various combinations of Room
Index and surface reflectances.
The Room Index for a rectangular room l x w where h m is the height of

luminaries above the working plane, is given by;
• Maintenance Factor:
The maintenance Factor (MF) is the ratio of illumination under normal

working conditions to the illumination when the things are perfectly clean
M.F= (Illumination under normal working condition/illumination when

every thing is perfectly clean).
Some factors affects maintenance factor such as:

 Dust and dirt inside luminaries surfaces.
 Aging of light bulbs emitting less light.
 Cleaning of room surfaces, e.g. ceiling.
Without detailed knowledge of maintenance plan,
One sets MF = 0.8 ~ 0.9
8
Chapter 1 Lighting
• Depreciation Factor:
This is merely the reverse of the maintenance factor and defined as the
ratio of initial meter-candles to the ultimate maintained meter-candles on
the working plane. Its value is more than unity.
• Spacing to Mounting Height ratio (SHR):
It is the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps and height of

their mountings.
The best ratio is between 0.8 and 1.2 (0.8<SHR<1.2).
• Ceiling ratio:
The recommendation for general lighting with a predominantly

downward distribution is for the ratio of average illuminance on the
ceiling to the average illuminance on the horizontal working plane to be
within the range 0.3 to 0.9.
In general the ceiling cavity reflectance should be as high as possible,

at least 0.6.
For indirect lighting, the average luminance of all surfaces forming the
ceiling cavity should be not more than 500 cd/m2 however small areas of
luminance up to 1500 cd/m2 will generally be acceptable, provided sharp
changes from low to high luminance are avoided.
• Walls:
Higher reflectance of wall and partition surfaces will increase the

perception of lightness in the interior. Walls with windows are a
9
Chapter 1 Lighting
particular case. The walls surrounding a window should have a

reflectance not less than 0.6 in order to reduce contrast.
The ratio of the average illuminance on the walls to the average

illuminance on the horizontal working plane is related to the average
vertical plane illuminance throughout the space. This has been shown to
give good correlation with visual satisfaction for office lighting. The
recommendation is for the ratio of the average illuminance on any wall or
major partition surfaces to the average illuminance on the horizontal
working plane to be within the range 0.5 to 0.8.
In general the effective reflectance of the principal walls should be

between 0.3 and 0.7.
• Floor and working plane:
The reflectance of the floor cavity plays an important part in visual

appearance of a room. With most lighting installations a proportion of
the light on the ceiling will have been reflected off the floor. Low
reflectance bench and desk tops should be avioded since these surfaces
have a major effect on effective floor cavity reflectance.
In general it is undesirable for the average floor cavity reflectance to

exceed 0.40 or fall below 0.20. The reflectance of the area surrounding
the task should not be less than one third of the task itself. In the case of
office tasks involving white paper this will require desk tops to have a
reflectance of at least 0.30.
1.5.2 Laws of illumination
1.5.2.1 Inverse square law:
If a source of light which emits light equally in all directions be placed

at the center of a hollow sphere the light will fall uniformly on the inner
10
Chapter 1 Lighting
surface of the sphere each square mm of the surface will receive the same
amount of light if the sphere be replaced by one of the larger radius, the
same total amount of light is spread over a larger area proportional to the
square of the radius.
E1 = I * w / A1 LUMEN / UNIT AREA

Where A1 = w (R1^2)
E1 = I / (R1^2)
Similarly illumination on the surface area (A2)
E2 = I / (R2^2)
1.5.2.2 Lambert cosine law:

At any point on a surface is proportional to the cosine of the angle
between the normal at that point and the direction of luminous flux. We
consider a point source, S, illuminating a plane surface, P. We know the
luminance on a small area ad, illuminated by a luminous flux dΦ
Where dω is the angle subtended by the element ad at the source.
The luminance produced at a point source at a distance r from a plane is
obtained by first eliminating dΦ from the above two equations
E = I*(dw/da)
AND dw = da COS ө/ r^2
Substituting for dw gives
E ( I COS ө)/ ( R^2 )
11
Chapter 1 Lighting
This expresses both the inverse square and cosine laws of illumination
from a point source.
1.6. Types of lamps

1.6.1. Incandescent lamps:
Incandescent lamps or bulbs are the least energy efficient type of
lighting. They are inexpensive to buy, but their running costs are
high. Incandescent lamps are most suitable for areas where lighting is
used infrequently and for short periods, such as laundries and toilets.
Standard incandescent bulbs last about a thousand hours and must be
regularly replaced.
- Theory of Operation:
When electric current passes through resistance of the filament wire,
power (I² R) is used to heats the filament and produce a glowing.
Incandescent Lamps Fixtures of Incandescent Lamp
1.6.2. Fluorescent lamps:
Fluorescent lamps are the most energy efficient form of

lighting for households and use only about a quarter of the
energy used by incandescent bulbs to provide the same light
level. They are more expensive to buy but are much cheaper to
12
Chapter 1 Lighting
run and can last up to ten thousand hours. Most fluorescent

lamps do not switch on immediately. This is a design feature to
lengthen the life of the tube.
Fluorescent lamps are ideal for areas where lighting is required for long
periods of time, such as the living room, kitchen, and for security lighting.
There are two main types of fluorescent lamps:
 Tubular.
 Compact type.
Tubular lamps, also known as fluorescent tubes, are available in a
straight or circular style. They are cheaper to buy than compact
fluorescent lamps (CFLs), but unlike CFLs require special fittings. Tubes
are ideal for kitchens, garages and workshops.
Different Types of Fluorescent Lamps Fixtures of fluorescent Lamp
1.6.3 High pressure sodium lamp:
A high intensity discharge (HID) lamp whose light is produced by

radiation from sodium vapor (and mercury)
13
Chapter 1 Lighting
1.7. MATLAB Calculation
Ball room
14
Chapter 1 Lighting
Looby
15
Chapter 1 Lighting
Storage
Service bar
16
Chapter 1 Lighting
Retail
General cashier
17
Chapter 1 Lighting
Bank
Coorridoor
18
Chapter 1 Lighting
Night club
Manager office
19
Chapter 1 Lighting
Work station
20
Chapter 1 Lighting
Air handling area
Toilet
Security disc
21
Chapter 1 Lighting
Receiving office
Human resources
22
Chapter 1 Lighting
Pump room
23
Chapter 1 Lighting
Telephone
24
Chapter 1 Lighting
Meeting
25
Chapter 1 Lighting
Electric room
26
Chapter 2 Sockets
Chapter 2
Sockets
2.1 Introduction
There are many types of sockets which used in distribution system but in
our project we show the sockets which be used in commercial building
and the floor boxes used in the administrative building.
2.2 Types of sockets

2.2.1. Normal Sockets
Is used for light load only ( each socket is 180VA ). Its ratings are 2A,
3A, 5A and 10A. Rating (3A) and (5A) can be used for bedrooms,
entrance and balcony which needs low electrical power appliances such
as T.V, Radio and small electrical fans.
27
Chapter 2 Sockets
2.2.2. Power Sockets
Is called electrical socket, mains socket, plug-in, outlet, respectable and

female power connector; Used for automatic washing cloth machines,
air conditions, dish washers and electrical ovens. Its rating is at least
equal to 16A
2.2.3. Emergency Power Sockets
• Mainly used in ventilation systems (each socket is 200VA).

• Has a main sign which is EXIT sign.
• Each socket is a single circuit directly connected to the panel
board
2.2.4. Floor boxes
A wide range of accessory plates is available for power data

and telecommunication services .
We use floor box for any equipment with many plugs like computers
and its attached .
28
Chapter 3 Cables
Chapter 3
Cables
3.1. Introduction:
This chapter explaining the design of feeders for lighting circuits and socket
branch circuits by determine the current that can carry the diameters of
cables "feeder" and connections between it and also between distribution
boards.
3.2. Definition of cables
Cables are the material used in connections in electrical circuits; consists of

many layers; conductor covered with semi conductor then insulation may be
PVC type and the insulation is covered with another layer of a
semiconductor then may be armour layer or another insulation in most
XLPE type; the last two layers (armour; XLPE) can be changed in
arrangement there sequence is not constant and this depend in the usage of
the cable.
29
Chapter 3 Cables
3.3. Construction and Material
3.3.1. Conductor:
In plain soft annealed copper, cables are supplied either with class 2 of
compacted circular or circular stranded conductors or aluminum conductors
Copper is about 1.7 times more conductive than aluminum, so smaller
diameters will result with copper although the conductor will be heaver.
Conductors are sized to adequately carry the required current at the rated
temperature of operation (temperature is influenced by the heat transfer
properties of the materials and conditions in which they are installed.). The
cable manufacturer can assist in sizing.
3.3.2 Conductor Shield:
A conductor shield is required over stranded conductors above 2kV. The

conductor shield provides for a smooth, radial electric field within the
insulation4. The conductivity must be greater than the dielectric constant
times the frequency, for power frequency operation. The dielectric constant
of a semicon is in the order of 1000, so even if the phase angle of the shield
approached 90º, the field in the shield would be negligible compared to that
in the insulation. Therefore the conductor shield can perform its function at
low fairly low conductivity levels5. Industry specifications require a
receptivity of below 1000 ohm-meters. The conductor shield is produced
with a copolymer of ethylene or EPR filled with carbon black to make the
material semi-conducting. Some manufacturers use a nonconductive material
30
Chapter 3 Cables
with a dielectric constant of about 10. All are compatible with, and firmly
bond to, the insulation.
Modern ethylene copolymers allow for compounding of exceptionally
smooth materials on continuous compounding machines and transport in
completely enclosed handling systems in pellet form.
3.3.3. Conductor screening:
Conductor screening, that is non-metallic and made up of semi-conducting

tape or a layer of extruded semi-conducting compound, or a combination of
both, is supplied to cables
3.4. Insulation
A layer of extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) makes up the

insulation. Cables rated voltages that are above 1.8/3(3.6) KV has insulation
screening consisting of a non-metallic semi-conducting part with a metallic
part. Unamoured cables of 1.8/ 3(3.6) KV rated voltage have insulation
screening that consists of metallic screen. The non-metallic part is applied
onto the insulation and makes up of either semi-conducting tape or a layer of
extruded semi-conducting compound. For cables with rated voltage above
1.8/3(3.6) KV, the metallic part is applied on the individual cores whereas
for cables with rated voltage 1.8/3(3.6) KV, it is applied on the core
assembly and consists of a plain annealed copper tape. A choice of copper
tape screen, a lead alloy, corrugated aluminum sheath or a layer of copper
wires is provided for your selection.
Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) became available in the mid 1960s with
the invention of Ziegler Natta polymerization catalysts. Insulation
compounds based on these synthetic EPRs became available in the 1970s1.
31
Chapter 3 Cables
These insulation types are approaching 40 years of reliable service. Rubber

insulation is chosen for its proven service life, flexibility and performance in
high temperature operation2. Most rubber insulations produced today are
based on ethylene propylene (EP) or ethylene propylene diene (EPDM)
polymers. EPDM insulations are used on cables rated up to 138 kV. Some
have attempted to classify EPDM polymers by the percentage of ethylene
present in an EPDM base resin. One theory is that the higher the ethylene
content, the higher the crystallinity (semi-crystalline) and therefore, the
greater the susceptibility to treeing and early failure. All EPDM cable
insulations, however, are inherently resistant to treeing. It is believed that
EPDM’s high resistance to degradation and reduced hydrophobic prevents
water from condensing and causing the Oxidation associated with water
trees. It is also theorized that the ionic species introduced by the clay filler
makes the water too conductive to form trees3.
3.5. Advantages of underground cable
1-No Interruption of Supply Even Under Several Weather Condition

2- No Liability of accident to the public
3-No Effect of Environment
3.6. The Designing of cables affected by four main factors
1-Conductors
2-Insulation
3-screening
4-armoring
32
Chapter 3 Cables
3.7. Types of Cables
3.7.1. PILC cables:

One of the most successful designs were paper insulated lead covered
(PILC) cables.
Use of paper insulated power cables can be traced back to 1891 in London.
During the years the paper impregnation was improved by changing
vegetable substances by mineral oil, later by wax-_lied compounds. The
sheath protecting the cable from moisture ingress progressed from lead to
aluminum [3].
3.7.2. XLPE cables:
Development of synthetic polymer materials boosted the birth of extruded

power cables. The growth of solid dielectric insulated medium voltage
cables began in the early 1950s, with the introduction of butyl rubber and
thermoplastic high molecular weight polyethylene. Introduction of cross
linked polyethylene (XLPE) as an insulation material in the mid-1960s
seemed to be very promising due to good electrical, thermal and mechanical
properties. XLPE has low permittivity, high dielectric Insulation Shield
The insulation shield, like the conductor shield, is required in medium- and
high- voltage cables rated 2kV and above. The insulation shield provides for
a smooth, radial electric field within the insulation. Industry specifications
require a receptivity of below 500 ohmmeters to adequately carry current to
the metallic shield. Most commercial materials are below 100 ohm-meters.
33
Chapter 3 Cables
One very important aspect of the insulation shield is its degree of “strip-
ability”. The insulation shield must be easily removable in order to be
terminated and spliced. In most cables, the insulation shield is co-extruded
with the insulation and cross linked to its surface. Most insulation shields are
based on ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers that have a high enough
polarity that even though cross-linked to the insulation, do not mix with and
bond permanently to it. Note: EVA can generate acetic acid, noticeable by a
strong vinegar odor, if overheated during cure. Acid scavengers are added to
neutralize small amounts of acid if generated. Computer programs are used
to predict and control the surface temperature of the cable during
manufacture.
3.8. Insulation Shield
The insulation shield, like the conductor shield, is required in medium- and
high- voltage cables rated 2kV and above. The insulation shield provides for
a smooth, radial electric field within the insulation. Industry specifications
require a resistively of below 500 ohmmeters to adequately carry current to
the metallic shield. Most commercial materials are below 100 ohm-meters.
One very important aspect of the insulation shield is its degree of “strip-
ability”. The insulation shield must be easily removable in order to be
terminated and spliced. In most cables, the insulation shield is co-extruded
with the insulation and crosslinked to its surface. Most insulation shields are
based on ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers that have a high enough
polarity that even though cross-linked to the insulation, do not mix with and
bond permanently to it. Note: EVA can generate acetic acid, noticeable by a
strong vinegar odor, if overheated during cure.
34
Chapter 3 Cables
Acid scavengers are added to neutralize small amounts of acid if generated.

Computer programs are used to predict and control the surface temperature
of the cable during manufacture.
3.9. Metallic armour
If required, the amour can be made to specifications, consisting of a layer of

round wires or double tapes of galvanized steel or aluminum. Non-magnetic
amour is essential for single core cable on A.C. circuit, thus single core
cables are armored with aluminum.
3.10. Outer sheath
An extruded black PVC (class ST2) outer sheath is provided to all cables.
Jackets are available in a number of different compounds for specific
requirements. Jacket types include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene
(LLDPE, MDPE, and HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Neoprene, Hyperion®,
and thermoplastic chlorinated polyethylene (CPE). For certain applications,
a lead sheath and interlocking or corrugated armors are available for
multiconductor cables. Jackets may offer properties, such as sunlight, flame,
and chemical and abuse resistance. Jacket selection depends on where and
how a cable will be used and the exposure conditions, both during
installation and while in service.
3.11. cable marking
The following information is indicated on the surface of the outer sheath;

- Voltage rating (eg. 30kV)
- Manufacturer’s name
- Year of manufacture (eg. 1999)
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Chapter 3 Cables
3.12. Typical Construction of Cable 6/10 (12) KV
3.12.1. XLPE Insulated Unarmored Cable (XLPE/PVC)

3.12.1.1. Single Core
1. Conductor
2. Conductors
3. Insulation
4. Insulation Screen (Nonmetallic)
5. Insulation Screen (Metallic)
6. Outer Sheaths
3.12.1.2. Three Cores
1. Conductor
2. Conductor Screen
3. Insulation
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Chapter 3 Cables
4. Insulation Screen (Non-Metallic)

5. Insulation Screen (Metallic)
6. Filler
7. Binder Tape
8. Outer Sheaths
3.13. Protection of cables
By covering the route of the laid cables with durable and resistant materials,
the cables will be protected from tools if there should be excavations. Due to
the increasingly extensive networks and excavations, it is important to keep
complete and accurate marking of the cable route. If this method cannot be
used, then all dimension figures of the markers should be indicated on the
site drawing.
3.14. Cable jointing
Cable jointing must be carried out by a skilled staff with maximum care,
using the appropriate material.
3.15. Allowable maximum pulling tension
The allowable maximum pulling tension of the aluminum conductor cables

is 4kg per mm2 and the copper conductor cable is 7kg per mm2 of conductor
total sectional area.
3.16. Electrical tests after installation
At the completion of the cable installation, the following test is

recommended
To carry out on site for the relevant cable voltage
37
Chapter 3 Cables
3.17. Cable rating

The size of the conductor used must be large enough for it to carry the
expected load current without exceeding the temperature limit appropriate to
the insulating material involved. Factors affecting the current that a the
discussed below.
3.18. Groups of cables
Where more than one circuit or cable run together in conduit, trucking, or on
the surface the mutual heating between them reduces their current carrying
capacities. For most arrangements of cables in general use factors are issued
with the rating tables where by the maximum current carrying capacity of
cables in groups can be calculated. Because they have to deal With the
subject in a general way, these factors must be derived on the assumption
that all the cables in a group are of the same size and are equally loaded.
This situation does not often arise in practice, but it is usually assumed that
the application of such factors to a practical group of mixed sized of cables
38
Chapter 3 Cables
would be on the safe side. In fact, this is not true. The application of usual
group factors across the board to a group of cables of different sizes can
result in the smaller cables being overheated and the larger cables being
under utilized. Extensive work on this matter has resulted in the issue of
several new ERA reports which provide ratings for cables in groups of
mixed sizes carrying different loads. It is obvious that, because the ratings
for cables in such groups are specific to the cable and load content of each
group, rating under these circumstances and, dependent on the size of group
and the loading of the other cables, its permissible load may be even greater
than that for the cable in isolation. The method of conductor size selection
given in the ERA reports provides for the adjustment of individual sizes
(subject to other constraints such as voltage drop) so that the most
economical mix of sizes can be selected. A point worth making here is that,
a wiring cable which is continuously loaded to even 10% more than its
maximum permissible value has its expectation of life reduced by about
50%.
Where a large number of simultaneously loaded cables must be
accommodated it can be preferable to split them into several small groups so
as to avoid the economic penalties of the low ratings required for large
groups.
3.19. Use of cables in design
As mentioned electric cables used in connections in any electrical

design, as it is used in small town project to connect between installed lamps
and circuit breakers all over the building also this cables used in connection
between sockets and circuit breakers for all kinds of sockets.
39
Chapter 3 Cables
Four kinds of lamps (florescent, incandescent, spot compact and high

pressure sodium) and varies kinds of sockets were used in the design of the
small town lighting and power system
3.20. Standard cables calculation

For Lighting:-
Basement
From*** Electro cable Egypt company*** catalogue
Each line carries 5A current

Apparent power =5*220=1100=1.100 KVA
I C.B. =5*1.25=6.25 A
C.B. Rating=10 A
▪ According to Egyptian code the method of calculating the percentage
voltage drop:
▪ The max percentage voltage drop for:-
1- Single phase (5.5v) which is 2.5% of the nominal value (220v).
2- Three phase (9.5v) which is 2.5% of the nominal value (380).
▪ For the lighting circuits we will use cables of cross section area is 3
mm2.
▪ We can now calculate the max length of the circuit as follow
Max length = (5.5*10^3)/(6*mv/a/m)
From the table mv/a/m=11.697
Then max length =78.367 meter.
• ▪ All lighting circuit are chosen to achieve this condition.
40
Chapter 3 Cables
For socket:-
Basement
From*** Electro cable Egypt company*** catalogue
Each line carries 8A current

Apparent power =8*220=1760=1.760 KVA
I C.B. =8*1.25=10A
C.B. Rating=16 A
▪ According to Egyptian code the method of calculating the percentage
voltage drop:
▪ The max percentage voltage drop for:-
3- Single phase (5.5v) which is 2.5% of the nominal value (220v).
4- Three phase (9.5v) which is 2.5% of the nominal value (380).
▪ For the lighting circuits we will use cables of cross section area is 3
mm2.
▪ We can now calculate the max length of the circuit as follow
Max length = (5.5*10^3)/(6*mv/a/m)
From the table mv/a/m=11.697
Then max length =78.367 meter.
• ▪ All lighting circuit are chosen to achieve this condition.
41
Chapter 4 Protection
System
Chapter 4
Protection System
4.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the types of circuit breaker , its structure ,

operation and circuit breaker ratings also a brief discusses about cables
and short circuit analysis.
4.2. Circuit breaker
Circuit breaker is a piece of equipment

which is designed to protect an electrical
apparatus from damage caused by overload
or short circuit. Unlike a fuse which
operates once and then has to be replaced.
A circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume
normal operation.
65
System
4.3. Circuit breaker parts

1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker.
Also indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped).
Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is
held or locked in the on position. This is sometimes referred to as
"free trip" or "positive trip" operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
3. Contacts - Allow current to flow when touching and break the flow
of current when moved apart.
4. Terminals.
5. Bimetallic strip.
6. Calibration screw - allows the
manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip
current of the device after assembly.
7. Solenoid.
8. Arc divider / extinguisher.
4.4. Common trip breakers:

Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three phase device. This
breaker has a 2 ampere rating. Common trip breakers are usually
purchased already assembled into groups of
two or three or the like.
When supplying a branch circuit with more

than one live conductor, each live conductor
must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure
that all live conductors are interrupted when
66
System
any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either
contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small
breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles.
4.5. Circuit breaker Structure

Its structure can be divided into three major parts:
4.5.1. Power circuit:

It is where the main current flows or is interrupted; and it includes:
4.5.1.1 Arcing chamber:
The arcing chamber is a closed volume containing a fixed contact, a

moving contact and the interrupting medium. The current is established
when the moving contact touches the fixed contact and interrupted when
they part.
An arc is created when the contacts part. The interrupting medium is

responsible for quenching the arc and establishing the nominal level of
isolation between the open contacts.
67
System
Several chambers may be connected in series to serve higher

voltage levels; in this case a grading capacitor is installed in
parallel with each chamber to balance the voltage across the
contacts when parting.
4.5.1.2. Insertion resistor:
The sudden modification of circuit characteristics, when circuit

breakers operate, produces peak voltage impulses where the level is
determined by the circuit characteristics. These impulses may reach very
high levels and must be reduced.
4.6. Operating mechanism

It is where the needed energy to part the contacts and to extinguish
the arc is developed.
It includes devices, called energy accumulators, to store the needed
energy.
Examples of accumulators are:
- Springs.
- Nitrogen-charged cylinders.
The most common operating mechanisms in circuit breakers are:
- Spring operated.
- Hydraulically operated.
- Pneumatically operated.
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System
4.7. Characteristics
The circuit breaker has special functioning characteristics. It is normally
either close or open for long periods of time, is asked to change state on
occasion and rarely sees short circuit current.
4.7.1. Reliability:
It needs to change state efficiently after long periods of inactivity.
4.7.2. Correct function:
The circuit breaker control must ensure correct closing action, whatever
the closing current value, and ensure breaking (opening) at the required
moment by releasing, by mechanical action or via a relay, the energy
stored in the accumulators.
This energy has to face opposing forces when closing or breaking
circuits under load or not, and even stronger forces with short circuit
currents.
This means an excess of energy, when operated without load, has to be
damped with a proper damping system.
4.7.3. Operation cycles:

The circuit breaker has to be capable of executing different operation
cycles and achieve fast breaking of short circuit currents, the faster the
better for the network. Recent progress has reduced the response time
from 5 to 3 cycles, and down to 2 cycles. It is already planned to have
response times of 1 cycle.
Operation has to be reliable, robust and easy to maintain.
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System
4.8 . Types
Acoording to isolating material
1. oil circuit breaker

2. gass circuit breaker
3. vacoum circuit breaker
4. pressure circuit breaker
5. sf6 circuit breaker
70
Chapter 5 Mechanical
Loads
Chapter 5
5.1. Dryer description
The respirator dryer removes moisture from the respirators by utilizing

high velocity low temperature (120 F) in a laminar linear cross flow
drying chamber. Air circulates via a 148 cfm shaded-pole blower and is
heated by two750 watt heating elements.
Temperature variations are sensed by a thermocouple transmitted through

the thermocouple wiring to a solid state temperature controller. High limit
protection is provided by a direct sensing thermostat which consists of a
bimetallic, temperature sensitive disc for snap action in opening and
closing the switch contacts. If the controller malfunctions or is set at a
temperature to high the thermostat will cut the power supply to the
heating element at a temperature of 150 F. The heated air flows down the
supply plenum, across the drying chamber and over the respirators.
Moisture laden air exits the drying chamber either by the 4" exhaust port
on top of the dryer (see note) or the 3" x 14" opening on the side of the
dryer. The 4" exhaust port should only be used when connected to an
exhaust system that is drawing 30-50 cfm. The dryer chamber will
accommodate 2 loaded respirator racks. Normal drying time for
respirators which have had excess water thoroughly vacuumed off is 30
minutes with the temperature maintained at 120 F.
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Loads
Chillers are, for the most part, a device designed to cool another product
or application through the use of a fluid medium.
5.2. The chiller description

In Chiller Mfg. Inc. design, cold refrigerant gas is passed through a heat
exchanger while a counter-flow of liquid passes through the other side of
the heat exchanger. It is in this heat exchanger, that a heat transfer takes
place. Heat energy is lost from the fluid medium and absorbed by the
refrigerant gas. The refrigerant gas is then compressed by the compressor
into a high pressure and high temperature gas. This gas is then sent to a
condenser coil. In the condenser coil, ambient air is passed over the coil
by a fan or fans. The air passing over the coil removes heat from the high
pressure, high temperature refrigerant and causes it to condense into a
high pressure, warm temperature liquid. The liquid refrigerant is then sent
to a Thermal Expansion devise, otherwise known as an expansion valve.
The expansion valve is a metering device for the liquid refrigerant. As the
liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion valve, a large pressure
drop takes place. Imagine when you take an aerosol can and spray it
(spray paint can). You know there is liquid paint inside the can under
high pressure. What comes out is a fine mist of paint. As you spray the
paint, the can starts to become colder. The can becomes colder because of
the large pressure drop caused by the expelling of pressure through the
spray nozzle of the can. This is somewhat the same as what happens at
the expansion valve of a refrigeration system. As the liquid refrigerant
passes through the expansion valve and the pressure drop occurs, the
refrigerant becomes very cold. The refrigerant is now a very cold mist.
72
Loads
This mist refrigerant then enters the heat exchanger and the whole
process is repeated.
5.3. Elevators
The concept of an elevator is simple it is just a compartment attached
to a lifting system. By tying apiece of rope to a box and this is a basic
elevator.
Modern passenger and freight elevators are a lot more elaborate than
this. They need advanced mechanical systems to handle the substantial
weight of the elevator car and its cargo. Additionally, they need control
mechanisms so passengers can operate the elevator, and they need safety
devices to keep everything running smoothly.
There are two major elevator designs in common use today: hydraulic
elevators and roped elevators.
73
Loads
5.3.1 Hydraulic elevator:
Hydraulic elevator systems lift a car using a hydraulic ram, a fluid-driven

piston mounted inside a cylinder.
The cylinder is connected to a fluid-pumping system (typically,

hydraulic systems like this use oil, but other incompressible fluids would
also work). The hydraulic system has three parts:
1-A tank (the fluid reservoir)
2-A pump, powered by an electric motor
3-A valve between the cylinder and the reservoir
The pump forces fluid from the tank into a pipe leading to the
cylinder. When the valve is opened, the pressurized fluid will take the
path of least resistance and return to the fluid reservoir. But when the
74
Loads
valve is closed, the pressurized fluid has nowhere to go except into the
cylinder. As the fluid collects in the cylinder, it pushes the piston up,
lifting the elevator car.
When the car approaches the correct floor, the control system sends a
signal to the electric motor to gradually shut off the pump. With the pump
off, there is no more fluid flowing into the cylinder, but the fluid that is
already in the cylinder cannot escape (it can't flow backward through the
pump, and the valve is still closed). The piston rests on the fluid, and the
car stays where it is.
To lower the car, the elevator control system sends a signal to the
valve. The valve is operated electrically by a basic solenoid switch. When
the solenoid opens the valve, the fluid that has collected in the cylinder
can flow out into the fluid reservoir. The weight of the car and the cargo
pushes down on the piston, which drives the fluid into the reservoir. The
car gradually descends. To stop the car at a lower floor, the control
system closes the valve again.
The main advantage of hydraulic systems is they can easily multiply

the relatively weak force of the pump to generate the stronger force
needed to lift the elevator car.
These systems suffer from two major disadvantages. The main

problem is the size of the equipment. In order for the elevator car to be
able to reach higher floors, you have to make the piston longer. The
cylinder has to be a little bit longer than the piston, since the piston needs
to be able to collapse all the way when the car is at the bottom floor. In
short, more stores mean a longer cylinder.
75
Loads
The problem is that the entire cylinder structure must be buried below
the bottom elevator stop. This means you have to dig deeper as you build
higher. This is an expensive project with buildings over a few stories tall.
To install a hydraulic elevator in a 10-store building, for example, you
would need to dig at least nine stories deep.
The other disadvantage of hydraulic elevators is that they're fairly

inefficient. It takes a lot of energy to raise an elevator car several stories,
and in a standard hydraulic elevator, there is no way to store this energy.
The energy of position (potential energy) only works to push the fluid
back into the reservoir. To raise the elevator car again, the hydraulic
system has to generate the energy all over again.
5.3.2 Roped elevator:
The roped elevator design gets around both of these problems, the
most popular design is the roped elevator, in the roped elevator the car is
raised and lowered by traction steel ropes rather than pushed from below.
The ropes are attached to the elevator car, and looped around a sheave
(3). A sheave is just a pulley with a grooves around the circumference.
76
Loads
The sheave grips the hoist ropes, so when you rotate the sheave, the
ropes move too.
The sheave is connected to an electric motor (2). When the motor turns
one way, the sheave raises the elevator; when the motor turns the other
way, the sheave lowers the elevator. In gearless elevators, the motor
rotates the sheaves directly. In geared elevators, the motor turns a gear
train that rotates the sheave. Typically, the sheave, the motor and the
control system (1) are all housed in a machine room above the elevator
shaft.
The ropes that lift the car are also connected to a counterweight (4),
which hangs on the other side of the sheave. The counterweight weighs
about the same as the car filled to 40-percent capacity. In other words,
77
Loads
when the car is 40 percent full (an average amount), the counterweight
and the car are perfectly balanced.
The purpose of this balance is to conserve energy. With equal loads on

each side of the sheave, it only takes a little bit of force to tip the balance
one way or the other. Basically, the motor only has to overcome friction -
- the weight on the other side does most of the work. To put it another
way, the balance maintains a near constant potential energy level in the
system as a whole. Using up the potential energy in the elevator car
(letting it descend to the ground) builds up the potential energy in the
weight (the weight rises to the top of the shaft). The same thing happens
in reverse when the elevator goes up.
Both the elevator car and the counterweight ride on guide rails (5)
along the sides of the elevator shaft. The rails keep the car and
counterweight from swaying back and forth, and they also work with the
safety system to stop the car in an emergency.
Roped elevators are much more versatile than hydraulic elevators, as

well as more efficient.
5.4. Safety Systems

Elevators are built with several redundant safety systems that keep
them in position.
The first line of defense is the rope system itself. Each elevator rope is
made from several lengths of steel material wound around one another.
With this sturdy structure, one rope can support the weight of the elevator
car and the counterweight on its own. But elevators are built with
78
Loads
multiple ropes (between four and eight, typically). In the unlikely event
that one of the ropes snaps, the rest will hold the elevator up.
if all of the ropes were to break, or the sheave system were to release
them, it is unlikely that an elevator car would fall to the bottom of the
shaft. Roped elevator cars have built-in braking systems, or safeties, that
grab onto the rail when the car moves too fast. .
Safeties are activated by a governor when the elevator moves too quickly.
Most governor systems are built around a sheave positioned at the top of
the elevator shaft. The governor rope is looped around the governor
sheave and another weighted sheave at the bottom of the shaft. The rope
is also connected to the elevator car, so it moves when the car goes up or
down. As the car speeds up, so does the governor. The diagram below
shows one representative governor design.
In this governor, the sheave is outfitted with two hooked flyweights

(weighted metal arms) that pivot on pins. The flyweights are attached in
such a way that they can swing freely back and forth on the governor. But
most of the time, they are kept in position by a high-tension spring.
As the rotary movement of the governor builds up, centrifugal force

moves the flyweights outward, pushing against the spring. If the elevator
car falls fast enough, the centrifugal force will be strong enough to push
the ends of the flyweights all the way to the outer edges of the governor.
Spinning in this position, the hooked ends of the flyweights catch hold of
ratchets mounted to a stationary cylinder surrounding the sheave. This
works to stop the governor.
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Loads
The governor ropes are connected to the elevator car via a movable
actuator arm attached to a lever linkage. When the governor ropes can
move freely, the arm stays in the same position relative to the elevator car
(it is held in place by tension springs). But when the governor sheave
locks itself, the governor ropes jerk the actuator arm up. This moves the
lever linkage, which operates the brakes, or safeties.
In this design, the linkage pulls up on a wedge-shaped safety, which

sits in a stationary wedge guide. As the wedge moves up, it is pushed into
the guide rails by the slanted surface of the guide. This gradually brings
the elevator car to a stop.
80
Loads
Safeties are activated by a governor when the elevator moves too

quickly. Most governor systems are built around a sheave positioned at
the top of the elevator shaft. The governor rope is looped around the
governor sheave and another weighted sheave at the bottom of the shaft.
The rope is also connected to the elevator car, so it moves when the car
goes up or down. As the car speeds up, so does the governor.
The linkage pulls up on a wedge-shaped safety, which sits in a

stationary wedge guide. As the wedge moves up, it is pushed into the
guide rails by the slanted surface of the guide. This gradually brings the
elevator car to a stop.
Elevators also have electromagnetic brakes that engage when the car
comes to a stop. The electromagnets actually keep the brakes in the open
position, instead of closing them. With this design, the brakes will
automatically clamp shut if the elevator loses power.
81
Loads
Elevators also have automatic braking systems near the top and the
bottom of the elevator shaft. If the elevator car moves to far in either
direction, the brake brings it to a stop.
If all else fails, and the elevator does fall down the shaft, there is one
final safety measure that will probably save the passengers. The bottom
of the shaft has a heavy-duty shock absorber system -- typically a piston
mounted in an oil-filled cylinder. The shock absorber works like a giant
cushion to soften the elevator car's landing.
5.5. Doors
The automatic doors at grocery stores and office buildings are mainly
there for convenience and as an aid for handicapped people. The
automatic doors in an elevator, on the other hand, are absolutely essential.
They are there to keep people from falling down an open shaft.
Elevators use two different sets of doors: doors on the cars and doors
opening into the elevator shaft. The doors on the cars are operated by an
electric motor, which is hooked up to the elevator computer.
82
Loads
The electric motor turns a wheel, which is attached to a long metal arm.
The metal arm is linked to another arm, which is attached to the door. The
door can slide back and forth on a metal rail.
When the motor turns the wheel, it rotates the first metal arm, which
pulls the second metal arm and the attached door to the left. The door is
made of two panels that close in on each other when the door opens and
extend out when the door closes. The computer turns the motor to open
the doors when the car arrives at a floor and close the doors before the car
starts moving again. Many elevators have a motion sensor system that
keeps the doors from closing if somebody is between them.
The car doors have a clutch mechanism that unlocks the outer doors at
each floor and pulls them open. In this way, the outer doors will only
open if there is a car at that floor (or if they are forced open). This keeps
the outer doors from opening up into an empty elevator shaft.
5.6. Egyptian Model Traction

Egyptian Model VF and Egyptian Model two-speed are among
Otis' electric traction passenger elevator.
The Egyptian Model VF range is designed for low and medium rise
buildings. It has speeds of up to 1.6 m/s and duties of up to 13 persons
accommodating different building arrangements and usage.
Egyptian Model two-speed is designed for low to medium rise

buildings with duties of up to 1.00 m/s and 21 persons capacity.
Egyptian Model VF offers the benefits of a faster, quieter and smoother

travel, greater leveling accuracy, energy efficiency and environmental
83
Loads
savings. Variable voltage, variable frequency AC motion control is

standard for optimum performance. A wide range of elevator car designs,
fixtures and entrances are incorporated within Egyptian Model VF. These
include the new variable voltage, variable frequency DO2000 door
operator which has an adjustable speed profile for accurate and quiet
operation.
With the Egyptian Model two-speed elevator, varying passenger flow

patterns can be accommodated using a number of drive and control
options. Two speed AC or the Otis VF range of digital variable voltage,
variable frequency AC drives is available offering greater passenger
comfort and handling capabilities. Standard configurations allow low
headroom conditions to be met with machine room locations either above
or below the shaft.
5.7. Air conditioning applications

Air conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications
into comfort and process.
Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that

remains relatively constant in a range preferred by humans despite
changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads.
The highest performance for tasks performed by people seated in an

office is expected to occur at 72 °F (22 °C) Performance is expected to
degrade about 1% for every 2 °F change in room temperature.[10] The
highest performance for tasks performed while standing is expected to
occur at slightly lower temperatures. The highest performance for tasks
performed by larger people is expected to occur at slightly lower
84
Loads
temperatures. The highest performance for tasks performed by smaller

people is expected to occur at slightly higher temperatures. Although
generally accepted, some dispute that thermal comfort enhances worker
productivity, as is described in the Hawthorne effect.
Comfort air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible. Without air
conditioning, buildings must be built narrower or with light wells so that
inner spaces receive sufficient outdoor air via natural ventilation. Air
conditioning also allows buildings to be taller since wind speed increases
significantly with altitude making natural ventilation impractical for very
tall buildings. Comfort applications for various building types are quite
different and may be categorized as
• Low-Rise Residential buildings, including single family

houses, duplexes, and small apartment buildings
• High-Rise Residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and
apartment blocks
• Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce,
including offices, malls, shopping centers, restaurants, etc.
• Institutional buildings, which includes hospitals,
governmental, academic, and so on.
• Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is
desired.
In addition to buildings, air conditioning can be used for comfort in a

wide variety of transportation including land vehicles, trains, ships,
aircraft, and spacecraft.
85
Loads
Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for a process

being carried out, regardless of internal heat and humidity loads and
external weather conditions. Although often in the comfort range, it is the
needs of the process that determine conditions, not human preference.
Process applications include these:
• Hospital operating theatres, in which air is filtered to high levels

to reduce infection risk and the humidity controlled to limit
patient dehydration. Although temperatures are often in the
comfort range, some specialist procedures such as open heart
surgery require low temperatures (about 18 °C, 64 °F) and
others such as neonatal relatively high temperatures (about 28
°C, 82 °F).
• Clean rooms for the production of integrated circuits,
pharmaceuticals, and the like, in which very high levels of air
cleanliness and control of temperature and humidity are
required for the success of the process.
• Facilities for breeding laboratory animals. Since many animals
normally only reproduce in spring, holding them in rooms at
which conditions mirror spring all year can cause them to
reproduce year round.
• Aircraft air conditioning. Although nominally aimed at
providing comfort for passengers and cooling of equipment,
aircraft air conditioning presents a special process because of
the low air pressure outside the aircraft.
• Data processing centers
• Textile factories
• Physical testing facilities
86
Loads
• Plants and farm growing areas

• Nuclear facilities
• Chemical and biological laboratories
• Mines
• Industrial environments
• Food cooking and processing areas
In both comfort and process applications the objective may be to not only
control temperature, but also humidity, air quality, air motion, and air
movement from space to space
87
Chapter 6 Emergency
Chapter 6
Emergency Systems
6.1. Introduction
There are essential electrical circuits important and these circuits

should be provided by alternate power.
Providing protection from damage will provide additional assurance of
the continuity of power to circuits .
An essential electrical system is defined as a system of alternate
sources of power and all connected distribution systems and ancillary
equipment, designed to ensure continuity of power to designated areas
and functions of a healthcare facility during disruption of normal power
sources and designed to minimize disruption within internal wiring
system.
The essential electrical system for administrative and luxury
buildings is made up of two separate systems capable of supplying a
limited amount of lighting and power for the operation of equipments
necessary for continuity of work in administrative building .The two
88
Chapter 6 Emergency
separate essential systems are the equipment system and emergency

system.
The equipment system supplies major electrical equipment for basic
operation and power for electrical equipment (computers, elevator and
pump).
The emergency system has been divided into the life safety branch and
the critical branch. The life safety branch supplies power to electrical
circuits that are necessary for illumination for corridors and stairways and
landings at exits from the building. electrical circuit for pump ,computers
and elevators can be connected to the life safety branch.
The critical branch supplies power for task illumination and electric
equipments when life safety branch is interrupt
6.2. Emergency light

6.2.1. Introduction:
Emergency lighting is not a separate subject from the other lighting of
premises, a topic dealing specifically with emergency lighting is justified
today because the subject is of importance to the safety, security and
essential working of occupants. The number & type of emergency lights
to be installed in particular premises depends upon the area, type of
installation & its specific requirements.
6.2.2 Objectives:
Despite of the advancements achieved in the field of electricity,

constant electricity supply can never be ensured. Power failures are
bound to occur and recur at any time. Emergency lighting is a vital part of
any installation today. It helps to implement a desirable safety, security
an essential services for specified period. Emergency lighting ensures the
89
Chapter 6 Emergency
prevention of accidental injury and operates in a smooth functioning of

essential work. It helps to locate the exits / escape routes thereby ensuring
smooth dispersal of occupants. Emergency lighting is a vital facility to
enable persons to carry on their essential jobs even when the normal
lighting has failed. Failure of the normal lighting may occur any time.
Incase of fire the risk of injury arising out of such mains failure can be
very high. Emergency lighting together with proper means of fire
management can help to reduce this suffering and loss of life.
6.3. Classification of Emergency Lighting Systems
Emergency lighting can be divided into theree main groups:
6.3.1. Non maintained:
It is known as standby. The lamps are not illuminated during normal

mains supply, but are automatically energized by the integral battery in
the event of main power failure.
6.3.2. Maintained:
The lamps are energized during normal main supply. In the event of
the mains failure, the same lamps remains illuminated by automatically
switched to integral battery source.
6.3.3. Sustained:
Where at least two or more lamps are energized during normal main
supply and in the event of main power failure, one of the lamps remains
illuminated by automatically getting switched to integral battery source.
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Chapter 6 Emergency
6.4. Centralized System
Collective Emergency Lighting has to be energized in case of main

supply failure. The Centralized System is advisable. Centralized System
is a unit comprising of battery bank and a single power converter which
converts battery voltage to 230V AC. It can operate any mains operated
equipments.
6.5. Methods of feeding emergency loads
6.5.1. Method 1:
6.5.1.1. Construction:
The emergency lights are powered by Sealed maintenance-free

rechargeable batteries. A unit consists of:
• Enclosure made of 22 SWG sheet steel with 9 tank powder coated

process for rugged applications, some models are with ABS or
polycarbonate enclosure.
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Chapter 6 Emergency
• Special grade step down charging transformer.

• Glass epoxy PCB with hi-grade low-tolerance electronic
components.
• Solid State switching circuit which keeps inverter 'OFF' when main
supply is 'ON' and switches the inverter as soon as the power fails.
• High frequency inverter circuit which converts battery voltage in to
high voltage, suitable for fluorescent lamps and for noiseless
operation.
• Regulated battery charger which allows quick charging of a
discharged battery.
• Low battery auto cut-off circuit which allows the battery voltage to
cut-off at a low level as per the battery voltage specifications.
Normally 1.7V per cell for lead acid battery & 1V per cell for Ni-
CD battery.
6.5.1.2. Emergency power:
An emergency electrical power system must supply power adequate at

least for lighting all entrances and exits, equipment to maintain the fire
detection, alarm, and extinguishing systems and life-support systems if the
normal electrical supply is interrupted. Battery systems must be capable
of sustaining power for duration of at least one and one-half hours.
Life safety systems must include:
1. Illumination for means of indoor lighting circuit and outside of exit
doors.
2. Alarm systems, including fire alarms activated by manual stations,
water flow alarm devices of sprinkler systems, fire and smoke
detecting systems.
3. Task illumination(stairs ways, corridors, entrance of building and
in office where required continuity of work .
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4. Elevator cab lighting, control, and communication systems and pump .
6.5.2. Method 2
6.5.2.1. Automatic Transfer Switches:
Automatic Transfer Switches are suitable for emergency and Standby

power system applications. They meet emergency system rating
Requirements.
Automatic Transfer Switches provide the most reliable means for
transferring critical loads between two sources of electrical power
(typically a utility and an on-site engine driven generator). Their quality
design, rugged construction and proven performance assure maximum
Reliability and value for the specifying engineer, installer and user. Such
a transfer of electrical loads occurs automatically when the UTILITY
power source has failed or is substantially reduced and the
EMERGENCY source voltage and frequency have reached an acceptable
level. The transfer switch prevents electrical feedback between two
different power sources (such as the UTILITY and EMERGENCY
sources) and, for that reason, codes require it in all standby electric
system installations. The transfer switch consists of a solid state
intelligence circuit, a transfer mechanism and a control panel.
6.5.2.2. Construction feature:
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. Power transfer switch rated with 3 poles, 800
Amps with pole covers and arc barriers removed
6.6 Microprocessor Control Panel

Is used with all sizes of Automatic Transfer Switches from 30 through
4000 amperes
It represents the most reliable microprocessor control panel in the
industry and includes, as standard, all of the voltage, frequency, control,
timing and diagnostic functions required for most emergency and standby
power applications.
Shown with metal ground shield

And protective dust cover removed
6.7 introductions to installation
This equipment has been wired and tested at the factory. Installing the
switch includes the following procedures:
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• Mounting the enclosure.

• Connecting power source and load leads.
• Connecting the generator start circuit.
• Connecting any auxiliary contact (if needed)
• Installing/connecting any options and accessories.
• Testing functions.
6.8 ATS Switchboards:

An automatic transfer switchboard is a switch-board containing two or
more automatic transfer switches in a common line-up.
Automatic transfer bypass-isolation switches with circuit breakers on
the normal and load side of each switch. An ammeter and voltmeter are
also located on the load side of each switch.
Automatic transfer switchboard
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6.9. Two Source Automatic Transfer System
Two-source systems are designed for automatic switching of loads

between the utility source and an alternate source of power. Upon the loss
of the utility power source, the system provides an automatic start signal
to the alternate source of power. Once the alternate source has reached
proper voltage and frequency, the system transfers the critical load from
the utility source to the alternate power source. When normal power is
restored the controls will retransfer the load to the utility and signal
shutdown of the alternate power source after allowing a cool down
period.
Two-source systems include an automatic transfer switch, plus any or
all of the following options; automatic engine starting controls, over
current protection for both emergency and normal sources, instrument
meters, status annunciation, and audible alarm. These systems can be
designed for top cable entrance, bottom cable entrance or bus duct
connections.
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Two source system with main circuit breaker,

Protective relaying and automatic transfer One line diagram of the two source
Switch rated 1200 amperes.
6.10. Three Source Automatic Transfer System

Three-source systems are similar to two-source systems except that a
second alternate power source is added to back up the first if that power
source fails. Upon the loss of the utility power source, the system
provides all necessary controls to start both alternate power sources. The
critical loads are automatically transferred to the first alternate power
source that achieves acceptable voltage and frequency.
The second alternate power source is then automatically shutdown
after a time delay and cool down period. If the first alternate power
source fails, the second alternative power source will be automatically re-
started and the load will be transferred from the first alternative power
source to the second alternative power source. When the normal power is
restored, the controls automatically retransfer the load to the utility power
source.
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One line diagram of three source automatic transfer system
6.11 emergency generator system
The basic system requirements for on-site generating units at Command,

Control, Communications, Computer, Intelligence, Surveillance, and
Reconnaissance
The major components and operation of a generating system and
auxiliaries, such as the prime movers, lubricating systems
The design shall specify that mechanical equipment, such as hoists,
vibration isolators, lubrication systems, radiators.
The design shall specify that equipment used to service and support
principal facility equipment incorporate standards that create uniformity
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and interchangeability, the design shall standardize equipment used in

quantities, such as cranes, lifts, and hoists.
6.11.1 Generator room or building:
The generator room shall incorporate the following design features:

The generator room or building will be provided with an overhead I-
beam rail or movable structure that will support a chain fall hoist to allow
removal of cylinder heads, cylinder liners, pistons. Adequate ceiling
height and area lighting will be considered in the design of the generator
room or building.
A generator and its prime mover should be set on a single, uniform
foundation to reduce alignment problems. The foundation should be in
accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations for proper support of
equipment and dampening of vibrations. Foundation, prime mover, and
generator should be mechanically isolated from the building floor and
structure to minimize or eliminate transmission of vibrations to the
permanent structure. Vibration isolators, as recommended by the
manufacturer of the emergency generator, shall be installed either
between the rotating equipment and its skid base or between the skid base
and the foundation or inertia base. All mechanical and electrical
connections to the generator set should allow for vibration isolation.
Design the generator room or building for noise attenuation, Exhaust
noise can be attenuated by using proper mufflers. To attenuate other
noises, use line-of-sight acoustical barriers, acoustical enclosures, sound
attenuating duct treatment, or install the generators away from critical
areas.
The space around the generators should permit easy access for
maintenance and repair.
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6.11.2. Diesel Generator:
Diesel generator is preferred to propane or natural gas due to many

reasons
• Longer life - a well maintained liquid cooled diesel will run up to

40,000 hours before overhaul...air cooled natural gas or lp only will
last 1,000 to 2,000 hours! Liquid Cooled Models may last up to
6,000 hours
• Lower Maintenance - diesels do not require a spark ignition system
they fire on compression, thus no spark plugs, plug wires,
distributor or coil to fail.
• Improved fuel consumption a 10kW propane fueled generator will
consume 2.8 gallons of propane per hour, a 10kW liquid cooled
diesel will only consume 0.8 gallons per hour.
Modern diesel generators are quiet and normally require less

maintenance than comparably sized gas (natural gas or propane) units.
Fuel costs per kW produced with diesels are normally thirty to fifty
percent less than gasoline or natural gas generators.
The main differences between the gasoline generator engine and the
diesel generator engine are:
The diesel generator engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and
compresses it, and that it then injects the fuel directly into the combustion
chamber (direct injection). It is the heat of the compressed air that lights
the fuel in a diesel engine.
A gasoline engine intakes a mixture of gas and air, compresses it and

ignites the mixture with a spark. A diesel engine takes in just air,
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compresses it and then injects fuel into the compressed air. The heat of
the compressed air lights the fuel spontaneously.
A gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a diesel

engine compresses at a ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1. The higher
compression ratio of the diesel engine leads to better efficiency.
Gasoline engines generally use either carburetion, in which the air and
fuel is mixed long before the air enters the cylinder, or port fuel injection,
in which the fuel is injected just prior to the intake stroke (outside the
cylinder). Diesel engines use direct fuel injection -- the diesel fuel is
injected directly into the cylinder.
Diesel generator
6.11.2.1. Diesel engine cooling systems:

Diesel engines shall be liquid cooled. Liquid coolant systems consist
of unit- mounted or remote fan-cooled radiators and water-cooled heat
exchangers. Adequate freeze protection shall be provided for the engine
cooling system.
Unit-mounted radiators are installed on the base of the generator set in
front of the engine. The mounted radiator with a radiator fan is typically
the most economical method of cooling an engine. The air stream drawn
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over the engine by the fan is pushed through the radiator. This action
provides surface cooling for the engine together with cooling of the
engine coolant in the radiator. Radiator and fan cooling is independent of
potentially interruptible utility supplied cooling water. In addition,
coolant can be treated rust inhibitors, anti-freeze.
Some installations require the radiator and fan be mounted separately

from the generator set. While these systems offer more versatility, might
require less power for generator room ventilation, and can use low-noise
fans, these systems are more expensive in original cost than the unit-
mounted radiators. Also, application of a remote radiator requires careful
planning and design to ensure proper cooling of the equipment. The
design of this type of cooling system requires a qualified consulting
engineer with hydraulic cooling system design experience.
Heat exchanger cooling eliminates the necessity of both a radiator and
the associated cooling fan. Raw water or cooling tower water is used for
cooling the engine coolant. Heat is radiated from the engine coolant to the
heat exchanger. The heat exchanger radiates heat to the raw water or
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cooling tower water. The heat exchanger consists of tubing within a

surrounding “shell.” Engine coolant in the heat exchanger does not mix
with the raw water or cooling tower water in the tubes. Raw water or
cooling tower water passing through the tubes absorbs engine heat from
the separated engine coolant in the heat exchanger shell.
Cooling towers and evaporative coolers are both used to dissipate
diesel engine heat to the atmosphere. They may be used where ambient
air is sufficiently cool and dry (low relative humidity) to absorb water
vapor. As water is sprayed or divided into many small streams, some will
evaporate to the passing air. The air which is now moist may be warmed
by the water (if the water was originally warmer than the air), thus
removing more heat from the water. In a cooling tower, the fluid to be
cooled is exposed to the air. Approximately 80 percent of the heat
removed is due to evaporation. The tower may use atmospheric draft or
fans to move the air. Makeup water is required to replace that lost by
evaporation or entrained spray. Water treatment and blow down are
necessary because salts are concentrated by the evaporation. In an
evaporative cooler, the coolant passes through tubes. The tube bundle lies
inside the cooling tower. The cooling tower spray and air movement cool
the tubes but do not mix with the coolant.
6.12 Engine coolant heaters

The diesel generators must be easily started in all seasons of the year.
Thermostatically controlled engine coolant heaters shall be provided to
increase starting reliability, increase engine life, and increase generator
set load acceptance. The engine water jacket heaters shall maintain the
jacket water temperature at not less than 90 F. All water jacket heaters
shall be automatically deactivated while the diesel engine is running.
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Thermostats are used to control operation of the heaters by sensing

coolant or engine block temperature. Engine coolant heaters shall be
connected to the normal (commercial) power source.
6.13 Lubrication system

The bearings and moving parts of all diesel engines are lubricated by a
full pressure lubrication system. Large engines require a large quantity of
oil, a separate oil sump tank is installed to receive oil from the crankcase.
The lubricating oil pump draws oil from the sump tank through the
strainers. Oil is then discharged, under pressure, into the oil cooler. The
oil then goes to a header, located on the engine, with branches leading to
the various parts of the system.
Circulating lubricating oil absorbs heat from the engine. Frictional
heat is absorbed from the bearings. The oil film on the cylinder walls
absorbs heat from the combustion space before this oil film drains into
the crankcase. Therefore, heat must be dissipated from the oil by an oil
cooler to keep the temperature below manufacturer’s recommendation.
Oil coolers should be placed in the oil circuit after the lubricating oil
filter. The oil filter then handles hot oil of lower viscosity than if it
received cooled oil
The filter performance is better and the pressure drop through it is less
with this arrangement. Coolers are usually mounted on the side of the
engine or on the floor alongside of the engine base. Cooling water passes
through the oil cooler before entering the engine jacket. Consideration
shall be given to providing diesel engine prime movers with lubricating
oil heaters to ensure quick starting
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6.14 Engine protection:

Engines shall be equipped with automatic engine shutdown devices for
high jacket water temperature or high cylinder temperature, low
lubricating oil pressure or oil level, and engine over speed/high speed. If
the generator engine will be constantly attended, an alarm shall be
permissible in lieu of the shutdown devices.
In healthcare situations, hundreds of people may be relying on
electrically run equipment to furnish their health requirements, from
intravenous feeding to heart monitoring to oxygen intake to on-going
surgical procedures. Electrical power is essentially their life-line.
This generator which is used to supply power to the emergency loads
in case that the main supply fails due to any circumstances, this generator
takes about from 30 seconds to 1 minute to begin work.
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This is a figure shows how does the generator link between the board
panels and its link with the emergency loads.
6.15 DPDT Transfer Switch

The DPDT transfer switch offers protection against dangerous back
feed of electricity from the generator into power lines.
It also minimizes potential fire hazards and other serious damage.

Back feed may make a generator try to supply load beyond its capacity
and thus damage both the generator and any connected equipment or
appliances.
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Some of the emergency loads the power should not be cut off from it
for 1 second like surgery rooms and childbirth room and computers these
sensitive places the power can't be cut off from it so this need to use the
Uninterruptible power supply which is a battery that is fed from the main
source supply during normal operation when this main supply fails this
(UPS) begin these emergency loads until the standby generator start
feeding all the emergency loads.
6.16 uninterruptable power supply system

The uninterruptible power supply system consists of the following
equipment:
480V utility feeder breaker, 480V generator feeder breaker, 480V transfer
switch, 200 kVA redundant UPS, 125V dc NiCad battery and a 208/120V
UPS switchboard panel The 200 kVA UPS consists of the following
equipment: 480V incoming breaker, 125Vdc rectifier, redundant 120/208
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VAC inverters, static switches, bypass switches and miscellaneous

breakers.
6.16.1 Switching:
The utility and generator breakers are metal enclosed free standing,
manually operated, air power circuit breakers. The breakers have
instantaneous, short time, and long time trip settings with manual control
and position indication on the door of the breaker compartment. The
480V transfer switch is metal enclosed, break before make, dead bus
transfer, automatic on loss of voltage, solenoid operated, and
mechanically held complete with microprocessor controls and indication,
four pole switch. Transfer time and time delay settings are adjustable.
The transfer switch will supply start and stop signals to the back-up diesel
generator upon loss of and restoration of utility power. These controls are
timed and must be coordinated with the diesel generator manufacturer for
start-up, loading, and cool down times. Remote indication, control, alarm
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6.16.2 UPS operation:
The UPS is a static solid state system with a battery for back-up power.
The rectifiers convert ac to do power for supply to the redundant inverters
and for charging the battery. The inverters receive power from either the
rectifier or battery, and convert it from do to ac. The inverters also
include power conditioning equipment and circuits to remove harmonics
developed in the system.
Because the input power is converted from ac to do to ac, power
system disturbances are also removed from the UPS output. This makes
UPS s ideal for use with sensitive electronic equipment and computers.
The rectifiers and inverters are constructed with power diodes or silicon
control rectifiers along with controls and filtering circuitry. The UPS also
contains thermal magnetic molded case circuit breakers and two bump
less static switches. The switches will transfer the output of the UPS from
one redundant inverter to the other upon failure of the lead inverter . The
transfer between the inverters is accomplished with absolutely no loss of
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continuity of power to the load.
6.16.3 Battery description:

The nickel cadmium (NiCad) batteries are individual 1 .2 volt cells in
plastic or steel cases with nickel and cadmium plates in a potassium
hydroxide solution. The cells are sealed, maintenance free and connected
together in series on racks to supply 125Vdc. The 120/208V UPS
switchboard panel contains two main and numerous molded case thermal
magnetic circuit breakers to distribute the power. The breakers have
instantaneous and over current elements trip characteristics. The UPS
systems provide normal and uninterruptible regulated power to sensitive
emergency plant loads, like computers, communications, radar, security
systems, lighting.
6.16.4 Operation of uninterruptible power supply system:
The operating modes for the UPS system are as follows:
6.16.4.1. Normal condition:
Utility breaker closed, diesel generator not running but in auto mode,
diesel generator breaker closed, transfer switch connected to utility,
inverter A connected through UPS static switch to UPS bus and UPS
switchboard connected to the UPS.
6.16.4.2. Loss of rectifier/battery charger A:
UPS incoming breaker feeding rectifier/battery charger A opens,

circuit breaker connecting rectifier/battery charger A to battery bus opens
and battery fed by rectifier/battery charger B.
6.16.4.3. Loss of inverter A:
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UPS static switch A switches UPS bus to inverter B and Inverter A

circuit breaker opens.
6.16.4.4. Loss of utility power:
Battery supplies power to UPS bus through inverter A or B, transfer

switch supplies start signal to diesel generator, diesel generator starts and
ramps up to speed and transfer switch connects to diesel generator.
6.16.4.5. Restoration of utility:
Utility power restored, transfer switch switches to utility bus and

diesel generator shut down by transfer switch.
6.16.4.6. Energizing and test of the UPS:
• Initial energization:
Individual components of the UPS system shall be sequentially

energized from the source through the loads. As each item is energized,
control functions, interlocks, and alarms should be checked for proper
operation Voltage, phasing, and current measurements should be made at
each step.
6.16.5 UPS (rectifier/ battery charger/battery):
Verify UPS incoming breaker open. Verify utility feed closed through
to input of UPS and measure voltage and phasing. Verify rectifier/battery
charger output A breaker open. Verify rectifier/battery charger output B
breaker open. Verify battery breaker A open and measure battery voltage
and polarity. Verify battery breaker B open and measure battery voltage
and polarity. Verify inverter A and inverter B incoming breakers open.
Close UPS incoming breaker A and measure rectifier/battery charger A
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output voltage, check dc output meter. Press battery "pre charge" button,
if available, and close rectifier/battery charger A output breaker and close
battery breaker A. Measure battery charger voltage. Allow unit to run
until battery fully charged or for a minimum of 24 hours. Record time.
Measure rectifier/battery charger A output current and read meter every 4
hours. Open UPS incoming breaker A. Operate UPS from battery until
minimum voltage recorded (1 to 4 hours). Open battery breaker A. Close
UPS incoming breaker B and measure rectifier/battery charger B output
voltage, check do output meter. Press battery "pre charge" button, if
available, and close rectifier/battery charger B output breaker and close
battery breaker B. Measure battery charger voltage. Allow unit to run
until battery fully charged or for a minimum of 24 hours. Record time.
Measure rectifier/battery charger B output current and read meter every 4
hours.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
Chapter 7
Earthing
7.1. Introduction:
Many electrical operated devices (e.g. washing machines, heaters and some
lighting fittings) have exposed metal parts that could become live if a fault
occurred. Anyone touching it could then receive a shock or even be killed
depending on the current flowing through them to earth. To prevent this, an
earthing conductor should be provided to all socket outlets, lighting circuits
and any fixed appliances to which exposed metal parts are then connected.in
the small town project we take earthing to power sockets
7.2. The principal purposes of grounding

For the safety of personnel from the electric shock.
For reducing the voltage stress on lines and equipment with respect to earth
under various operating and fault conditions and also for controlling the
earth fault currents for protective relays
For safety of equipment and personnel against lightning and voltage surges
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.2.1. Requirements:
Some elements of an earthling system may be provided to fulfill a specific
purpose, but are nevertheless part of one single earthing system. Standards
require all earthing measures within an installation to be bonded together,
forming one system.
7.2.2. Step voltage:
The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a
Distance of one meter with the feet without contacting any other grounded
object.
7.2.3. Touch voltage:
The difference in potential between a grounded structure or station And the
surface potential at the point where a person is standing while at the same
Time having a hand in contact with the grounded structure or object.
7.2.4. Transferred touch voltage:
A special case of touch voltage where a voltage is conducted toward or away
room a grounded structure or station to a remote point. A transferred touch
voltage (potential) can be contacted between the hands or hands and feet.
7.2.5. Mesh voltage:
is the worst possible value of a touch voltage to be found within a mesh of a
ground grid, if standing at or near the center of the mesh.
Fault circuit impedance X/R ratio: Ratio of reactance to resistance of the
electrical impedance of a faulted (short) circuit from the source of fault
current to the location of the fault on the circuit.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
Fig[1]Step touch voltage created at earth surface by current flowing into ground
from grounded object
7.3. Ground resistance and solid resistivity

Earth resistivity ρ(specific earth resistance): is the resistance, measured
between two opposite faces, of a one-meter cube of earth (Figure 2). The
earth resistivity is expressed in m.
Figure 2- Diagram illustrating the physical sense of earth resistivity 
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.3.1. Why Measure Soil Resistivity?

Soil resistivity measurements have a three purpose:
• Such data are used to make sub-surface geophysical surveys as
an aid in identifying or e locations, depth to bedrock and
other geological phenomena
• Resistivity has a direct impact on the degree of corrosion in
underground pipelines. A decrease in resistivity relates to an
increase in corrosion activity and therefore dictates the
protective treatment to be used.
• Soil resistivity directly affects the design of a grounding
system, and it is to that task that this discussion is directed.
When designing an extensive grounding system, it is
advisable to locate the Area of lowest soil resistivity in order
to achieve the most economical grounding installation.
Table 1 Ground resistivity for various kinds of the soil and concrete
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.4. Shape of earthing

Any terminal which is intended for connection to an external protective
conductor for protection against electric shock in case of a fault.
Protective Earth Symbol
Terminal which connect to external protective conductor through metal

enclosure or through second ground wire from input. (Terminal and/or
conductor are not qualified for protective earth requirement).
Ground Symbol
Example of connecting protective ground to chassis:
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.5. Relationship between neutral and earth

Neutral and earth are closely related. Various measures are used to
minimize the voltage difference between neutral and local earth ground. In
some systems, the neutral and earth join together at the service intake (TN-
C-S); in others, they run completely separately back to the transformer
neutral terminal (TN-S), and in others they are kept completely separate with
the house earth having its own rod and the neutral being rodded down to
earth within the distribution network (TT). In a few cases, they are combined
in house wiring (TN-C), but the dangers of broken neutrals (see below) and
the cost of the special cables needed to mitigate this mean that it is rarely
done nowadays. In the USA, some appliances were grounded to "neutral" in
the past where the applicance was permanently connected, as a measure to
conserve copper - this practice has not been followed since shortly after the
Second World War.in our project (TN-S) system is used .
7.6. Methods of neutral earthing

The following methods are employed to earth the neutral of the power
system:
7.6.1. Solid Earthing:
In solid earthing the neutral is directly connected to an electrode
having a good contact with the earth, as shown in fig
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Chapter 7 Earthing
Connecting a system neutral point to earth ensures that the point is

held at conductor to earth under fault conditions will not exceed the normal
phase voltage of the system.
The fault currents being in phase opposition to capacity current
completely nullify the effect of capacity current. Hence no arcing-ground
phenomenon or over-voltage condition can occur.
A fault to earth on a solidly earthed neutral system causes heavy faulty
currents to flow which permit the use of discriminative protective gear.
The size and cost of the transformer is reduced as less insulation is
required when the neutral is earthed. Thus, progressively less insulation
is used on a transformer winding as we approach the neutral point.
The disadvantages of solid earthing are that:
1. Heavy earth fault current results in greater interference to
neighboring communication circuits
2. Heavy fault currents are quite difficult to be handled in the
circuit breakers.
The above comings of solid earthing have been overcome by employing

high rupturing capacity and high speed circuit breakers and fast operating
protective relays.
For economic reasons, high voltage systems below 33 KV with total
capacity not exceeding 5000 KVA may be operated with a solid earthed
neutral point.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.6.2. Resistance Earthing:

When it becomes necessary to limit the earth fault current, this type of
earthing is used. In this method of neutral earthing a resistor is inserted
between the neutral and earth to limit the current to a safer value, as shown
in fig
If the earthing resistance is of low value the fault currents are high and the
system conditions approach to solid earthing. On the other hand if the
earthing resistance is of higher value then the system conditions approach
that of the insulated neutral system with corresponding risk of transient over-
voltages occurring.
It is usual practice to employ earth resistance of low values having
ohmic values such that when earth fault occurs on one phase of the system at
the power source, a current equal to full load current of the largest generator
or transformer feeding system, flows in the associated earth connections.
The earthing of a system neutral point through a low value resistance
allows the use of discriminating protective gear and at the same time limits
the earth fault current to a value that will cause no serious disturbance to the
system and minimize the extent of damage at the fault location.
The disadvantages of resistance earthing are:
1. Since the system neutral is displaced during earth faults, the
equipment has to be selected for higher voltages.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
2. The cost of equipment, particularly transformers, increases as

graded insulation towards neutral can not be used.
3. The provision of resistor involves extra investment in the system.
Resistance earthing is usually employed for the operating at voltages
up to 33 KV with capacity above 5000 KVA as the circuit characteristics of
such a system usually give rise to excessive currents under earth fault
conditions.
7.6.3. Reactance Earthing:

This system of earthing is similar to resistance earthing system except
that the resistance in the neutral is replaced by reactance or impedance
having the ratio of reactance to resistance more than 3.
A reactance earthed system ensures satisfactory relaying partial
grading of the apparatus insulation, reduced interference to neighboring
communication circuits as compared with that in solidly earthed system.
The main draw-back of reactance earth system is very high transient
over-voltages, due to which this system is not in common use.
7.6.4. Arc Suppression Coil or Peterson Coil Earthing:
In the arc suppression coil method of earthing the arcing grounds

danger has been eliminated and the system is approximated to the isolated
neutral system, in which one or two healthy phases continue to supply power
and complete shut down is avoided.
It operates on the principle that if an inductance of appropriate value is
connected in parallel with the capacitance, the fault current can be reduced
considerably or evenit can be neutralized.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
An arc suppression coil is an iron-cored reactor connected between the

neutral ofthe power system and earth. The reactor is provided with tapping's
so that it can be tuned with the capacitance of the system. The function of
the arc suppression coil is to make the arcing ground fault self extinguishing
and, in case of sustained faults, to reduce the earth fault current to a
comparatively low value so that the system can be
Kept in operation with one line earthed
The method of neutral earthing is usually confined to medium voltage
overhead transmission lines which are connected to generating source
through intervening power transformers. The reason for this limitation in
application is due to the fact that the higher insulation level is required on
apparatus associated with arc suppression coil earthed systems. The arc
suppression coil is also known as Peterson Coil.
7.7. Metal Earth

Electrode Applications (Cathodic Protection)
• When two different types of metal such as copper and iron are held in
contact with each other, a galvanizing action takes place between
them resulting in the corrosion of the anode metal. This is a problem
commonly encountered when placing grounding electrodes of
copper wire or copper plate. It can be solved by completely covering
the electrode with SAN-EARTH to prevent corrosion.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
• Until recently, one method of lowering grounding resistance was to

spread charcoal powder (coke) around earth electrodes. However,
this method often causes local electric current to flow from the
ground conductor to the charcoal powder resulting in electrolytic
corrosion in the electrode. Over a period of time, this can result in
breaks in the ground wire. Because the charcoal (carbon) is slightly
acetic, it causes the electrode to corrode as if it had been buried in
acetic soil for a long period of time. For these reasons, in spite of its
effectiveness in reducing grounding resistance, carbon powder is not
frequently used. Using SAN-EARTH, which is 98% carbon in
mixture with cement, to cover copper and iron electrodes greatly,
reduces corrosion. This feature has been patented. Copper and iron
generally will not corrode when embedded in solid concrete and
corrosion is virtually eliminated in copper electrodes covered with
SAN-EARTH cement. Iron electrodes, on the other hand, will be
somewhat subject to galvanic corrosion before the conductive
cement solidifies. This
Difference is due to the fact that the natural electrode potential of SAN-
EARTH is lower than copper and higher than iron. In iron, the corrosion
forms a thin layer of oxide-hydrate, which then hinders further corrosion and
prevents serious damage to the electrode while having very little affect on
contact resistance. Therefore, copper, its alloys, iron wire and iron bar can
all be used effectively in SAN-EARTH conductive cement.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.8. Ground electrodes

The term “ground” is defined as a conducting connection by which a circuit
or equipment is connected to the earth. The connection is used to establish
and maintain as closely as possible the potential of the earth on the circuit or
equipment connected to it. A “ground” consists of a grounding conductor, a
bonding connector, its grounding electrode(s), and the soil in contact with
the electrode. Grounds have several protection applications. For natural
phenomena such as lightning, grounds are used to discharge the system of
current before personnel can be injured or system components damaged. For
foreign potentials due to faults in electric power systems with ground
returns, grounds help ensure rapid operation of the protection relays by
providing low resistance fault current paths. This provides for the removal of
the foreign potential as quickly as possible. The ground should drain the
foreign potential before personnel are injured and the power or
communications system is damaged. Ideally, to maintain a reference
potential for instrument safety, protect against static electricity, and limit the
system to frame voltage for operator safety, a ground resistance should be
zero ohms. In reality, as we describe further in the text, this value cannot be
obtained. Last but not least, low ground resistance is essential to meet
NEC®, OSHA and other electrical safety standards.
Figure [5] illustrates a grounding rod. The resistance of the electrode has the
following components:
• The resistance of the metal and that of the connection to it.
• The contact resistance of the surrounding earth to the electrode.
• The resistance in the surrounding earth to current flow or earth
Resistivity which is often the most significant factor.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
Figure [5] grounding rod
7.9. Why Measure Soil Resistivity?

Soil resistivity measurements have a three purpose:
• Such data are used to make sub-surface geophysical surveys as an aid
in identifying or e locations, depth to bedrock and other geological
phenomena
• resistivity has a direct impact on the degree of corrosion in
underground pipelines. A decrease in resistivity relates to an
increase in corrosion activity and therefore dictates the protective
treatment to be used.
• Soil resistivity directly affects the design of a grounding system, and it
is to that task that this discussion is directed. When designing an
extensive grounding system, it is advisable to locate the Area of
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Chapter 7 Earthing
lowest soil resistivity in order to achieve the most economical

grounding installation.
Table 1 Ground resistivity for various kinds of the soil and concrete
7.10. Soil Resistivity Measurement

7.10.1. Wenner’s Four Electrode Method:
The best-known technique for measuring soil resistivity is Wenner’s Four
Electrode Method. As shown in Figure 13, four electrodes are driven into the
ground. in a straight line at equal spaces apart. Electrode C1 and C2 are
connected and a flow of current is applied. The difference in the potential
values at P1 and P2 is then measured. The difference in potential is divided
by the applied current value to determine the resistance R(Ω). If the distance
between the electrodes is “a”(m), the soil resistivity ρ (Ω-m) is determined
using Formula 1.2 below.
ρ = 2πaR
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Chapter 7 Earthing
Generally, as explained earlier, soil is found in layers and the resistivity will
carry from layer to layer. By changing the spacing of the electrodes, it is
possible to develop a profile of the soil resistivity at various depths
7.10.2. Simple Bar Electrode Method (Ground Rod):

A ground rod of known length and diameter is driven into the earth and the
resistance is measured. The resistivity of the surrounding soil can then be
determined using Formula 1.3 and solving for ρ. In Figure 14, if the
resistance is R(Ω) when a grounding rod of length “L” and diameter “d” is
driven into the ground, its resistivity (ρ) is described by Formula
7.10.3. Simple Measurement with SAN-EARTH:

This method uses Formula 1.4 and the measured value of the resistance of a
SAN Earth electrode of known dimensions to determine the resistivity of the
surrounding soil In the example described in Figure 15, resistivity (Ω-m) can
be calculated by solving the equation once resistance R(Ω) has been
measured.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.10.4. Simple Measurement with Counterpoise wire:

If the length of an excavation, the diameter of the grounding wire, and its
buried depth are known, the soil resistivity can be calculated by solving
Formula 1.5 for ρ. In Figure 16, if the grounding resistance is R(Ω) when a
counterpoise of length “L” and diameter “d” is buried at the depth “D”, the
relationship between R and resistivity (ρ) can be expressed as follows.
7.11. Factors Affecting Soil Resistivity

• moisture content Soil when thoroughly dried, may in fact become
very good insulators having a resistivity in excess of 109 ohm-
centimeters. The resistivity of the soil sample is seen to change quite
rapidly until approximately 20% or greater moisture content is
reached (table 2).
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Chapter 7 Earthing
table2
• Temperature: the resistivity of the soil is also influenced by
temperature. Table [3] shows the variation of the resistivity of sandy
loam, containing 15.2% moisture e, with temperature changes from
20° to -15°C. In this temperature range the resistivity is seen to vary
from 7200 to 330,000 ohm-centimeters.
Table [3]
Because soil resistivity directly relates to moisture content and temperature,
it is reasonable to assume that the resistance of any grounding system will
vary throughout the different seasons of the year. Since both temperature
and moisture content become more stable at greater distances below the
129
Chapter 7 Earthing
surface of the earth, it follows that a grounding system, to be most effective

at all times, should be constructed with the ground rod driven down a
considerable distance below the surface of the earth. Best results are
obtained if the ground rod reaches the water.
Figure [3] Seasonal variation of earth resistance with an electrode of 3/4

inch pipe in rather stony clay soil Depth of electrode in earth is 3 ft for
Curve 1, and 10 ft for Curve 2
7.12. The effect of salt content on the resistivity of soil

Increasing the soluble chemical content of the soil Table [4] shows the
substantial reduction in resistivity of sandy loam brought about by an
increase in chemical salt content.
Table [4]
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.13. Chemical treatment

Chemically treated soil is also subject to considerable variation of resistivity
with temperature changes. If salt treatment is employed, it is necessary to
use ground rods which will resist chemical corrosion
7.14. Supplying the Earth

The earth connection will usually be supplied by one of the following
methods:
• By the electricity company. Either through the armouring of the

supply cable or through a combined neutral and earth conductor. The
latter method is termed P.M.E. (protective multiple earthing) and
requires some special attention There will usually be a label near the
meter indicating a P.M.E. system.
• Through an earth electrode; usually a rod or plate driven into the
ground. This method is found where the electricity company cannot
easily supply or guarantee an adequate earth conductor; for example,
where the supply comes on a pair of overhead wires. The user is
generally responsible for the adequacy of the earth electrode.
The method of earthing can normally be found out by tracing the wiring
from the meter/consumer unit. It is usually fairly obvious. IMPORTANT! -
It is no longer permitted to use a water or gas pipe for the main or only
earthing connection. There may, however be earth bonding wires connected
onto the water and gas pipes for 'equipotential bonding' .If there is no
131
Chapter 7 Earthing
electricity company earth or dedicated separate earth electrode, then one

must be provided. Contact the electricity company if in any doubt.
7.115. Conductors and Earth rods

As with lightning protection, the first choice faced by the designer of an
earthing system is the type of conductor to be used. The correct choice of
conductor is extremely important, whether it be a simple below ground
electrode or a complex computer room signal reference grid.
Conductors
Furse offer three types of conductor: Flat tape Solid circular and
stranded cable.
A range of conductor materials are available. Above ground, copper,
aluminum and steel may be used. Below ground, copper is the most common
choice due to its high resistance to corrosion.
It is important that earthing conductors should be correctly sized for

their application, as they may be required to carry a considerable current for
several seconds. For specific information on conductor ratings
7.16. Types of earth electrodes

• Simple surface earth electrodes in the form of horizontally
placed strip or wire, either as a single ended strip or a ring
• Meshed electrodes: constructed as a grid placed horizontally at
shallow depth
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Chapter 7 Earthing
• Cable with exposed metal sheath or amour: this Behaves

similarly to a strip-type earth electrode
• Foundation earth electrodes: formed from conductive Structural
parts embedded in concrete foundation providing a large area
contact with the earth.
• Rod electrodes which can consist of a pipe, rod, etc. and Are
driven or buried to a depth greater than 1m and usually from 3
m to 30 m or more.
7.17. Types of rods

• Solid copper rod
• Stainless steel rod
• Unthreaded copper bond earth rods
• Copper bond rod
• AThreaded copper bond earth rods
7.17.1. Solid copper rod:
solid copper earth rods offer greater resistance to corrosion.

They are ideally used in applications where soil conditions are
very aggressive, such as soils with high salt content.
Connections to the rods can be by mechanical clamps,
compression or by Furse's own "Furseweld" exothermic welding
system.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
Diameter Length Weight Part no

BS 7430, BS each 6651
15mm 1200mm 1.88kg RC010
20mm 1200mm 3.34 RC015
Fittings
Type Weight Part

each no
15mm Driving stud 0.02kg ST010
20mm Driving stud 0.05kg ST015
Coupling dowel for
both sizes of above 0.02 SP013
rods
15mm Spike 0.02kg SP010
20mm Spike 0.04kg SP015
7.17.2. Stainless steel rod:
Stainless steel rods are used to overcome many of the problems

caused by galvanic corrosion which can take place between dissimilar
metals buried in close proximity. Furse stainless steel earth rods are highly
resistant to corrosion.
Connections to the rods can be by mechanical clamps,compression or
by Furse's own "FurseWELD" exothermic welding system.

each
16mm 1200mm 1.87kg RS005
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Chapter 7 Earthing
Fittings
Type Weight Part

each no
15mm Driving
0.02kg ST010
stud
Stainless steel
coupling 0.02kg CG005
dowel
5/8" Coupling 0.13kg SP010
BS 7430, BS 6651
7.17.3. Unthreaded copper bond earth rods:

Furse copper bond earth rods probably offer to the
installer the best and most economical earth rods available.
They are made by molecularly bonding 99.9% pure
electrolytic copper onto a low carbon steel core. Furse rods
are not of the sheathed type. They are highly resistant to
corrosion, and because the steel used has a very high tensile
strength, they can be driven by power hammers to great depths.
The counter-bored couplings are made from high copper content alloy,
commercial brass is not used. This again ensures excellent corrosion
resistance and high strength.
Type Weight Part no

12.7mm Coupling 0.09kg CG177
14,7mm Coupling 0.08kg CG277
17.2mm Coupling 0.13kg CG377
12.7mm Driving
0.25kg ST107
head
14.2mm Driving
0.22kg ST207
head
17.2mm Driving
0.27kg ST307
head
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.17.4. Copper bond rod:

each
9.0mm 1200mm 0.62kg RB005
12.7mm 1200mm 1.18kg RB103
12.7mm 1500mm 1.55kg RB107
12.7mm 1800mm 1.76kg RB116
12.7mm 2400mm 2.36kg RB126
14.2mm 1200mm 1.53kg RB203
14.2mm 1500mm 1.88kg RB123
14.2mm 1800mm 2.29kg RB216
14.2mm 2000mm 2.51kg RB217
14.2mm 2100mm 2.68kg RB223
14.2mm 2400mm 3.00kg RB226
14.2mm 3000mm 3.79kg RB236
17.2mm 1200mm 2.19kg RB306
17.2mm 1500mm 2.73kg RB313
17.2mm 1800mm 3.27kg RB316
17.2mm 2000mm 3.64 RB317
17.2mm 2100mm 3.83kg RB323
17.2mm 2400mm 4.35kg RB326
17.2 3000mm 5.44kg RB336
7.17.5. A Threaded copper bond earth rods:
Normal Length Thread Shank Weight Part no

diameter diameter diameter each
'B' 'A'
1/2" 1200mm 9/16" 12.7mm 1.18kg RB105
1/2" 1500mm 9/16" 12.7mm 1.55kg RB110
1/2" 1800mm 9/16" 12.7mm 1.76kg RB115
1/2" 2400mm 9/16" 12.7mm 2.36 RB125
5/8" 1200mm 5/8" 14.2mm 1.53kg RB205-FU
5/8" 1500mm 5/8" 14.2mm 1.88kg RB210
5/8" 1800mm 5/8" 14.2mm 2.29kg RB215
5/8" 2100mm 5/8" 14.2mm 2.51kg RB220-FU
5/8" 2400mm 5/8" 14.2mm 3.00kg RB225
5/8" 3000mm 5/8" 14.2mm 3.79kg RB235
3/4" 1200mm 3/4" 17.2mm 2.19kg RB305
3/4" 1500mm 3/4" 17.2mm 2.73kg RB310
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Chapter 7 Earthing
3/4" 1800mm 3/4" 17.2mm 3.27kg RB315

3/4" 2400mm 3/4" 17.2mm 4.35kg RB235
3/4" 3000mm 3/4" 17.2mm 5.44kg RB235
Fittings
Type Weight Part no

1/2" Coupling 0.09kg CG170
1/2" Driving
0.05kg ST100
stud
5/8" Driving
0.08kg ST200
stud
3/4" Drving stud 0.12kg ST300
BS 7430, BS 6651, UL467
7.18. Earth bars

Earth bars are an efficient and convenient way of providing a common
earth point. Integral disconnecting links mean the earth bars can be isolated
For testing purposes
7.19. Earth Resistance

Earth resistance is the resistance between the metal of an electrode and an
imaginary electrode placed at infinity.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
7.19.1. Calculating Earth Resistance:
The equation for earth resistance for various systems of electrodes is quite
complicated, and in some cases may be expressed only as an approximation.
R = r * L/ A
Where:
R= Uniform earth resistance (Ω).
A = X-section area of the electrode (m2).
ρ = Resistivity of soil (Ω.m).
L= Length of the electrode (m).
For Single driven rod:
R = (r /2*pi*L)*[ln(3*L/d)]
Where:
L=length of the electrode (m).
d= diameter of the electrode (m).
For Multiple driven rods:
R [of N rods in parallel]/R [of one rod] = [1+K * X] /N
Where;
N= number of parallel rods
K= Screen Coefficient
X = L * D/ ln (3*L/d)
Where: D= Distance between parallel rods (m).
7.19.2. Factor Affecting Earth Resistance:
* Effect of rod size: It's an important factor that affects 7.18.2.2.
the resistance of the soil which usually decreases as the depth
increases.
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Chapter 7 Earthing
* Effect of rod diameter: increasing the diameter of the rod

decreases the resistance.
Effect of soil resistivity: as the resistivity of the soil increases
the earth resistance is increased.
7.19.3. Factor Affecting Soil Resistivity:

* Soil type.
* Degree of moisture in the soil.
* Temperature of the soil.
* Compactness of the soil.
* Soil grain size.
* Concentration of salts.
* Electrode length.
This table shows the variation of screen coefficient due to number of rods
Z N K
2 4 2.707
3 8 4.25
4 12 5.4
5 16 6
6 20 6.46
7 24 6.83
8 28 7.15
9 32 7.41
10 36 7.61
Where;
Z= Number of rods inside of a hollow square.
WE defined the sutible earth resistance to be( 5 Ohm ) ,Which is the total
resistance of the small town
139
Chapter 7 Earthing
ρ 3* L
RE = Rrod = Ln
2 *π * L d
• Error! Bookmark not defined.Error! Bookmark not defined.Error!

Bookmark not defined. ρ :Conduction of soil
• L:Length of rod
• d:Diameter of rod
• Assume that
• ρ =100 Ohm..m
• L=3m
• D=3Cm
100 3*3
RE = Rrod = Ln
• 2 * π * 3 0.025 =31.23 Ohm
• #Assume no of rod in side square=2 N=4 rods

X=LD/In(3L/d)
• Where X=Distance between paraller rods(m)
• R(for N parallel rods) / R rod = (1+Kx/N)

=(1+2.707*0.17/4)
=0.365
• K=2.707 FROM TABLE
• R(for N parallel rods)= 0.365*31.23=11.4 Ohm > 5 Ohm [NO]
• #Assume no of rod in side square=3 N=8 rods

• R(for N parallel rods) / R rod = (1+Kx/N)
=(1+4.25*0.17/8) =0.2153
140
Chapter 7 Earthing
• R(for N parallel rods)= 0.2153*31.23=6.72 Ohm > 5 Ohm [NO]

• #Assume no of rod in side square=4 N=12rods
• R(for N parallel rods) / R rod = (1+Kx/N=(1+5.4*0.17/12) =0.1598
• R(for N parallel rods)= 0.1598*31.23=4.9 Ohm < 5 Ohm [YES]
141
Chapter 8 Fire
alarm
Chapter 8
Fire Alarm system
8.1. Introduction:
Fire alarm systems are normally required by building codes. In the
case of new buildings, this is usually accomplished through the adoption
of building regulations. In existing buildings, fire alarm systems may be
required by municipal or provincial fire code provisions or by special
provincial acts or municipal bylaws directed at specific classes of
buildings.
Fire alarm systems are often associated only with pull boxes and
alarm bells. However, they are usually much more complex. They may
include numerous components such as fire detectors, annunciated panels,
loudspeakers, telephones, control panels and pull boxes. In addition to the
alarm function, fire alarm and detection systems can also actuate other
fire safety measures in a building.
Firing alarm system implies, sounds and alarm in the event of fire
there can be one or several alarms through out a building and there can be
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Chapter 8 Fire
alarm
several points which activate the warning. The alarm points can be
operated manually or automatically; in the latter they may be sensitive to
heat, smoke or ionization. There are clearly many combinations possible
and we shall try to give some systematic account of the way the way they
are built up.
8.2 Functions
The primary function of a fire alarm is to alert the occupants of a
building to the presence of a fire. It may also perform other functions. For
instance, the system can be designed to simultaneously alert the fire
department by means of a direct or relayed signal where a rapid response
by the fire department is essential. This is particularly important in certain
industrial occupancies containing large quantities of highly combustible
or explosive materials where a fire can develop rapidly, and in high
buildings, hospitals and nursing homes where evacuation assistance may
be required. In other cases, because of the nature of the building
occupancy, the alarm system may be designed to alert initially only the
building staff before the general alarm is activated.
Fire alarm systems can be designed to control the operation of the

building service equipment to minimize the spread of fire and smoke.
Signals from the system can automatically engage equipment to
pressurize stairwells or shut down recirculation air systems. This helps
confine smoke to the fire floor and minimizes danger to life and property
damage. The alarm system can also be designed to activate smoke
exhaust systems to ventilate a fire and reduce heat build-up. Controls
connected to the fire alarm system can recall elevators automatically to
the ground floor and remove them from public use. Fire alarm systems
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Chapter 8 Fire
alarm
may also be designed to activate fire suppression systems, release hold-

open devices on fire doors and indicate the location of the fire within the
building
8.3 Components
A typical fire alarm system consists of a control unit, manually
activated signaling boxes (pull boxes), fire detectors and audible alarm
devices. There may also be visual signal devices to warn the hearing-
impaired, annunciators to indicate the origin of the alarm signal, and
emergency telephones and other equipment for communication between
the central control panel and other parts of the building.
A basic fire alarm system
The control unit powers the fire alarm system. It transmits signals
from pull boxes (Figure 2) and fire detectors to the alarm signal devices,
either audible or visual, installed at strategic locations in the building.
Audible signal devices include bells, speakers, and sirens, a strobe light
being a common visual signal device.
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Chapter 8 Fire
alarm
Pull station and emergency telephone
The two basic types of fire detectors are smoke detectors and heat
detectors. A smoke detector transmits a signal to the control unit when
the concentration of airborne combustion products reaches a
predetermined level. A heat detector transmits a similar signal when the
temperature reaches a predetermined level or when there is an abnormal
rate of temperature rise.
There are two principal types of smoke detectors: photoelectric and
ionization. Photoelectric detectors react to visible particles of smoke.
Ionization smoke detectors, on the other hand. Are sensitive to the
presence of ions, which are electrically charged particles produced by the
chemical reactions that take place during combustion.
Both ionization and photoelectric detectors are effective. Which one
is better in a given situation depends on the nature of the fire. Hot gases
with few smoke particles are more readily detected by ionization smoke
detectors, while photoelectric detectors are more sensitive to cooler
smoke with large smoke particles.
These smoke detectors should not be confused with the self-
contained devices commonly used in apartment suites and houses that are
145
Chapter 8 Fire
alarm
technically referred to as smoke alarms. Smoke alarms have a built-in

audible alarm device in addition to a smoke sensor, and are intended to
warn only the occupants in the room or suite in which they are located.
Smoke detectors on the other hand are connected to the building fire
alarm system and are designed to initiate an alarm signal to warn the
occupants of the entire building.
Heat detectors, like smoke detectors, when activated send a signal to

the control unit to initiate an alarm throughout the building. This type of
detector is not prone to false alarms although it is rather insensitive to
smoldering fires of low temperature. Automatically suppressing the fire
In larger buildings, it is essential to be able to locate the zone of

origin of an alarm signal so that the source of the fire can be investigated
quickly. The system is then designed so that a separate signal is
transmitted by the fire detectors or pulls boxes in each zone. The division
of the building into zones for fire detection purposes will depend on the
size and complexity of the building. One method of identifying the zone
of origin of an alarm signal is by the use of an annunciator panel. This
annunciator panel identifies the zone of origin of the alarm signal by
means of an indicator light for each zone. In buildings with automatic
sprinklers, the water flow alarms are connected to the fire alarm system to
indicate the zone in which a sprinkler has been activated.
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Chapter 8 Fire
alarm
A typical annunciator panel with indicators for each zone of the building
The fire zone can also be determined if the alarm system incorporates
a "coded" audible signal in which a different signal is used for each zone.
The advantage of this method is that staff can immediately identify the
fire zone and go directly there to investigate. Ho time is wasted going to
the annunciator panel. In large buildings with many zones, a coded
audible signal system may be unworkable. In other buildings, however,
both an annunciator and coded alarm signal can be used.
Voice communication capabilities can be integrated into a fire alarm

system by connecting loudspeakers located throughout the building to a
central control. In these cases, the audible alarm signal operates for a
predetermined period of time, after which it can be silenced while the
loudspeakers are in use. These systems enable fire department personnel
to instruct the building occupants on procedures to follow during the fire.
Emergency telephone sets permit communication between the fire floor
and the central control facility. In many installations, the speakers used to
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Chapter 8 Fire
alarm
produce the audible alarm signals also provide voice communications so

that additional equipment is not required.
8.4 Types of Systems

The basic types of fire alarm systems currently used in buildings are
single and two-stage systems. A single-stage system is designed so that
when activated the alarm signal is immediately transmitted throughout
the building to warn the occupants that a fire emergency exists. In a two-
stage alarm system, a distinct alert signal first advises the staff of the fire
emergency. Usually this signal is coded so that its meaning is apparent
only to designated building staff. The staff are expected to immediately
investigate the source of the alarm and, if a fire exists, to activate the
alarm signal. The alarm signal is automatically set off after a
predetermined period of time (usually five minutes if the staff have not
already activated it or reset the alarm system. If, on the other hand, after
investigation it is determined that the alert is a false alarm, staff can
silence the coded alert signal and reset the system.
Silencing switches on an alarm system are a potential hazard since the

fire alarm can be cancelled before a careful investigation has been carried
out. It is essential that staff be instructed in the proper procedures to
follow before silencing the alarm.
Two-stage alarm systems are normally used if programmed

evacuation is required or if a general alarm would cause undue distress to
the occupants, for example in health care facilities. In these facilities the
evacuation of the occupants is difficult and could be physically or
psychologically harmful. Therefore two-stage alarm systems are used to
reduce the possibility of false alarms.
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Chapter 8 Fire
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In some industrial occupancy containing significant quantities of

combustible, flammable or explosive material, a fire can develop
extremely rapidly, so it is important that there be no delay in evacuating
the area. Accordingly, only single-stage alarm systems are permitted in
these cases.
8.5. Design
A fire alarm system should be designed to provide early detection and
warning of a fire. The designer must consider the size, complexity and
use of the building, and the degree of detection and warning desired.
While the design of fire alarm systems is normally regulated by building
codes, the level of protection specified is usually a minimum and the
designer should consider providing higher levels of protection where
circumstances indicate the need.
To achieve the desired level of protection, many fire alarm systems

will contain a combination of smoke detectors, heat detectors and manual
pull boxes. The type of detector to be used in a given location depends on
the nature of the fire expected, the response time desired and the service
conditions in which the detector must operate. To be most effective, both
smoke and heat detectors must be located on or near the ceiling of the
space to be protected because that is where smoke or hot gases initially
collect. They should not be located near open able windows, supply duct
outlets, or other ventilation sources that would interfere with the natural
air currents nor near any obstruction that would prevent smoke or heat
from reaching the detector.
Smoke detectors can be used to initiate signals to shut down fans or

close dampers. In that case they are installed in the return air ducts of
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Chapter 8 Fire
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heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems, to prevent the

circulation of smoke-contaminated air. Smoke detectors usually provide
an earlier warning of a fire condition than heat detectors and therefore are
used in key areas such as corridors, exits, patients' rooms, and other
rooms in which the occupants may be sleeping.
Heat detectors, though slower to respond to a fire than smoke
detectors, are not as prone to false alarms. They are thus often installed in
storage rooms and service rooms that are normally unoccupied. The
number of heat and/or smoke detectors required in a given room will
depend on the area and geometry of the room and the limitations of the
equipment.
8.6. Types of firing Systems

8.6.1 Detect system:
8.6.1.1. ClariFire CA Carbon Monoxide Fire Detectors:
Carbon monoxide (CO) fire detectors are electronic detectors used to

indicate the outbreak of fire by sensing the level of carbon monoxide in
the air. CO fire detectors can be used to supplement smoke detection in
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Chapter 8 Fire
alarm
areas where the main risk is smoldering fires and, in areas where optical
detectors are deemed unsuitable due to the risk of false alarms.
• Operating Principles
Carbon-based materials in the smoldering stage of a fire can produce
significant levels of carbon monoxide.
Carbon Monoxide detectors contain an electrochemical cell that senses
carbon monoxide and will therefore give an early Warning of fire.
Supplement to Standard Detection Devices Carbon monoxide
detectors do not detect smoke or any other combustion products and are
not universal replacements for smoke detectors.
• Resistance to False Alarms
Carbon monoxide detectors are less susceptible than smoke detectors
to false alarms from sources such as toast, steam, cooking, plumbing
work and hair spray.
• Application
Typical applications include hotel bedrooms, halls of residence,
Sheltered accommodation and hospital wards
• Limitations
Carbon monoxide detectors are set to a higher sensitivity than the
maximum allowed by the domestic carbon monoxide alarm standard.
They will respond to carbon monoxide from faulty gas appliances or
vehicle exhausts. CO detectors give a poor response to life
8.6.1.2. Zonemaster extinguishing control panels :
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Zone master extinguishing control panels provide an effective method

of detection and either automatic or manual
Release of an extinguishing medium Zone master is ideal for use in
small to medium sized computer rooms, manufacturing areas and other
high risk or high value installations that need protection from fire.
• Flexible Coverage
Range covers 2 or 4 zones of detection and one area of extinguishing.
• Coincidental Detector Operation
To prevent accidental release of extinguishing, discharge will only
occur if two detection zones are triggered.
• Pre-Event Warning of System Discharge
In an emergency, pre-release warnings are given for a pre-set time
period, allowing staff to evacuate the protected area before the
extinguishing is released.
• Reliable Operation
To ensure continuous, reliable operation, Zone master extinguishing
panel monitors the wiring to detection devices, Sounders and, actuator or
release solenoid.
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• Failsafe Operation
In the event of a mains failure, back-up batteries housed in the Zone
master cabinet will continue to power the system.
• Automatic & Manual Release
Automatic or manual control may be selected, giving the user complete
discretion over the use of the extinguishing.
8.6.1.3. Fireseeker ZHX Conventional Fire Detectors:
The Fire seeker ZHX ranges of conventional fire detectors are

compatible with the conventional range of control panels. Each detector
within the ZHX range has been designed to provide
An aesthetically pleasing modern low profile shape. The range benefits
From:
1) High reliability and suitable for use in a wide range of environments.
2) Protection against contamination and insect ingress.
3) Twin fire condition LED indicators provide 360° visibility.
4) A common mounting base for detector inters changeability.
5) Simple detector anti-tamper locking base mechanism
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• Fire seeker ZHX Optical Smoke detector

Designed using the unique ‘Environmental Friendly Technology’,
enabling the detector to be equally sensitive to a much wider range of
combust able materials
Utilizes the light scatter sensing principle for detecting smoke Suitable
for use in environments where traditionally optical and ionization
detectors have been installed.
System design is easier and overcomes cleaning and disposal problems
associated with ionization detectors.
• Fire seeker ZHX ionization Smoke Detector
Utilizes the dual chamber, single source principle to provide optimum
response to smoke Suitable for general applications but particularly
sensitive to invisible smoke particles produced by rapidly burning
flaming fires of a carbonaceous nature
• Fire seeker ZHX Heat Detectors
The Heat Detector is used where high ambient temperatures exist in
environments such as boiler and drying rooms and where Smoke
Detectors are unsuitable because of the presence of steam or cooking
fumes such as in a kitchen
• Fire seeker ZHX Detector Bases
The range of Fire seeker ZHX Bases is designed to allow Line
Continuity and Remote Detector Indicator functions. Line Continuity
bases are used to maintain line continuity once a detector has been
removed from its base thus allowing manual call points and detectors to
generate a fire condition
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When a remote detector

indicator is connected to the
base the remote Indicator will
mimic the fire LEDs on the
detector, particularly useful
when the detectors are mounted
beneath false floors or above
false ceilings.
8.6.2 Contain systems:
8.6.2.1. Controlmaster 300b Analogue Addressable Fire Alarm

Control Panel:
Control master 300b range of advanced fire panels utilize the latest in
analogue addressable fire alarm technology to provide a flexible and
expandable detection system which is ideal for medium to large
commercial and industrial premises. Networked Control master systems
may be linked to a PC graphic
Control master provides the most sophisticated monitoring of a work
environment, and the most comprehensive protection against serious fire
damage and life threatening hazards, which can develop from an outbreak
of fire. Benefits of the range of Panels include:
• Monitored detection
Intelligent detectors monitor smoke and temperature variance
Throughout a site for smoke build-up and significant heat increase
• Location reports
Control master provides precise location reports of any situation
Requiring immediate investigation (reducing search time around
The premises)
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• Alarm activation
Alarms are raised at appropriate locations for staged site evacuations,
to ensure the safe exit of all personnel. Necessary safety measures are
also set in motion (voice alarm system announcements, lift control, gas
valves shut down, fire doors closed and any other appropriate measures).
• Fully expandable
The Control master system expands easily to fully networked
applications in large and complex sites, with cost effective installation
and minimum disruption.
• Flexible control
Control master can be linked directly to the emergency services
during periods when the building is unoccupied, ensuring rapid response
to a fire condition.
• Solid construction
The Control master electronics are enclosed in a high quality steel
enclosure with preformed knockouts to aid in installation. The control
panel housing can be either surface or flush mounted.
• False alarm management
To minimize false alarms the sensitivity of individual loop detectors can
be adjusted to suit the environment. Time delays can also be programmed
into the panel, which cause a warning signal to be indicated at the panel,
allowing time for investigation.
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8.6.2.2. Controlmaster 100 Analogue Addressable Fire Alarm

Control Panel:
Control master 100 utilizes the latest in analogue addressable fire

alarm technology to provide a high quality flexible fire detection system
which is ideal for medium sized commercial and industrial premises.
• Compatible with a wide range of detection devices
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Smoke detectors, manual call points, loop powered sounders, loop

powered beacons and other loop devices are wired onto a Control master
system via a single two-wire loop.
• Reduced Installation Costs
Reduces installation cabling costs when compared with the cost
Of installing a large conventional fire detection system
• Flexible
Powerful PC configuration software allows the system to be configured
to suit individual site specific detection and control requirements.
Facilities such as delayed sounder response and day/night disablement of
individual devices allow the fire detection system to be managed
effectively.
• Full control
In addition to providing precise incident location reports via the two
line backlit liquid crystal display, the control panel can be used to control
building services such as voice alarm announcements, lift control, fire
door closures, smoke vents and other appropriate measures.
• Reliable operation
Control master 100 can be connected to a Chubb Alarm Receiving
Centre (ARC). This will provide 24hr remote monitoring ensuring a rapid
response to fire or fault conditions.
• Optional integral printer
Control master 100 can be provided with an optional integral printer
(40 characters per line).
8.6.2.3. Controlmaster 600 Analogue Addressable Fire Alarm
Control Panel:
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Control master 600 is a powerful range of analogue addressable

control panels, which are ideal for medium to large sized commercial and
industrial premises.
• Versatile programming to suit site requirements
Control master 600 uses advanced microprocessor technology to
provide a powerful and very flexible control system. Facilities such as
delayed sounder response to allow investigation time and day/night
sensitivity adjustment of individual devices allow the fire detection
system to be managed effectively.
• Programmable function buttons
In addition to providing precise incident location reports via the eight
line backlit liquid crystal display, the control panel can be used to control
building services such as voice alarm announcements, lift control, fire
door closures, smoke vents and other appropriate measures.
• Networking
A combined total of up to 64 panels and repeaters can be interfaced
on the Control master 600 network.
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• Optional 24 hour monitoring
Control master 600 can be connected to a Chubb Alarm Receiving

Centre (ARC). This will provide 24 hour remote monitor in ensuring a
rapid response to fire or fault condition.
8.6.2.4. Dorgard:
Dorgard is an acoustically activated fire door release device designed

to allow freedom of access around a busy work place whilst protecting
the building and its occupants against the dangers of fire.
• The Problem
Invariably, during the course of a normal working day, every service
engineer will come across at least one fire door held open with one of the
following:
A door wedge
A waste paper bin
An extinguisher
Aside from the damage the door could do to an extinguisher, as well
as the hazards associated with moving the extinguisher away from its
recognized fire point, restraining fire doors in any of the above three
ways will mean that in the event of a fire the fire doors are rendered
useless. Therefore the fire cannot be compartmentalized and contained,
allowing fire to spread freely and rapidly.
• The Solution
Like a door wedge, an extinguisher or a bin, Dorgard will retain the
door open to allow ease of access around the workplace.
However unlike these, should the fire alarm sound, it will
automatically release the door into the shut position to help contain the
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fire to a given section of the building. Dorgard also has an automatic

night-time release facility to ensure all doors are shut at the end of the
working day. Unlike expensive traditional fire door holders, Dorgard is
completely wire-free.
8.6.3 Escape system:
Speech master
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• Alerting staff
Prior to a general Alert/Evac message being broadcast warn staff so they
are prepared to assist with the evacuation.
• Service and maintenance
A correctly designed and installed voice alarm system provides the
peace of mind that the facility exists for emergency warnings to be
conveyed clearly, calmly and concisely. Also ongoing service and
maintenance of all (including other manufacturers) voice alarm systems.
8.6.4 Fire Fighting System:
Fixed CO2 Fire Fighting System
Carbon Dioxide is an excellent extinguishing agent which extinguishes

fires by reducing the oxygen level below that which will sustain
combustion
CO 2 is clean
CO 2 is a colorless, odorless, dry, inert gas and is a naturally occurring
gas. After extinguishing a fire it vaporizes fully leaving no residue. There
is no mess, nothing to clear up, no water damage. It is non corrosive and
will not contaminate food stuffs. It is non-conductive and so can be used
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on electrical equipment. It is safely used to protect delicate electrical

equipment, antiquities or archive materials.
• CO 2 is versatile
With the versatility of electrical, pneumatic or mechanical actuation,
CO 2systems can be designed to suit any fire hazard, which is why it has
been successfully used in a variety of applications including Transformer
stations, Paint spray booths, Flammable liquid storage areas, Printing
presses and other process machinery, Floor voids, Turbines and
generators as well as numerous marine applications. CO 2 is not
advisable in manned areas as it is toxic at the concentrations required to
extinguish fire
• CO 2 is cost effective
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring gas and a standard commercial
product with many other uses and it is readily available throughout the
world. It can be obtained cheaply and this is an important consideration
when frequent recharging of storage containers is necessary.
• Advantages
Zero Ozone Depleting Properties Global Warming Potential seen to be
negligible as CO 2 used in extinguishing systems is recovered from
processes where the CO 2 would normally be discharged to atmosphere
Excellent extinguishing properties
Non-conductive, non-corrosive and odorless
No clean up required
Low agent cost
No decomposition products
• Disadvantages
Slower discharge time than some other extinguishing methods
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High storage space requirements

Toxic at the concentrations required to extinguish fire
Elaborate safety measures required for intermittently occupied or
occupied areas
High storage pressures for high pressure systems
Elaborate and bulky storage requirements for low pressure systems
8.6.5 Room Integrity Testing:
Testing the ‘integrity’ of a room is vital to ensure the protected area is

well sealed and the gaseous extinguishing agent won’t escape.
To ensure the effectiveness of your gaseous fire suppression system,

testing the ‘integrity’ of the room is vital to ensure your protected area is
well sealed and your gaseous agent won’t escape, causing the fire to
possibly re-ignite.
• Very little disruption
It causes very little disruption to the working day and the total
expected running time of the test is approximately 1hour.
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• Repeatable service
The service is repeatable, allowing the room to be tested at any time,
for example, if any changes are to be made to the protected area. It is a
requirement of BS ISO 14520 that a test is performed annually if it can
not be verified that no changes have been made to the room since the
previous test.
• Does not interfere with extinguishing system
It is versatile. Neither the type of the gaseous fire fighting agent, nor
the original provider of the extinguishing system inhibits the vital service.
• Essential part of Halon system decommission
New clean agents have less tolerance for leakage than Halon systems.
Halon protected rooms could lose over50% of agent concentration before
the fire could re-ignite. The new agents are more critical and can
normally only lose about 20% before re-ignition. Therefore, what was an
adequately sealed protected area for the use of Halon, would not be
adequately sealed for the use of a new agent.
8.7. How it Works

For any gaseous fire suppression installation to be effective, the design
concentration must first be achieved, and then maintained at suitable
levels within the risk. In order to achieve this protected area must be
adequately sealed around its boundary. Integrity Testing calculates the
leak-tightness of a room and predicts how long it takes for the interface
between the extinguishing agent and the air to descend to a given level.
The test equipment comprises of variable speed fans, expandable door
panels, pressure gauges and a dedicated portable computer.
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The door fan unit is fitted into a doorway of the protected area by
means of the expandable door panels designed to fit most door frame
sizes, and measures the size of holes in the enclosure and the pressures
that may exit across them.
The fan speed is adjusted to obtain a steady pressure between the test
area and the volume surrounding the test (equivalent to the column
weight exerted by the extinguishing agent following a discharge). This
pressure is then maintained whilst readings are taken from pressure
gauges.
The measured rate of air input needed to maintain this pressure level is
equivalent to the amount leaking from the test area. A second
measurement is taken by doing the first test in reverse i.e. by depressuring
the test area. The two readings are averaged to reduce error.
The computer then converts the flow and pressure readings into an
Equivalent Leakage Area, or the total area of all the cracks, gaps and
holes in the test area. The data generated is then processed using
specifically designed computer software, in compliance with the National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the British Standard ISO
14520 which predicts the period of time that the concentration will be
held in the test area at any given height.This retention time can be further
calculated for different heights.
The computer software has also been designed to be conservative
with its predictions. The software produces the worst case scenario in
which 50% of the cracks, gaps in the test area are at a low level where
heavier gas/air mixture will seep out and 50% are at a high level where
lighter air will enter to displace it. This approach makes the results
extremely reliable and means that any system which passes the room
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integrity test would have been virtually certain to pass a full discharge
test.
Within an hour of the completed tests the computer produces a
printout with full details of the input and test results, with a detailed
report following in the post shortly afterwards. Failure is indicated if it
takes less than ten minutes for the agent/air interface to drop below the
minimum specified protected height.
However, if the test area does fail to satisfy the requirements, a
detailed survey carried out making a note of the leakage areas to allow
remedial sealing works to be carried out.
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Chapter 9
Transformer and Generator
Transformer
10.1. Construction Overview
A transformer is a static machine. Although it is not an energy
conversion device, it is indispensable in many energy conversion
systems. It is a simple device, having two or more electric circuits
coupled by a common magnetic circuit. Analysis of transformers involves
many principles that are basic to the understanding of electric machines.
Transformers are so widely used as electrical apparatus that they are
treated along with other electric machines in most books on electric
machines.
A transformer essentially consists of two or more windings coupled
by a mutual magnetic field. Ferromagnetic cores are used to provide tight
magnetic coupling and high flux densities. Such transformers are known
as iron core transformers. They are invariably used in high-power
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applications. Air core transformers have poor magnetic coupling and are
sometimes used in low-power electronic circuits.
Two types of core constructions are normally used, as shown in the
following figure. In the core type (Fig. a), the windings are wound around
two legs of a magnetic core of rectangular shape. In the shell type (Fig.
b), the windings are wound around the center leg of a three-legged
magnetic core. To reduce core losses, the magnetic core is formed of a
stack of thin laminations. Silicon-steel laminations of 0.014 inch
thickness are commonly used for transformers operating at frequencies
below a few hundred cycles. L-shaped laminations are used for core-type
construction and E-shaped laminations are used for shell-type
construction. To avoid a continuous air gap (which would require a large
exciting current), laminations are stacked alternately.
For small transformers used in communication circuits at high

frequencies (kilocycles to megacycles) and low power levels, compressed
powdered ferromagnetic alloys, known as Permalloy, are used.
In a two-winding transformer, the two vertical bars are used to
signify tight magnetic coupling between the windings. One winding is
connected to an ac supply and is referred to as the primary winding. The
other winding is connected to an electrical load and is referred to as the
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secondary winding. The winding with the higher number of turns will
have a high voltage and is called the high-voltage (HV) or high-tension
(ITT) winding. The winding with the lower number of turns is called the
low-voltage (LV) or low-tension (LT) winding. To achieve tighter
magnetic coupling between the windings, they may be formed of coils
placed one on top of another (Fig. a) or side by side (Fig. b) in a
“pancake” coil formation where primary and secondary coils are
interleaved. Where the coils are placed one on top of another, the low-
voltage winding is placed nearer the core and the high-voltage winding
on top.
Transformers have widespread use. Their primary function is to
change voltage level. Electrical power is generated in a power house at
about 30,000 volts. However, in domestic houses, electric power is used at
110 or 220 volts. Electric power is transmitted from a power plant to a load
center at 200,000 to 500,000 volts. Transformers are used to step up and
step down voltage at various stages of power transmission, as shown in the
following figure.
Transformers are widely used in low-power electronic or control

circuits to isolate one circuit from another circuit or to match the
impedance of a source with its load for maximum power transfer.
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Transformers are also used to measure voltages and currents; these are
known as instrument transformers.
10.2. Three Phase Transformers

A three-phase system is used to generate and transmit bulk
electrical energy. Three-phase transformers are required to step up or step
down voltages in the various stages of power transmission. A three-phase
transformer can be built in one of two ways: by suitably connecting a
bank of three single-phase transformers or by constructing a three-phase
transformer on a common magnetic structure.
In a three phase transformer bank a set of three similar single-phase

transformers are connected to form a three-phase transformer. The
primary and secondary windings may be connected in either wye (Y) or
delta (∆) configurations. There are therefore four possible connections for
a three phase transformer: Y-∆, ∆-Y, ∆-∆, and Y-Y. Figure (a) shows a
Y-∆ connection of a three-phase transformer.
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On the primary side, three terminals of identical polarity are

connected together to form the neutral of the Y connection. On the
secondary side the windings are connected in series. A more convenient
way of showing this connection is illustrated in Figure (b). The primary
and secondary windings shown parallel to each other belong to the same
single-phase transformer. The primary and secondary voltages and
currents are also shown in Fig. (b), where V is the line-to-line voltage on
the primary side and a (= N1/N2) is the turns ratio of the single-phase
transformer. Other possible connections are also shown in Figs. c, d, and
e. It may be noted that for all possible connections, the total kVA of the
three-phase transformer is shared equally by each (phase) transformer.
However, the voltage and current ratings of each transformer depend on
the connections used.
• Y-∆: This connection is commonly used to step down a high
voltage to a lower voltage. The neutral point on the high-voltage
side can be grounded, which is desirable in most cases.
• ∆-Y: This connection is commonly used to step up voltage.
• ∆-∆: This connection has the advantage that one transformer can be
removed for repair and the remaining two can continue to deliver
three-phase power at a reduced rating of 58% of that of the original
bank. This is known as the open-delta or V connection.
• Y-Y: This connection is rarely used because of problems with the
exciting current and induced voltages.
10.3. Transformer Rating

The kilovolt—ampere (kVA) rating and voltage ratings of a
transformer are marked on its nameplate. For example, a typical
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transformer may carry the following information on the nameplate: 10

kVA, 1100/110 volts. What are the meanings of these ratings? The
voltage ratings indicate that the transformer has two windings, one rated
for 1100 volts and the other for 110 volts. These voltages are proportional
to their respective numbers of turns, and therefore the voltage ratio also
represents the turns ratio (a = 1100/ 110 = 10). The 10 kVA rating means
that each winding is designed for 10 kVA.
Therefore the current rating for the high-voltage winding is
10,000/1100 = 9.09 A and for the lower-voltage winding is 10,000/110 =
90.9 A. It may be noted that when the rated current of 90.9 A flows
through the low- voltage winding, the rated current of 9.09 A will flow
through the high- voltage winding. In an actual case, however, the
winding that is connected to the supply (called the primary winding) will
carry an additional component of current (excitation current), which is
very small compared to the rated current of the winding.
In order to specify the transformer ratings we used the following formula;
Transformer KVA = √3 x V Line x I Line
Generator
10.4. Construction Overview
A synchronous machine rotates at a constant speed in the steady
state. Unlike induction machines, the rotating air gap field and the rotor in
the synchronous machine rotate at the same speed, called the synchronous
speed. Synchronous machines are used primarily as generators of
electrical power. In this case they are called synchronous generators or
alternators. They are usually large machines generating electrical power
at hydro, nuclear, or thermal power stations. Synchronous generators with
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power ratings of several hundred MVA (mega-volt-amperes) are quite

common in generating stations. Synchronous generators are the primary
energy conversion devices of the world’s electric power systems today.
Like most rotating machines, a synchronous machine can also
operate as both a generator and a motor. In large sizes (several hundred or
thousand kilowatts) synchronous motors are used for pumps in generating
stations, and in small sizes (fractional horsepower) they are used in
electric clocks, timers, record turntables, and so forth where constant
speed is desired. Most industrial drives run at variable speeds. In industry,
synchronous motors are used mainly where a constant speed is desired. In
industrial drives, therefore, synchronous motors are not as widely used as
induction or dc motors. A linear version of the synchronous motor (LSM)
is being considered for high-speed transportation systems of the future.
An important feature of a synchronous motor is that it can draw
either lagging or leading reactive current from the ac supply system. A
synchronous machine is a doubly excited machine. Its rotor poles are
excited by a dc current and its stator windings are connected to the ac
supply as in the figure below. The air gap flux is therefore the resultant of
the fluxes due to both rotor current and stator current. In induction
machines, the only source of excitation is the stator current, because rotor
currents are induced currents. Therefore, induction motors always operate
at a lagging power factor, because lagging reactive current is required to
establish flux in the machine.
On the other hand, in a synchronous motor, if the rotor field
winding provides just the necessary excitation, the stator will draw no
reactive current; that is, the motor will operate at a unity power factor. If
the rotor excitation current is decreased, lagging reactive current will be
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drawn from the ac source to aid magnetization by the rotor field current
and the machine will operate at a lagging power factor.
If the rotor field current is increased, leading reactive current will
be drawn from the ac source to oppose magnetization by the rotor field
current and the machine will operate at a leading power factor. Thus, by
changing the field current, the power factor of the synchronous motor can
be controlled.
If the motor is not loaded but is simply floating on the ac supply
system, it will thus behave as a variable inductor or capacitor as its rotor
field current is changed. A synchronous machine with no load is called a
synchronous condenser. It may be used in power transmission systems to
regulate line voltage. In industry, synchronous motors are sometimes
used with other induction motors and operated in an overexcited mode so
that they draw leading current to compensate the lagging current drawn
by the induction motors, thereby improving the overall plant power
factor.
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10.5. Generator Rating

The stator of the three-phase synchronous machine has a three-
phase distributed winding similar to that of the three-phase induction
machine. Unlike the dc machine, the stator winding, which is connected
to the ac supply system, is sometimes called the armature winding. It is
designed for high voltage and current.
The rotor has a winding called the field winding, which carries direct
current. The field winding on the rotating structure is normally fed from
an external dc source through slip rings and brushes. Synchronous
machines can be broadly divided into two groups as follows:
1. High-speed machines with cylindrical (or non-salient pole) rotors.
2. Low-speed machines with salient pole rotors.
The cylindrical or non-salient pole rotor has one distributed winding
and an essentially uniform air gap. These motors are used in large
generators (several hundred megawatts) with two or sometimes four poles
and are usually driven by steam turbines. The rotors are long and have a
small diameter. On the other hand, salient pole rotors have concentrated
windings on the poles and a nonuniform air gap. Salient pole generators
have a large number of poles, sometimes as many as 50, and operate at
lower speeds. The synchronous generators in hydroelectric power stations
are of the salient pole type and are driven by water turbines. These
generators are rated for tens or hundreds of megawatts. The rotors are
shorter but have a large diameter. Smaller salient pole synchronous
machines in the range of 50 kW to 5 MW are also used. Such
synchronous generators are used independently as emergency power
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supplies. Salient pole synchronous motors are used to drive pumps,

cement mixers, and some other industrial drives.
During the work on this project, we used the following formula to
investigate the appropriate generator rating;
Generator KVA = √3 x V Line x I` Line
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Chapter 10 Out
door
lighting
Chapter 10
Out Door Lighting
11.1 Calculation of Luminaries
1 - Determining the level of luminance by using table number (4)

2 - Light uniformity along the roadway is the second element of
illuminance design. It is measured in terms of ratio of the average to
minimum illuminance along the roadway Uniformity.
3 - Determining the lamp type sodium, mercury, halogen,
4 -We select the height of pole acc. Table no (5) .
5 – If w ≤ h then select single side design
Where: - h = pole height, w = street width
6 – If h<w < 1.5h then select zigzag design
7- If w > 1.5 h then select double side design
8 - A luminaire is composed of alight source, a reflector, and usually a
glass or plastic lens or refractor.
9 -In designing alighting system, maximizing spacing of luminaries
consistent with good illumination design.
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10-We determine the lumen of lamp according to the lamp catalogue

11- Use the next Formula for calculation of the spacing between two
poles
S = ØxUxM
WxE
S = Luminaire Spacing
W = Road width
E = Nominal illuminance level.
M = maintenance factor.
U= Utilization factor
Ø =Initial lamp lumens
ite Type of rood – way Lux level

1 Highway, main road and main streets 20- 30 Lux
2 Secondary rood /secondary streets 15- 20 Lux Table no. (4)
3 Residential area streets, industrial area streets 10-15 Lux
i te m Luminous flux of luminaire (lumen) Mounting height of
luminaire
1 3000 - 10000 6-7 meter
2 10000 – 20000 7-9 meter Table no. (5)
3 20 > 9 meter
179
REFFERENCES
Software Programs
• AutoCAD – Drawing Software

• MATLAb program for calculation of indoor lighting .
• MATLAb Program for calculation of short circuit and voltage drop
analysis .
• MATLAb Program for calculation of cross section area and circuit
breaker ratings of branch circuits and feeders .
Products Catalogues
• Eleswedy catalogue for calculation street and out door lighting .

• EGY LUX for indoor calculation Lighting Catalogue .
• BUS bars cataloge .
Scientific References
• William D. Stevenson, Jr., "Elements of Power System Analysis," 4th

Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1982
• J. B. Gupta, "Utilization of Electric Power & Electric Traction," 6th
Edition, Technical Education International Company, India, 1981
• P. C. Sen, "Principles of Electric Machines & Power Electronics," 2nd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997
• Harold B. Kirchner, "Wiring Installation & Maintenance," 1st Edition,
McGraw-Hill Ryson Limited, New York, 1987
• John E. Traister, "Security/Fire-Alarm Systems", 2nd Edition, McGrow-
Hill Book Company, New York, 1996
• G. F. Moore, "Electric Cables Handbook", 3rd Edition, Blackwell Science
Ltd, London, 1998
‫ اﻟﻜﻮد اﻟﻤﺼﺮي ﻷﺳﺲ ﺗﺼﻤﯿﻢ‬,‫• ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺑﺤﻮث اﻹﺳﻜﺎن و اﻟﺒﻨﺎء و اﻟﺘﺨﻄﯿﻂ اﻟﻌﻤﺮاﻧﻲ‬
‫ ﻟﺴﻨﺔ‬172 ‫ ﻗﺮار وزاري رﻗﻢ‬:‫و ﺷﺮوط ﺗﻨﻔﯿﺬ اﻟﺘﻮﺻﯿﻼت اﻟﻜﮭﺮﺑﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﻧﻲ‬
,‫ اﻟﻘﺎھﺮة‬,‫ دار اﻟﺠﻤﮭﻮرﻳﺔ‬,‫ اﻟﻄﺒﻌﺔ اﻟﺮاﺑﻌﺔ‬,‫ اﻟﻤﺠﻠﺪ اﻷول و اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ و اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ‬,1994
2003

Hotel Distributionمشروع توزيع الكهرباء لفندق كامل

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Hotel Distributionمشروع توزيع الكهرباء لفندق كامل

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Fayoum University

B.S.C. Project 2009

Dr. Emad Dabbis

Dr. Gehan El Shazly

In the name of Allah the all merciful,

Many thanks to my Profs. Of the department for

Special thanks to Dr. Emad dabbis , Dr. Gehan el

shazly and eng. Aymen said who helps us to

* The main steps of project:

CH. 1 IN DOOR LIGHT …………………………………………………1:23

CH. 2 SOCKETS ……….………………………………………………….24:25

CH. 3 CABLES ……….……………………………………………………26:66

CH. 4 PROTECTION SYSTEM ………………………………………….67:71

CH. 5 MECHANICAL LOADS …………………………………………...72:88

CH. 6 EMERGENCY ………………………………………………………89:113

CH. 7 EARTHING ………………………………………………………..114:142

CH. 8 FIRE ALARM ……………………………………………………..143:169

CH. 9 TRANSFORMER AND GENERATOR ………………………..162:170

CH. 10 OUT DOOR LIGHTING ……………………………………....171:173

Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of human

1.3. Quantity of Illumination

1.3.1 Light Output:

lumens. Similarly, a light fixture's output can be expressed in lumens. As

1.3.2 Light Level:

Light intensity measured on a plane at a specific location is called

Another measurement of light is luminance, sometimes called

1.3.4 Quantity Measures:

• Luminous flux is defined as a total quantity of light energy emitted

1.3.5. Determining Target Light Levels:

When designing a new or upgraded lighting system, one must be

Within a listed range of luminance, three factors dictate the proper

the IES Lighting Handbook, 1993, or to the IES Recommended Practice

The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America has

• The task(s) being performed (contrast, size, etc.)

1.4. Quality of Illumination

spaces, attractive and comfortable lighting designs can attract clientele

Three quality issues are addressed in this section.

It is the brightness within the field of vision of such a character as to

It is the unit of luminous flux and is defined as the amount of luminous

• Lux or Meter Candle:

1.4.2 Uniformity of Illuminance on Tasks:

The uniformity of illuminance is a quality issue that addresses how

• improper fixture placement based on the luminaire's spacing

1.4.3 Non-uniform illuminance causes several problems:

• inadequate light levels in some areas

1.5. HOW TO CALCULATE LUMEN?

E = average Illuminance (lx)

The Utilization Factor (UF) is the proportion of light flux emitted by

The Room Index for a rectangular room l x w where h m is the height of

The maintenance Factor (MF) is the ratio of illumination under normal

M.F= (Illumination under normal working condition/illumination when

Some factors affects maintenance factor such as:

Without detailed knowledge of maintenance plan,

One sets MF = 0.8 ~ 0.9

• Spacing to Mounting Height ratio (SHR):

It is the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps and height of

The best ratio is between 0.8 and 1.2 (0.8<SHR<1.2).

The recommendation for general lighting with a predominantly

In general the ceiling cavity reflectance should be as high as possible,

Higher reflectance of wall and partition surfaces will increase the

particular case. The walls surrounding a window should have a

The ratio of the average illuminance on the walls to the average

In general the effective reflectance of the principal walls should be

• Floor and working plane:

From* Electro cable Egypt company* catalogue

From* Electro cable Egypt company* catalogue