Our Lady of Salvation College

Tiwi, Albay
S.Y 2023-2024

Assessment in
Learning 1
(Prof Ed 6)

Dr. Theresa L.
Castro Mr. Marlon V.
Rufino Mrs. Diezabel V.
Esguerra
Ms. Romellen T. Gonzalvo

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 COURSE BRIEF OUTLINE

I. COURSE DESCRIPTION

II. This is a course that focuses on the principles, development, and utilization of
conventional assessment tools to improve the teaching-learning process. It
emphasizes the use of Assessment of, as and for, in measuring knowledge,
comprehension, and other thinking skills in the cognitive, psychomotor, or affective
domains. It allows students to go through the standard steps in test construction and
development and the application in grading systems.

III. COURSE OUTCOMES

CO 1 Demonstrate current, research-based knowledge and understanding of the
basic concepts and principles of assessment and how they are applied in
teaching and learning.
CO 2 Identify learning outcomes that are aligned with learning competencies.
CO 3 Demonstrate knowledge in designing, developing, selecting, and using
appropriate diagnostic, formative and summative assessment strategies in line
with K to 12 standards, guidelines and requirements.
CO 4 Demonstrate knowledge of monitoring and evaluating learner progress using
learner attainment data; and
CO 5 Demonstrate understanding of the role of assessment in making instructional
decisions.

IV. STUDENT OUTCOMES

Student Outcomes
After graduation, the students should have
1. Acquired knowledge on the basic concept’s and principles on test,
measurement, assessment and evaluation.
2. Acquired skills in constructing pen and paper test.
3. Used assessment data in developing different assessment tools.
4. Disseminated concepts and principles on test, measurement, assessment and
evaluation to peers.
5. Established linkages and/or partnership with other programs in developing
standardized tests.

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UNIT
I – PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS AND RECENT TRENDS
OVERVIEW
You have now reached tertiary or your advanced degree in your education. You have reached this
far because you have effectively passed all the prerequisites in your basic education. In your long stretches
of schooling from elementary to high school, I am certain you have experienced stepping through exams in
the diverse branches of knowledge you have encountered in your studies. Test is one of the assessment
tools that your teacher used to evaluate how far have you advanced in your learnings. It is one way your
teacher can determine your strength and weaknesses so appropriate mediations can be done to achieve
learnings. In this unit, you will discover the basic concepts in assessment which will enlighten you about
the different types of assessment such as assessment for, assessment of, and assessment as. As future
teachers, in order to effectively make a good decision about the performance of your students, it requires
good understanding about the principles of high quality assessment. This is to guarantee the effectiveness
of the tests and that the information of the student’s performance that could be obtained from them is valid
and reliable. In this unit, you will also learn the recent trends and focus in assessment. So get ready and
explore all the topics in this unit that will give you general direction on the concepts of assessment.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
a. explain the basic concepts and principles in educational assessment;
b. discuss the role of assessment in making instructional decisions to improve
teaching and learning;
c. reflect on and discuss the applications and implications of assessment to
teaching and learning;
d. differentiate measurement, test, assessment, and evaluation;
e. explain the high quality assessment components; and
f. discuss recent trends and focus in assessment.

SETTING UP

A. Matching Type
Directions. Below are some words that you will encounter during the discussion of our entire lessons. Let
me know which among these words you are familiar with by matching column A to column B. Be honest in
giving your answers since this is merely to assess your prior knowledge. Insert your answers in the box
before the words in Column A.

Column A Column B
Assessment as A. Paper and Pencil Test
Objective Measurement B. Assignment of a number to object or things
Assessment of C. Formative Assessment
Traditional Method D. Making judgment on the worth of value of something
Subjective Measurement E. Self-assessment
Assessment for F. Summative Assessment
Diagnostic Test G. Given at the end of the course
Evaluation H. Test results are used for instructional decision making
High Stakes testing I. Determines student’s strengths and weaknesses
Achievement Test J. Measurement done through test or examination
Measurement K. Based on personal opinion.

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 B. True or False
Directions. Analyze the following sentences. Write True if the statement is correct, and False if the
statement is incorrect. Place your answers before the number.

1. Learning targets must be stated in behavioral terms.

2. Assessment method must be congruent to the instructional objectives given by the
teacher.
3. Learning targets are the lessons that the teacher would like the students to learn in a
subject.
4. The suitability of assessment tool for the topics discussed is least considered when
preparing a test.
5. Learning targets must be a clear description of what teachers should know and able to
do.
6. Traditional method of assessment involves the demonstration of student’s actual
performance of what he/she learns in class.
7. One purpose of assessment is to determine students who perform high in class.
8. Outcome based education is student-centered.
9. Objective measurement is more stable than subjective measurement.
10. We use the results of assessments to judge the quality of pupils’ performance in class.
_11. We administer placement tests to assess if the students achieve the course objectives.
_12. The right assessment methods aligned with the learning objective is a component of
high-quality assessment.
_13. Paper and pencil test is a tool of assessment used in traditional method.
_14. In implementing outcome based education, we need to identify the educational
objectives of the course.
_15. Assessment helps determine the students’ strength and weakness.

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EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

To know more about our

lessons for this unit, let us
begin our discussion. Read
and understand very well
each topic to gain more
meaningful and fruitful
learnings.

A. BASIC CONCEPTS

1. ASSESSMENT

Assessment has always been a regular activity of your student life. Have you ever thought why
are you being assessed? The overview of assessment will clarify fundamental ideas about assessment
which will give you greater understanding about what assessment is, its classification, and purpose. There
are other sub-topics of assessment that will not be mentioned in this module but will be included in your
assignments and further readings. So begin your journey and start reading!

Assessment is a method of gathering your school performance data that aims to collect information
to specify and verify problems concerning your learning achievement. Thus, your teacher can make
decisions regarding your learning performance. It is essentially taking a sample of what you do, making
inferences, and estimating the worth of your actions. Some proof of your learning success can be
manifested in your tests, written works, journals, portfolios, and other learning tasks (Navarro, et al.,
2017).

There are various

approaches to
Assessment
which you need
to know

They are:
Assessment For Learning – This is being used by the teacher to find out the extent of what you
know and what you can do and thereby see the gaps in learning that you might have. Teacher creates
assessments that will determine if the intended learning targets are achieved by you and to address the
gaps that occur during the process of your learning formation. This is also referred as formative
assessment; wherein its result serves as a proof that you have achieved the desired learnings targeted by
your teacher.

To illustrate this type of assessment is when your teachers use questioning, quizzes, and other
means which are useful and essential in curriculum design and instruction. It may also include pre-test and
post-test.
Assessment Of Learning – It is usually given towards the end of a course or a unit in a semestral
term. It is being done to determine if you have achieved the instructional goals and for your teachers to
give you an equivalent mark or grade. What is the best example for this? Your mid-term or final
examinations.

Assessment As Learning – Its main focus is on how you efficiently manage your own learning. It
gives important emphasis on metacognition (an awareness of one’s thoughts and processes). It assumes
that learning is not only about someone who is knowledgeable in transferring ideas to someone who is not.
It means that you, as students, should not only be passive learners but should be actively engaged in your

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own learning. You must also acquire the mastery to monitor what you are learning and use what you have
discovered from that monitoring.

Do You Know the Classification of Assessment Methods?

Read this:
a. Traditional Method – generally, it refers to the written test or the paper-and-pencil test. This
type of test usually relies on rote memorization of facts.

Selected Response

Multiple Alternate Matching

Choice Response Type

Constructed Response

Short Answer Completion

Essay-Restricted
Or non-restricted Problem
Solving

Figure 1 - Basic Examples of Paper-and Pencil Test

b. Authentic Method – involves the demonstration of your actual performance of what you have
learned from the class. It is mostly preferred by many in evaluating the students’ achievement.

Product Performance

Output Performance tasks

Visual like
scrapbook, Role Play
portfolio Public speaking
collage Dance
Presentation

Figure 3. Examples of Authentic Tools

Illustration taken from FS 5, Corpus. Brenda (2015)

REFLECT ON THIS: Why is there a need for assessment? What are its purposes?

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 Purposes of Assessment
You can gain a better understanding of assessment by studying its purposes. Let us read and learn.
We need to conduct an assessment to the learners so we, the teachers, can:

inspire and motivate you to focus on your study
provide feedbacks to improve your learning
diagnose your strengths and weaknesses
help you develop your skills of self-assessment
provide a profile of what you have learned
determine if you are capable of receiving a passing
or failing mark.
predict success in your future employment
provide feedbacks for your lecturer/s
help improve our methods of teaching
make the course appear creditworthy to
other institutions and employees.
help you select future courses
help you acquire license to practice profession

I am sure that you are already acquainted with the preceding words, but still confused about their
meanings and their relationships with assessment. Go on with your reading and find out the meaning and
the differences of the following terms:

2. TESTING

It is an organized method of obtaining information from your progress in terms of knowledge,

skills, behavior, and aptitude by exposing you to a particular set of questions to obtain a score. It is used to
interpret whether you have or have not achieved the learning targets and competencies set by your
teacher.
TEST is one of the many types of assessment and the
most commonly used method of making measurements
in Education. FYI

Tests may be categorized into:

Standardized Testing – The same test is uniformly administered to all students which means the
questions, the allotted time, and the mode of scoring are all the same.
What are the Examples of Standardized Test
a. College Admission Test

b. Aptitude Test
c. International Comparison Test

d. Psychological Test
High Stakes Testing – a man-made test which utilized the test results for
important judgment or decision concerning the following matters:

a. Students getting promoted to the next grade level

b. Students receiving a high school diploma
c. Accreditation of schools
d. Financial incentives for schools based on students' test performance on high-stakes test.
e. Principal and teachers being reassigned to other school as promotion
f. Hiring employees/teachers in an organization

As a student, there are several types of test that are given to you for
specific purposes. Read the following topics to know more.

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Common Types of Test

a. Diagnostic Test – It is used to determine your individual difficulties by knowing your strengths
and weaknesses prior to instruction so proper intervention can be done by your teacher.
b. Placement Test – It is a test intended to assess your particular knowledge or capability in different
subjects so as to assign you to fitting courses or classes.
c. Proficiency Test – It is designed to gauge your insight and capacity in a language.

d. Achievement Test – It is a test given at the end of a course to assess if you are able to achieve the
course objectives.

e. Aptitude Test –– It is intended to evaluate your capacity, of what you can do, and what you
can achieve in your learning to determine how well you perform in the future.

3. WHAT ABOUT MEASUREMENT?

Measurement - is the assignment of a quantitative description of the pupils’/learners’ performance. The

most common example in classroom is when your teacher administers a quiz test or term examinations
and gives a score. On the other hand, when we measure objects, we use some standard instrument to find
out the length, mass, temperature, degree, behavior, and other things that we would like to find out. Such
instruments may be a ruler, scale, thermometer, pressure gauge, etc.

NOTE: Since we are discussing assessment of learning, our discussion is focused on

measurement and evaluation related to the school performance of the learners and instruction

Types of Measurement
Objective (as in testing)

Objective measurements are those that reveal nearly the same results even if it is done
repeatedly. It involves impartial measurement and to determine the objectivity of a
measure, one needs to assess its reliability.

Subjective (as in perceptions)

Subjective measurement - indicates measures concerning the actual experience of an

individual, his feelings or emotions, and opinions that are commonly subject to
disagreement.

Another terminology that you need to know is………

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 4. WHAT IS EVALUATION?

Evaluation – involves judging or deciding about the quality of your school performance for your teacher to
implement a possible course of action. When your assessment information is collected, synthesized, and
thought about, your teacher is in a position to judge the quality of your performance and what classroom
course of action should be done or what action is most appropriate.

Further, Patton (1987) defined evaluation as a process which involves gathering of information and
uses the results to analyze and judge the value and worthiness of something. It critically examines a
program and make judgment to improve its effectiveness for use in planning and programming decisions.

Evaluation includes both qualitative and quantitative description of your class performance plus
value judgment concerning the desirability of the performance. Evaluation may result to acceptance,
dismissal, or amendment of what has been evaluated.
Evaluation = Quantitative description of pupils (Measurement) + Value judgments

You should take note that assessment and evaluation must be continuous and frequent. Teachers
must always be prepared to reassess students, and using the measurement of periodic formative
assessment, they can adjust and improve their instruction to meet your learning needs on a daily and
weekly basis.

NOTE: ADDITIONAL INPUT FOR THIS TOPIC WILL BE UPLOADED IN GOOGLE DRIVE

In order for a teacher to arrive at sound instructional

decisions which would show positive effect or
change in your learning, it is important that he/she
follows high standard in classroom assessment.
What are these? Know and carefully understand the
topics discussed below.

5. PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT

Let us discuss and study the following principles:

a. Clear Purpose – A good assessment should have a clear purpose and goal. A question like “why are
we assessing the students for” “What is it intended for” should come to mind and establish.

b. Clarity of Learning Targets – It involves specifying clear learning objectives which involve
showing what you know and can do and how your performance will be judged.

c. Appropriateness of assessment methods – Choosing the right assessment methods which should
match the identified learning targets will provide quality assessment.

d. Adequate Sampling – Teachers obtain information regarding the success of their instruction by
observing their pupils' classroom performance. It is necessary that a teacher should consider
varied assessment strategies to determine sufficient information if the targeted learnings are
achieved by the students.

e. Objectivity – The objectivity of a test can be determined if the same tests, used by examiners, yield
the same scores. After the key has been prepared, there should be no question as to whether an
item is right or wrong, partly right or partly wrong.
f. Accountability and Fairness – Accountability in assessment requires the use of the information
obtained from assessment as a basis to validate or modify the behavior of the student and educator.
A fair assessment is not biased and non-discriminatory to the performance of students.

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 We are moving up to the next lessons and
the last topics of this unit. This has
something to do with TREND. Read and
know the meaning of that word and get
ready with our succeeding lessons.

When we say trend, it means that there is a movement toward development or change. The
curriculum has undergone several changes. We have been used to the traditional kind of education in
which the teacher is the sole source of knowledge. What you have been doing in the past years of your
school life is to listen attentively to your teacher during the discussion of your lessons. Once you have
completed all the lessons, activities, taken the exams, and pass, your teacher assumed that you have
achieved the desired knowledge and skills that you should possess. Let us take a look at this development
in education to see if the traditional method of instruction still fits in.

6. RECENT TRENDS AND FOCUS IN EDUCATION

Envision yourself as a newly hired teacher to teach a third-grade class. You are in quandary as to
what a third grade needs to learn. How would you plan your lessons and how would you assess them?
How would you give feedback to their parents about their achievements in learning? If you have a
complete guide of the set of learning and competencies, they need to acquire in the whole duration of their
learning experiences, not only in grade 3 but for their entire k-12 experience, then you can adhere to the
standards the education institution prescribed. The standard will guide you to ensure the quality of
education you can provide to your pupils. So to give you more idea about standards and some
developments in education, read our lecture below.
1. Standard Based Education - is a system of teaching and learning that focuses all elements of the
educational experience, including teaching, assessment, grading, and reporting on standards that
span all throughout a student's schooling. But what is a standard? A standard is a succinct, clearly

Another shift of educational focus is from content to learning outcomes. Traditionally, the focus of
instruction was content and subject matter, but it has evolved and changed to what we call “Outcome
Based Education.” But what is Outcome Based Education? Let us proceed.
written description of what a student should know and be able to do after the lessons are taught
Outcome-Based Education (OBE) - is a learner-centered approach to education which emphasizes what
learners can demonstrate of “knowing and doing.” OBE reforms sets well-defined guidelines for observable
and quantifiable outcomes. Outcomes may include parameters of competencies and capabilities, such as
“Student can apply basics of nutrition related to sports” or “Student can explain the basics in playing
basketball sport.”

According to Navarro, R.L., Santos, R.G

& Corpuz, B.B., (2017), to implement
outcome-based education on the
subject or course the following are
recommended:

a. Implementing Outcome Based Description

Education
1. Identify educational objectives of
the subject or course
2. List learning outcomes for each
subject or course
3. Drafting outcomes assessment
Educational Objectives are stated this way: At the end of the
lesson, student can understand the concept and other
terminologies in Assessment of Learning
Learning outcome is stated this way: At the end of the unit,
the student can explain the differences among assessment,
measurement, and evaluation
You need to identify the data necessary in the selection of

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 procedure assessment tools.

Hansen (1989) stated that outcome-based education stresses curriculum alignment and
instructional method which would center on the goal and the result. Outcome-based education to
curriculum aligned puts emphasis on teaching the stated or written curriculum. According to Hansen, the
following are:

b. Principles of outcome-based education

1. Outcomes or objectives are publicly and clearly stated.

2. Teaching is focused on the stated objectives.

3. Frequently monitors student’s learning.

4. Adjustment of the learning process to allow students obtain proficiency of learning the objectives.

5. Assessment is aligned to the objectives and the authentic student learning.

William Spady (1994), on the other hand, also gave the following:
Four OBE Fundamental Principle

c.1 Clarity of focus

c.2 Designing down
c.3 High Expectations
c.4 Expanded Opportunities

Outcome-Based Education in the Philippines in an aftermath of the pervading clamor of education

change worldwide which led to the creation of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, Philippine
Qualification Framework and the CHED Order No. 46.
OBE is an approach to education that aims to produce students that satisfy the demands of highest
standard required in the specific field of work. The standards are incorporated in the program outcomes
which are translated into instructional goals and objectives. These same components should lead to
selecting topics, what topics to include, how to teach, and assess them at the highest standards required by
the actual workplace.
d.Institutional, Program, Course and Learning Outcome – An institution is expecting you to
demonstrate the following outcomes in three or more than three years after graduation:
d.1 institutional outcome;
d.2 program outcome;
d.3 course; and
d.4 learning/instructional/lesson outcomes.

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Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 1

Question Answer

Explain Assessment Of, Assessment

for, Assessment As and give examples.

Discuss the role of assessment in

making instructional decision.

Enumerate:
3 things you have learned
2 things you still want to learn
1 question you have for the topics
discussed in this unit

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Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 2
Directions: Using a concept map, illustrate the relationships of Test, Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation.
Write a short paragraph explaining your answers. Use the space below.

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RUBRIC FOR ACTIVITY 1
Criteria + points Description

The question is directly answered and the response

is meaningful and makes sense. Answers show that
Completeness (4)
the student spent time thinking and preparing the
answers.

The response shows complete understanding of

the concept and is expressed in own words.
Knowledge or ideas (10)
If possible, there is a real-life example to
show connection and understanding of the
concept.

The sentences are complete with few grammatical and

Writing Skills (3)
spelling errors.

Neatness (3)
Answers are written neatly and legibly.

http://qm.riosalado.edu/resources/SyllabusDB/SocialSciences
/ Rubric_Short_Answer.pdf (with slight modification)

RUBRIC FOR ACTIVITY 2

Concept Map

Criteria + points Description

Map identifies the important concepts and

Identification of concepts (5) provides evidence of understanding of knowledge
domain on multiple levels.

All concepts are organized hierarchically

Evidence of hierarchical organization and use
with clarity and with extensive number of
of example (5)
relevant examples and links.

Succinct and accurate description of all

Descriptive connectivity of links (5)
relationships through links.

Map provides evidence of complex critical

Critical Thinking and Communication (5) thinking that allows for exceptional level of
understanding

Adapted from Jennings, D.

(2012) Short URL:
https://carleton.ca/experientialeducation/?p=424

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Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 3
Self Check:
Directions: Check your understanding of our lessons by answering the following questions. Write TRUE if
the statement is correct and FALSE if it is not.
1. Traditional method of assessment usually relies on rote memorization.
2. Assessment of uses metacognition to teach students to be actively
engaged in their own learning.
3. One of the purposes of assessment is to identify students who excel in class
for merit award.
4. The test is subjective if it produces more or less the same outcome if done
repeatedly.
5. High stakes testing is used to make important decisions.
6. When your ability in a language is being tested, you are undergoing a
placement test.
7. A teacher is being fair in giving assessment when he/she focuses on your
cognitive domain.
8. Clear goals should be emphasized in giving assessment.
9. Outcome based education is subject-centered type of learning.
10. Assessment methods should match learning targets.
11. Identifying the vision and mission of the schools is a requirement in
implementing outcome-based education
12. Few samples of assessment tools given to students is sufficient
information for the teachers in making instructional decisions.
13. Learning outcome is the broad goal of the subject or a course.
14. Does a test which reveal the same or nearly the same score used by
examiners is objective?
15. Standard-based education uses exclusive set of standards in its curriculum.

Write the number and a brief explanation for your false answers below.

_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _

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UNIT
II – TARGET SETTINGS
OVERVIEW

As the master of his craft, the teacher is considered to be knowledgeable and expert in
terms of the content and its delivery. As a requirement for successful teaching and learning, the
teacher should carefully plan all his teaching activities and students' tasks.

Referring to all the standards in content delivery and targets set will be the initial step to
ensure the plan's accomplishment. Perfect execution of teaching tasks and students' activities
should be carefully implemented. To ensure the success of its achievement and acquisition, proper
assessment procedures must also be carried out.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. analyze the difference between standards-based and content-based assessment;
2. illustrate clear learning targets;
3. give examples of constructive alignment;
4. compare the assessment of, assessment for and assessment as learning; and
5. apply correct procedures in writing clear learning targets concerning course outcomes.

SETTING UP
A. Direction: What type of learning is associated with each of the following objectives? AF = affective
or PS = psychomotor? Write the LETTER only in the space provided.
Given an oral description of a material, the students will sketch it.
The student will accurately adjust a microscope.
The student will justify the importance of at least one governmental policy.
The student will eventually abide by a set of legal and ethical standards.
The students will create an original game requiring physical movements.
The student will listen while others express their point of view.
The student will respond to the call for volunteers to plant a tree in a public park.
The student will identify a type of fabric by its feel.
The learner will compute the volume of a pyramid, cone, and cube correctly.

B. Direction: Classify each objective as to its dominant level of learning in the cognitive domain.
Write the LETTERS only on the space provided.
K = Knowledge S = Synthesis
An = Analysis AP = Application
C = Comprehension E = Evaluation
The learner will list five major cities in the National Capital Region.
Given local materials, the learner will design a basket.
The student will construct a graph showing the imports of the Philippines for the last
five years.
Given a poem, the learner will identify the figurative language used by the author.
After the discussion on the charter change, the learner will write a one – paragraph
composition on his stand on the issue.
After studying the 1896 Philippines revolution, the student shall be able to explain the
reason for its failure.
The learner will compose a motto on saving mother earth.
The learner will solve four-digit multiplication problems.
The learner will correctly calculate the measurements of a pyramid, cone, and cube.
After reading a brief story, the learner will classify its plot.

16
EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

To know more about our lessons for this

unit, let us begin our discussion. Read
and understand each topic very well to
gain more meaningful and fruitful
learnings.

A. STANDARDS - BASED ASSESSMENT

Any assessment process in the field of Education must be

based on a set of standards. Assessment without standards will
yield uncategorized certification of accomplishments or
competencies to be acquired by the learners. It is vital in every
teaching and learning aspect to identify a set of standards to
anticipate and prepare the flow of proceedings in teaching-
learning situations.

Standards-based assessment must be rooted in the learning

outcomes that have to be given to learners. Learning outcomes are
commonly derived from the policies made by educational learners
cascaded down to the learning institutions. The thrust of today's
learning is all about
Education (OBE). (Source: creativecommon.com) Outcomes-Based

One of which is the Most Essential Learning

Competencies or MELC from the Department of Education
(DepEd). According to DepEd, “MELC is defined as what the
students need, considered indispensable, in the teaching-
learning process to build skills, to equip learners for
subsequent grade levels and, subsequently, lifelong learning.
Moreover, they added, "The MELCs will enable the Department
to focus instruction on the most essential and indispensable
competencies that our learners must acquire, as we anticipate
challenges in learning delivery." (Source: creativecommon.com)

For higher learning institutions, the assessment standardization basis is aligned in the
policies in operation and establishments of courses. HEI Curriculum consists of standards,
policies, and procedures regarding the setup of curriculum offerings up to evaluation, leading to
the standardization of assessments.

Standards-based assessment requires technicalities in its development. The teacher or the

facilitators of learning a particular subject, facilitating one specific subject matter, must be
equipped with basic and advanced knowledge regarding the clustering of competencies. The
grouping of skills also requires setting up of clear learning targets. Both teachers and learners
must appropriately identify clear learning targets. Clearer learning targets will supplement the
setting up of the standards-based assessment.

 Clarity of Learning Targets

Standard learning targets are targets given by education authorities to maintain the consistency of
expected performances manifested by the learners. According to Bonnie Houck, Ed. D.
(https://www.houcked.com/blog/learning-targets/), “a learning target is a statement of planned learning
for students based on the standards. A learning target stipulates and unpacks the outcomes and stipulates
what students can do during and after the lesson or lesson series. Learning targets are in student-friendly

17
language and are specific to the lesson for the day, and directly
linked to assessment. A learning target also contains
performance criteria or a demonstration of learning.”

Clear learning targets based on standard learning

targets enable the teacher to see the students' future
accomplishments. Figure at the right states the
fundamental difference between standard target and
learning target, as explained.

What is expected of them gives the teacher

possible options and interventions appropriate in the
attainment of these targets. Maximum achievement can Source:
also be possible if the teacher is knowledgeable of these https://www.slideshare.net/MarciShepard/purpose
- teaching-with-effective-learning-targets-and-
targets. It is on how he or she classifies the targets as success-criteria
higher-ordered or lower – ordered targets.

 Constructive Alignment

In assessment in learning, whether task output is process-based or product-oriented–

based, constructive alignment is the most important thing to consider by the teacher in executing
the whole teaching and learning process. The parallelism of activities is a requirement to
preserve the alignment of learning outcomes. Teachers should consider all of the effecting factors
to the attainment of student learning outcomes like the selection of strategies, activities and
assessment techniques. In short, start with the outcomes you intend students to learn, a variety of
activities and materials, and align teaching and assessment to those outcomes.

"Constructive alignment is an example of outcomes-based education (OBE)"

(https://www.johnbiggs.com.au/academic/constructive-alignment/).

• Principles in Constructive Alignment

Teachers make alignment between the

planned learning activities and the learning
outcomes and to measure the attainment of
those outcomes. These situations lead to the
concepts of constructive alignment.
Constructive alignment is simply referred also
to as an aligned curriculum. The model shown
below is attributed to Biggs (2003, 1999),
which explains constructive alignment:

Source: http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php?title=File:Aligned-
curriculum-model.gif
Constructivealignment is vital
because itensures intended learning
outcomes for a lesson guaranteed to be
effective, transparent, and purposeful.
Learning activities and assessment activities
are created in alignment with these outcomes
as well. Also, assessment tasks need to be
aligned directly to demonstrate the
achievement of the intended learning
outcomes, and supported by the learning and
teaching activities within the subject.

18
 In figure 3, an illustration depicts the difference between aligned and unaligned intended
learning outcomes.

Source:
http://www.itu.dk/~brabr
and/teaconc.pdf
FIGURE 5: An aligned vs.
aligned course

The diagram in figure 5 simply implies that the teacher's intention is entirely off–tangent to the
outcomes to be assessed in the future. Students will simply rely on the assessment's objective but lose a
hand on the true essence of the learning target. So, the activity resorted to "pass the test only." The
diagram on the right is entirely the opposite of the first one. You can see the intentions of all aspects are the
same. It is carefully aligned with the aims of the teacher, students' activity and exam assessment.

TYPES OF STANDARDS

Teachers of any educational setting should ensure that the learning standards are in place and
adequately identified. To make up a more comprehensive and feasible learning standard, then it should be
composed of the content and performance standards.

CONTENT STANDARDS

Standards for content selection are actions related to educational processes and practices for
instruction and assessment. The effort aims to deliver contents or topics in such a way that topics are
generally the same across all parts of the locality but can be modified into a local context without changing
the curriculum's aim. The selection of contents or lessons is very vital to the attainment of learning
outcomes. Content standards were constructed to increase students' success by recognizing the knowledge,
ideas, and skills that students should get at each grade level. Content standardization leads to assessment
standardization.

The following are the observations from the concepts and discussions regarding content standards:

1. Content standardization is based on the existing policies issued by educational authorities.

2. The Philosophy of the school, vision and mission is also the basis of the selection of the content.
3. Content standardization was also aligned with the approved curriculum of education authorities.
4. Standardization also involves the participation of school stakeholders.

In the Philippines, the observations mentioned above are pretty much evident. Our educational
system is hooked up with the process of following the standards for selecting the content. As to the criteria
in the selection of the content, Alvior (2015) suggested the following:

a) INTEREST. Content should also arouse and realize the importance of it to the learners. The
fundamental significance should be emphasized to sustain interest.
b) SELF-SUFFICIENCY. The term simply means the topics are well adequate to provide the
accomplishments of intended learning outcomes. It can attain the domains of the learning objective,
namely the affective, cognitive, and psychomotor.
c) SIGNIFICANCE. The application of the content to the real-life situation of the learner can be well
utilized.
d) VALIDITY. The lesson assigned is corresponding to the learning outcomes to be attained.
e) UTILITY. Content should also provide the application to a real-life situation. It must provide activities
that will simulate the actual work that learners may end up in the future.

19
f) LEARNABILITY. The topic should also be catering to diverse types of learners. It should be presented
in a manner wherein fast, average, and the slow learner will learn the topic in their pace.
g) FEASIBILITY. Content as much as possible should be accurate or applicable to the context of the
learning situation. It should be applied to the settings wherein the learner will use it most.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

The standards are written to support and promote specific desirable learners' behaviors in a
particular task. In teaching and learning, the basis for standards is the attainment of minimum
competencies required by the course learning outcomes.

Performance standards are the teacher's definitive guide and the learner regarding what has to be
acted and carried out required by the competencies in the target learning outcomes. Teachers should see to
it that any assessment instrument's creation should agree with the targeted standards of the performance.

The course's learning outcomes show the range of objectives for students; the criteria describe the
performance that will be assessed. These must align with, and provide coverage of the learning outcomes.
The standards then discuss the characteristics of performance in terms of each of these criteria at each
rating level.

Characteristics of Good Performance Standards

According to Hicks (2020), all excellent performance standards have many of the following ten
characteristics:
1. Clear performance standards are easy to understand.
2. Clear performance standards are related to the explicit values of the organization.
3. Clear performance standards relate directly to the mission.
4. Tools and technology must support clear performance standards.
5. Clear performance standards are measurable.
6. Precise performance standards measurements must inspire confidence.
7. Clear performance standards are attainable.
8. Clear performance standards are trainable.
9. Performance standards are consistent.
10. Clear performance standards should not be confused with one another.
In summary, the content standard adds to the teaching technique that students should know and
do. It provides the most meaningful and stable learning, topics, principles, skills, and ways of thinking.
Performance standards give the teacher a hint of how well the students have to do their job. It also offers
product or performance as proof of learning or achievement of the standard of content.
Shown in Figure 6 is the relationship between learning competencies, content, and performance
standards:

FIGURE 6: Relationship of Learning Competencies, Performance Standards and Content Standards

20
Assessment Type Selection

As pointed out earlier in the introduction, assessment is vital in certifying the learning
competencies achieved during the teaching and learning process. Teachers should have a strong sense of
choice and conviction in selecting the most appropriate assessment tool for accomplishing learning tasks
and determining the teaching effectiveness. The right decision-making actions will be based on sound
assessment results.
The fundamental question regarding the choice of assessment type is how, to begin with, the selection.
Here are some of the principles in selecting appropriate assessment tool by Hicks (2018):

1. Principle of Constructive Alignment. By starting with what we want our students to learn and do,
we can create and choose assessments to showcase the appropriate knowledge and skills we are
aiming for them to learn. The basis will be the outcomes and strategies of the delivery of the lesson.
2. Varying assessments. Students learn in different modes and at a different pace, in which their
strengths and challenges for assessment differ as well. Diverse assessments can also be done by
allowing their participation in the assessment process. By letting them choose the comfort zone in
the assessment process and considering the way we assess student comprehension, we are more
likely to offer opportunities for every student to demonstrate their knowledge. Then this can be
done by establishing lessons with three or more forms of assessment, such as written tasks, class
projects, and pen and paper exams.

3. Assessment Intervals. Since students tend to go over an assessment which they have to take, the
summative assessment, there must be a series of assessment given to track the progress of their
learning. Also, consider the frequency with which students should be assessed based on the
knowledge that assessment drives learning by focusing on student attention, energy, and
motivation to learn and to develop the knowledge and skills gradually to learn.
4. Choose between direct and indirect assessments. Assessment is said to be straightforward if the
teacher measures actual student behavior. Indirect, including activities involving research, group
dynamics, and similar activities that gather opinions about a lesson or its objectives. If student
assessment is required in a course or its lessons, meaning, it affects performance and course grades,
it is a direct assessment and should be taken into consideration by the teacher.
5. Information Collection on Student performance. The process is close monitoring of the students'
performance on a particular learning task. The information derived through control on the
assessment results will give teachers sound decision making on the adjustments that have to be
carried out relating to instruction and assessment methods to be conducted.

21
Assessment Flow (An Overview)

As an educator, the choice of suitable instruction and assessment technique to reach out to students
learning is a significant ingredient to guaranteed students success. It is deemed necessary that relating
assessment to instruction is a cycle to address the continuous learning development and dissemination.
The illustration in
figure 7 shows the
assessment process.
Clearly state the
plan and Student
Learning
Outcomes

Remedy the

Assessment
Organize results
strategies
of the instruction
employed in
and assess the

Process
attaining the
student learning
learning
outcomes
outcomes
FIGURE 7: The Assessment Process

Analyze results of
the asessment of
student learning
outcomes

Step 1: Write the plan and Student Learning Outcomes

Developing critical learning outcomes for students that reflect what students will do in the
cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains should be achieved by teaching. They depend on the quality
teaching of the course.
Step 2: Establish results of the instruction and assess the student learning outcomes

There are numerous ways of choosing and using assessment tools to determine the learning
outcomes of students. It should also be distinguished that we must categorize the origins of the assessment
results. It can be the product of a lesson in ability or knowledge. More focus should be placed on how the
results of the assessment information are routinely compiled and organized.
Step 3: Analyze products of the assessment of student learning outcomes

Evaluation and reporting of the assessment results are essential on time. The findings can be used
to develop the method of teaching-learning further. The technique will impact the option of teaching
methods, evaluation approaches, speed of learning and acquisition. Policymakers should also use the
assessment findings to suggest measures to enhance service quality delivery of teaching.
Step 4: Remedy the strategies employed in reaching the learning outcomes

Dissemination is necessary when the results of the assessment are on hand. The evaluation findings
would be worthless unless used as a method to develop the teaching – the learning process further. If there
are questions about the assessment outcomes, solutions and changes with current procedures and policies
should be produced by the authorities and stakeholders concerned.

22
TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT

The assessment in Education is considered to be broad. Types of Assessment can be enumerated

according to use or functions in the settings it will serve. The chart describes the framework of assessment
in learning. The picture simply represents the assessment in the classroom activity as a whole.

FIGURE 8: Assessment of Student Learning Framework

The figure simply indicates the processes involved in assessment in student learning. To fully
determine the student learning as a whole, the process of assessing for and knowledge must be carried out.
Several tasks are assigned in each area to serve its purpose to teachers and learners. They are a very crucial
step to undertake to attain the intended learning outcomes.
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING. This activity entails determining teaching and learning feedback.
The assessment information can be used to plan the instruction, select student activities, and diagnose
learning strengths, difficulties, and causes. Information can be written or oral feedback from learners.
Actions were taken to improve teaching and learning. It was determined earlier to anticipate procedures to
be used in teaching.
When preparing the lesson, understanding what kind of students you are designing the lesson is
essential. You aim to examine the strengths, limitations, and experience of your student before you take the
instruction. You can build your instruction based on the data you have collected. Formative assessment is
used during the first attempt to establish teaching.
ASSESSMENT AS LEARNING. This activity entails self-assessment by learners. Assessment as
learning is when teachers will be observing students by answering questions and reflections on their tasks
and learning progress. Teachers provide students with feedback based on student self-monitoring. They
will judge their work, or they will let their peer assess their work. Collaborative assessment is also present
among peers. Students are assessing their work based on predetermined standards.
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING. This will provide information about learning achievement. It will
certify to what extent does the demonstration of accomplishment reach. Students’ performance was graded
and certified, passing or failing. This is where a student's ability to perform tasks was classified according
to the degree of performance.
According to Bhasin (2018), assessment is defined as a proper collection, interpretation and use of
information in regards to learning. He also stated that it gives the teacher a better awareness of peoples'
knowledge and their understanding and what learning experiences are also about their skills and personal
characters and capabilities. He also further expounded that the assessment should be in sync and
supportive of learning. It should be valid; the assessment should be proper and manageable, it should
support the judgment of a teacher, and lastly, it should promote accountability.
Eight (8) Assessment types according to function, according to Bhasin (2018).
1) Summative Assessment
2) Formative Assessment
3) Evaluative assessment
4) Diagnostic Assessment
5) Performance-based assessments
6) Selective response assessment
7) Authentic assessment
8) Written and Oral Assessment

23
 The summative assessment is given at the end of the instruction to certify the degree of
attainment of the learning outcomes.
Formative assessment is given during instruction to trace out the learning difficulties and
progress of the learners. This was utilized by the instructor to remediate all aspects found to be
problematic to learning acquisition.
Diagnostic assessment simply traces out the causes of learning difficulties. It can be given during
or before the instruction.
Selective response assessment a type of assessment wherein learners have to select for the
correct response to questions given by the teacher.
Authentic assessment is an assessment that assesses authentic tasks and activities. Most of the
performances done inside and outside the classroom can be practically assessed using this form
assessment.
Written assessments are performed to determine the quality of the knowledge acquired by
learners from a particular topic.

UNPACKING LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Unpacking is the approach used to analyze student learning outcomes into
components/competencies to identify the essential life-long transferable learning knowledge and skills.
The forms of learning activities, experiences, activities, and assessments fitted these outcomes.
The benefit of unpackaging learning skills is to have a better view of the critical learning outcomes
and to focus on learning from the students. The instructor will be informed on the academic proficiencies
to unpacked at the beginning of the learning course.

4 Parts of an ABCD Objective

Another procedure to consider is ABCD writing objectives. This plays an important part in the
creation of SMARTER objectives. They are as follows:

1. Audience
2. Behavior
3. Condition
4. Degree

The target should not always be written in the ABCD, but it should compose all these foundations.

Audience
The audience describes the student or end-user of the teaching-learning process. Regularly, the
audience is introduced only in the lower level of an objective. For example, the Course refresher
participants, the TLE students, etc.,

Behavior
Behavior describes learner competence. It must be measurable and observable. It should agree with
the application of a real-life situation. The action must deal with the performance of knowledge or skills in
any of the domains of learning: cognitive, psychomotor and affective. For instance, “…can write an essay…’

Condition
Condition pertains to available materials and resources that may or may not be used to complete
and master the behavior. An environmental setup may also be included. For example: “…given a gas stove,
regulator and gas tank…”

Degree
This method states the standard for acceptable performance (period, correctness, proportion,
quality, etc.) For example: “… without error”,” … 9 out of 10 times.”, …within 50 seconds”, etc.

24
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 4

In answering the questions in activity 1, consider the rubrics attached herewith:

Criteria 4 – (very good) 3 – (good) 2 – (needs 1 – (poor) Score
improvement)

The relevance The answer given is relevant The answer given The answer is No attempt to
of the answer to the information provides relevant somewhat relevant answer the
presented and provides information. and holds less question.
additional information. focus.

Elaboration/ The elaboration of the The elaboration of the The elaboration of No elaboration
Discussion answer is based on the answer is based on the the answer is attempt was
information presented and information presented. misleading to the given.
use other support from information
other theories and discussed.
principles.

Consistency Answers given are Answers given are Answers given are No consistency
consistent with facts and consistent with the less consistent. displayed
principles presented with facts and principles among the
examples. presented. answers.

TOTAL

1. State 3 reasons why constructive alignment is an essential matter in addressing the consistency
of assessment in learning?
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_ _
_
_
_
_
_
_ _
_
_
_

25
2. In your opinion, which is to be considered first in setting learning standards, performance,
or content standards? Justify your answer.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

3. Give two classroom situations in each of the scenarios:

• Assessment of learning
• Assessment for learning
• Assessment as learning
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_ _
_
__ _
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

_
_
_
_
_
_

26
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 5
Direction: Select the best answer among the options. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is a diagnostic assessment?

A. Assessment "as" Learning B. Assessment "for" Learning C. Assessment "of" Learning
2. Into which category is the Development of self-assessment and peer-assessment skills fall?
A. Assessment "for" Learning B. Assessment "as" Learning C. Assessment "of" Learning
3. Tests and examinations, portfolios, exhibitions, performances, presentations, and simulations are
examples of "assessment learning."
A. for B. as C. of
4. Assessment Learning includes both teacher and learner in the process of repeated reflection and
recall about progress.
A. for B. as C. of
5. In assessment learning, teachers regulate their plans and involve in remedial teaching.
A. for B. as C. of
6. Assessment learning direct students in setting outcomes and checking their improvement.
A. for B. as C. of
7. Assessment learning is used to make choices about students’ presentation about regional standards
A. for B. as C. of
8. Overall curriculum opportunities are assessed in assessment learning
A. for B. as C. of
9. Assessment learning delivers the chance to reply action to assessment results for students to improve
performance
A. for B. as C. of
10. Quizzes, discussions, learning logs, and explanations are examples of assessment learning
A. Assessment "for" Learning and Assessment "as" Learning
B. Assessment "as" Learning and Assessment "for Learning"
C. Assessment "of" Learning and Assessment "for" Learning
11. Assessment learning utilizes a task or an activity to gauge student progress through a unit of
discussion.
A. for B. as C. of
12. Assessment learning makes use of an activity to permit students the chance to use assessments to
improve their knowledge.
A. for B. as C. of
13. Teachers use assessment learning as an analytical tool to discover what they can about what their
pupils know and can perform and what misperceptions, notions, or differences they might have.
A. for B. as C. of
14. Assessment learning aids students learn to be self-assessors who can sense knowledge, relate it to
previous experience, and use it for original learning.
A. for B. as C. of

27
 B. APPROPRIATE LEARNING TARGETS

Training targets should make it a lot easier for the

teacher to become more disciplined and successful in
instruction concepts and implementation. This method
will encourage teachers to reflect on improving learning
across lessons and units and students. At first, the
technique can seem rigid, but the experience will soon
yield smoothness as with any sort of procedural
expertise.

In some of the difficulties, the instructor or learning

facilitator may encounter creating suitable learning
goals. Learning goals are significant in a way that they
can direct the teaching-learning process in the
curriculum implementation, activity success, and
outcome assessment. While there are plenty of rich
target sources, providing a mechanism is a very difficult
Source: one. The problem is how to relate it to the learners in a
https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/assessment/basics/ali
learning condition background.
gnment.html
FIGURE 9: The relationship of activities, objectives,
and Assessments Considering the challenges raised by selecting
suitable learning goals, teachers should always resort to
the list of skills provided by institutions for more
natural judgment in selecting appropriate learning goals.

Three Types of Learning Targets

A selection from Creating & Using Learning Targets & Performance Scales: How Teachers Make
Better Instructional Decisions, by Carla Moore, Libby H. Garst, and Robert J. Marzano as published in the
website https://www.marzanocenter.com/3-types-of-learning-targets/ states the three types of learning
targets:

1. Learning Goal Targets. Learning target goals are descriptions of the awareness that students will
show an understanding of a concept. These are explicitly taken from educational authorities that
describe what students will learn and be trained to do by completing a degree or course. Specific
expectations should include the details required to establish objectives for regular or weekly learning
that cover the subject emphasis, cognitive level of thought, and explicit language used to define
learning goals.

2. Foundational Targets. Foundational targets consist of knowledge and underlying procedures that
build to the cognitive level of the academic standard. They constitute the prerequisites that students
need to master to achieve the learning goal targets ultimately. There are two types of foundational
objectives:
a) those that identify declarative knowledge and
b) those that identify procedural knowledge.

Foundational Targets for Declarative Knowledge. Those goals define the academic vocabulary
necessary for regular learning. Ask the following questions to identify the critical academic
vocabulary to be targeted: Do students need to know the word or phrase to demonstrate an
understanding of the standard? Having students learned this word or the concept in a prior degree
or class?

Foundational Targets for Procedural Knowledge. Foundational goals may include any specific
skills or procedures that students must implement to accomplish the learning objective. Those are
the processes or abilities that provide the foundation for future goals and must be achieved before
the current learning target can succeed.

3. Cognitively Complex Targets. These targets are formed to help students cover and deepen the
knowledge and skills of the standard. The expectations in these targets are more rigorous than the
learning goal targets in a measure. This learning target category requires deeper logical thinking than
the standard necessitates and expects students to think about the same content in complex ways.
Cognitively complex targets ask students to use the knowledge and skills of the rule to extend their
creative thinking and make applications beyond what is outlined in the standard.

28
COMPETENCIES, OBJECTIVES and OUTCOMES

These three words are very critical to the successful implementation of teaching-learning and
evaluation. The lack of a solid understanding of the terms distinctions in the teacher's aspect will be tough
to establish clear learning goals, and hence ambiguous on what to accomplish in the end.

There has to be some confusion about what determines successful learning performance and how it
is distinguished from learning objectives or abilities. Even in education research, the use of these terms
sometimes appears incoherent.

Finding meanings in the dictionary can sometimes be informative. Conferring to the American
Heritage Dictionary, the learning terms are defined as follows:

Competency: Competence. The state or quality of being competent. Suitably or well qualified, can do.

Objective: Worked toward or striven for, a goal.

Outcome: A natural result, consequence.

The sets of expectations that we needed our learners, who would be able to achieve, are referred to
as learning outcomes. It is their natural and mastered ability to gain all the required training in knowledge
and skills enhancement in the future. Competencies are the collection of technical skills we needed to learn
from our educational authorities based on the chosen field. On the other hand, either the student and the
instructor must concentrate on the aims to achieve the skills. Competencies will be the foundation of goals,
and then objectives will be the tool for executing to produce desired results.

Below is an illustration of an application of the competencies, objectives, and outcomes derived from the
website “http://observatory.tec.mx/edu-bits2/2018/1/8/how-can-student-competencies-be-assessed-in-an-
electronics-course."

Can you also establish your own set and objectives using the format given above?

Usually, the example given can be tested by competency-dependent assessment. Competence-based

evaluation is the selection and assessment of evidence to decide if a person has achieved a degree of
competency. The first and most straightforward way will be to analyze the learners' work.

Typical working conditions make students very relaxed, and they demonstrate their job-related
skills at convenience, even without usual stress that follows assessment. This helps observers to at the
same time, as they can see, get precise and acceptable examples of behavior to be evaluated.

29
Characteristics of Objectives (SMARTER)

Objective setting is the structure for the practical application and achievement of competencies and
results as a fundamental concept of Education. Consideration is deemed essential in alignment and
implementation.

SMART Objectives are defined as established goals and objectives within by parameters that
combine structure and flexibility. The SMART setting of targets provides a demonstrable setup toward a
specific target with dependable objectives and an estimated timetable to attain the goals. SMART is an
acronym for the

 S – Specific
 M – Measurable
 A – Achievable
 R – Relevant
 T- Time-based

S.M.A.R.T.E.R. Objective Setting

Setting goals for curriculum and lesson is a vital instrument that enables the teaching-learning
process to stay on a clear long-term direction by defining concrete objectives for achieving and monitoring
progress towards specific goals. It also helps the learners' learn more and efficiently accomplish their tasks
by providing them with some very satisfying challenges that will facilitate their skills attainment.
The Three Domains of Learning

The identified three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom et al. 1956):

Cognitive : intellectual skills (knowledge)

Affective : development in feelings or expressive areas (attitude or self)
Psychomotor : manual or physical skills (competencies)

A. Cognitive Domain

A classification system of learning

habits can be understood as "the aims of the
learning process." The learner should have
gained novel abilities, expertise, and attitudes
during the teaching and learning period. The
cognitive domain includes the development of
consciousness and intellectual capacity (Bloom,
1956). This involves remembering or
recognizing necessary information,
organizational patterns, and principles that
help in the event of mental skills. There are six
main groups of processes cognitive, beginning
from the easiest to the most complex.

One can think of the groups as degrees of difficulty. That is, the first ones usually have to be learned
before the next can happen.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a student of Bloom and

Krathwohl, reviewed the cognitive domain and made
some deviations. Renaming the six categories from
noun to verb forms rearranging them as shown in the
chart below

The chart shown at the right compares the

original taxonomy with the revised one:

This new taxonomy shows a more active form

of thinking and is perhaps more accurate.

30
 Example of Revised Cognitive Domain by Clark (2012)

The information below is based on explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-
known "Big Dog Little Dog."

Category Examples, keywords (verbs), and Strategies for learning

(activities)
Remembering: Recall or retrieve previously Examples: Recite a poem—quote prices from memory to a
learned information. lecture. Enumerate the safety rules.
Keywords: describes, defines, identifies, knows, labels, lists,
matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces,
selects, states
Strategies: bookmarking, flashcards, rote learning based on
repetition, reading
Understanding: Comprehending the meaning, Examples: Rewrite the principles of test writing. Elaborate in
interpolation, translation, and interpretation of one's own words the steps for performing a complicated task.
teachings and problems. State a problem in Translate an equation into a computer spreadsheet.
one's words. Keywords: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes,
estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example,
infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes,
translates
Strategies: Develop an analogy, participating in cooperative
learning, taking notes, storytelling, Internet search
Applying: utilize a concept in a situation or Examples: Use a pattern to calculate an employee's vacation
unprompted utilization of an abstraction. time. Apply the laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a
Applies what was learned in the school into written test.
original situations in real-life. Keywords: applies, changes, computes, constructs,
demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates,
predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses
Strategies: cooperative learning, generate a procedure, blog,
practice
Analyzing: Splits material or concepts into parts Examples: Troubleshoot a part of equipment by using logical
so that its structure may be understood. deduction. Identify logical misconceptions in reasoning. Get
Differentiates facts and inferences. information from a department and selects the required tasks
for training.
Keywords: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts,
diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates,
distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates,
selects, separates.
Strategies: Fishbowls, debating, questioning what happened,
run a test
Evaluating: Style judgments about the value of Examples: Choice the most effective solution. Hire the most
ideas or materials. qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.
Keywords: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts,
criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates,
evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes,
supports
Technologies: survey, blogging
Creating: Builds a structure or design from Examples: Write company processes reference. Design a
varied elements. Set parts together to form a machine to perform a definite task. Integrates training from
whole, with emphasis on creating a new several bases to solve a problem. Reviews the process to
meaning or structure. improve the outcome.
Keywords: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates,
devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes,
plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises,
rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
Strategies: Create a new model, write an essay, network with
others

31
 B. The Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain includes
coordination, physical movement, and use of motor
skills. Enhancing these skills requires practice and is
measured in speed, precision and distance.
The seven major categories are enumerated
from the most straightforward behavior to the
most complex:
Example of Revised Cognitive Domain by Clark (2012). The information below is based on explanations
of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."
Category
Perception (awareness): The ability to use
sensory feedback to control the action of
the motor. This ranges from sensory
stimulation to translation through cue
selection.
Set: Readiness to performance. It contains
mental, physical, and expressive sets. These
three sets are characters that predetermine
a person's response to different scenarios
(sometimes called mindsets).
Guided Response: The initial stages in
learning a multifaceted skill that includes
imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of
performance is achieved by practicing.
Mechanism (basic proficiency): This is the
transitional stage in learning a complex skill.
Learned responses have become usual, and
the movements can be performed with some
assurance and proficiency.
Complex Overt Response (Expert)
The skilled performance of motor acts
that involve intricate movement
patterns.
Expertise is indicated by a quick,
accurate, and highly coordinated
performance. This category includes
performing without
hesitation.
Adaptation: Skills are well established, and
the individual can adjust movement
patterns to fit unique requirements.
Origination: Creating new patterns of
movement to fit a specific situation or
problem. Learning outcomes emphasize
creativity based on highly developed
skills.
FIGURE 12: The Psychomotor Domain
Example and Key Words (verbs)
Examples: Notices non-verbal communication indications.
Estimate where a stone will land after it is thrown and then
moving to the correct location to catch the stone. Adjusts
the heat of the oven to correct temperature by smell and
taste of food. Corrects the height of the forks on a forklift by
comparing where the forks are about the pallet.
Keywords: selects, labels, notices, distinguishes, decides,
classifies, separates, tells, picks.
Examples: Tells and acts upon a sequence of steps in a
work process. Distinguish one's abilities and boundaries.
Shows yearning to learn a new method (motivation).
Keywords: starts, displays, describes, transfers, proceeds,
answers, displays, positions, volunteers.
Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as
demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model.
Responds hand-signals of the instructor while learning to
operate a forklift.
Keywords: duplicates, hints, tracks, react, replicate,
responds.
Examples: Repair a personal computer. Fix a leaking
faucet. Drive a car.
Keywords: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles,
presents, attaches, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates,
measures, repairs, mixes, organizes, sketches.
Examples: Drive a car into a tight parallel parking spot.
Manipulates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays
competence while playing the piano.
Keywords: assembles, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates,
measures, mends, mixes, organizes, drafts.
Examples: Answers effectively to unexpected
experiences. Changes instruction to meet the needs of the
learners. Do a task with a machine that it is not originally
intended to do
Keywords: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes,
revises, varies.
Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops original and
complete training programming. Generates a new exercise
routine.
Key Words: places, builds, combines, composes, constructs,
produces, designs, initiates, makes, originates.
32
 Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies
The Psychomotor Domain as Conceptualized by Dave (1975). The information below is based on
explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."
Category
Imitation — Seeing and modeling behavior
after someone else. Performance may be of
low quality.
Manipulation — Being able to take specific
actions by recall or following instructions.
Precision — Refining, becoming more
accurate. Acting a skill within a high degree of
exactness
Articulation — Organizing and familiarizing a
series of actions to achieve harmony and
internal uniformity.
Naturalization — Learning a high-level
performance until it becomes natural, without
needing to reflect much about it.
Psychomotor Domain as Conceptualized by Harrow (1972). The information below is based on
explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."
Category
Reflex Movements — Responses that are not
learned, such as an involuntary reaction
Fundamental Movements — Elementary
movements such as walking or grasping.
Perceptual Abilities — response to
provocations such as visual, auditory,
kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.
Physical Abilities (fitness) — Stamina must
be developed for further development, such as
strength and agility.
Skilled movements — Advanced learned
moves as one would find in sports or
acting.
Nondiscursive communication — Use useful
body languages, such as motions and facial
expressions.
Example and Key Words (verbs)
Examples: Copying a work of art and performing a skill
while observing a demonstrator.
Keywords: duplicate, follow, imitate, repeat, replicate,
reproduce, trace
Examples: Being able to complete a skill on one's own
after taking lessons or reading about it. Follows
instructions to create a model.
Keywords: act, build, execute, perform
Examples: Working and reworking something so that it
will be just perfect. Perform a skill or task without
assistance. Demonstrate a job as a beginner.
Keywords: adjust, validate, master, perfectionism
Examples: Joining a series of skills to produce a
presentation that involves music, drama, color, sound,
etc., and combining a set of skills or activities to meet the
roleplay requirement.
Keywords: adapt, constructs, combine, creates, modify,
modifies, articulate
Examples: Steer a vehicle into a tight parallel parking
spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately.
Displays ability while playing the piano. Lebron James is
playing basketball or Tiger Woods hitting a golf ball.
Keywords: create, design, develop, invent, manage,
naturally
Example and Key Words (verbs)
Examples: automatic response
Keywords: reply, respond
Examples: perform a simple task
Keywords: grip an object, throw a golf ball, walk
Examples: trail a moving object, recognize a pattern
Keywords: catch a ball, draw or write
Examples: gain strength, run a marathon
Keywords: agility, endurance, strength
Examples: Using a progressive series of integrated
movements, perform a role in a stage play or play in a set
of sequences in a sports game
Keywords: adapt, constructs, creates, modifies
Examples: Express one's self by using actions and
gestures
Keywords: arrange, compose, interpretation
33
 C. The Affective Domain

In Bloom's taxonomy, the affective domain is one of three

domains. Others are the psychomotor and cognitive
(Bloom et al., 1956).

The affective domain contains how we deal with things

expressively, such as feelings, values, appreciation,
enthusiasm, motivations, and attitudes. The five major
classes are listed from the most straightforward behavior
to the most complex:

FIGURE 10: The Affective Domain

Example of Affective Domain by Clark (2012). The information below is based on explanations of those
theories that appear at Don Clark’s well-known “Big Dog Little Dog."

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Receiving Phenomena: Alertness, willingness
to listen, selected attention
Responds to Phenomena: Active participation
by the learners. Wait and react to a particular
phenomenon. Learning outcomes may
underscore compliance in response, willingness
to meet, or satisfaction in responding
(motivation).
Valuing: Valuing is created on the
internalization of a set of specified values.
Evidences to these values are expressed in the
learner's explicit behavior.
Organization: Organizes morals into priorities
by contrasting different values, resolving
conflicts between them, creating a unique
value system.
Internalizes Values (characterization): Has a
system of value that controls their behavior.
The behavior is the learner's omnipresent,
constant, predictable, and most important
characteristic. Instructional goals are
concerned with general adjustment trends
(personal, social, emotional) for the student.
Examples: Listen to others with esteem. Listen for and
recall the name of newly introduced people
Keywords: acknowledge, asks, attentive, courteous,
dutiful, follows, gives, listens, understands
Examples: Contributes to class discussions. Gives a
demonstration. Distinguish the safety rules and practice
them.
Keywords: responds, supports, aids, conforms, follows,
discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, presents,
illustrates, tells
Examples: Proves trust in the democratic process. Is
prone to differences between individuals and cultures
(diversity in values). Shows problem-solving capability.
Proposes and follows up with a dedication to a program
for social change. Informs the management of issues
one feels about.
Keywords: appreciates, cherish, treasure,
demonstrates, initiates, invites, joins, justifies,
proposes,
respect, shares
Examples: Recognizes the need for the balance
between freedom and ethical conduct.
Explains the role of systematic planning in problem-
solving. Accepts the standards of professional ethics.
Creates a life plan in harmony with your abilities, your
interests, and your beliefs. Prioritize time efficiently to
meet the needs of the organization, the family, and the
self.
keywords: associates, relates, synthesizes
Examples: Shows autonomy while working
independently. Collaborates in group activities (shows
teamwork). Requires an analytical approach when
solving problems—displays day-to-day professional
adherence to ethical practice. In light of new evidence,
review judgments and change behavior. People value
what they are for and not how they look.
Keywords: acts, discriminates, displays, influences,
modifies, performs, qualifies, questions, revises, serves,
solves, verifies

34
Alternative to Bloom: Structure of Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy

Although Bloom's Taxonomy has been very useful in expanding learning from just recalling to more
nuanced cognitive systems, such as assessing and evaluating, new models have arisen. Nevertheless, with
the revised taxonomy, it becomes more useful.

One model which may prove more useful is the taxonomy of the System of Observed Learning Outcome
(SOLO). This model defines degrees of increasing complexity in the comprehension of subjects inside a
learner (Biggs, Collis, 1982). This makes both teachers and students understand the learning process.

The model consists of five levels in the order of understanding, according to Clark (2012):

Pre-structural. The learner does not

understand the lesson and uses a way of going
about it that is too simple — the learner is
uncertain about the lesson or subject.
Uni-structural. The learner 's answer focuses
only on one specific aspect — the learner only
has a basic understanding of the subject matter.
Multi-structural. The learner 's answer focuses
on many important factors but is handled
independently — the learner has several ideas
about the subject but is detached from them.
This standard of assessment is mainly
quantitative.
Relational. The different aspects have been
incorporated into a consistent whole — the Figure 11: Diagram giving an overview of the SOLO
learner has mastered the subject's nature by Taxonomy approach.

bringing all of the pieces together. That level is what an adequate understanding of a topic usually implies.
Extended abstract. The previous integrated whole can be conceptualized to a higher degree of abstraction
and expanded into a new subject or area — the learner can now generate new ideas based on her mastery
of the subject.

When learning continues, that becomes more complicated. SOLO is a way to define learning results in terms
of their complexity, allowing us to assess the students ' work in terms of their content and not how many
bits of that they have gotten right.
At first, we select only one or a few aspects of the function (unistructural), then many aspects because they
are unrelated (multistructural). We learn how to combine them into a whole (relational), and eventually,
we can generalize the whole to applications that have not yet been taught (extended abstract).
The diagram lists verbs characteristic of each of those stages. SOLO can be applied not only in assessment
but in designing the curriculum in terms of the level of learning outcomes intended, which helps implement
the constructive alignment.

35
 Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 6

In answering the questions, consider the rubrics attached herewith:

2 – (needs
Criteria 4 – (very good) 3 – (good) 1 – (poor) Score
improvement)
The answer given is
The answer The answer is No attempt
relevant to the
The relevance given provides somewhat relevant to answer
information presented
of the answer relevant and holds less the
and provides additional
information. focus. question.
information.
The elaboration of the
The elaboration The elaboration of
answer is based on the No
of the answer is the answer is
The uniqueness information presented elaboration
based on the misleading to the
of the answer and use other support attempt was
information information
from other theories and given
presented discussed
principles
Answers given No
Answers given are
are consistent consistency
consistent with facts Answers given are
Consistency with the facts displayed
and principles less consistent
and principles among the
presented with
presented answers.
examples
TOTAL

Writing Objectives for Competencies to Outcomes

A) Construct three learning targets under each type of learning targets.

I. Knowledge of the Content

1. _ _
2. _
3. _
II. Reasoning
1. _
2. _
3. _
III. Skills
1. _
2. _
3. _
IV. Products/Performances
1. _
2. _
3. _
V. Dispositions
1. _
2. _
3. _ _

36
 B) Pick 5 topics/subjects among those similar to your area of expertise. Create at least three learning
goals, and identify the correct method of assessing each learning goal. Write down your responses
in the space below (refer to the rubrics present)

Topic Learning Target Assessment Method

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

37
UNIT
III – DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING ASSESSMENTS
OVERVIEW

Quality assessment takes center stage on the learning process. In fact, it is a vital
component of the instructional process. The evaluation and judgment of a teacher on student
performance are based on information obtained in using assessment instruments whose quality is
of paramount importance. Every teacher should have the necessary skill to develop quality test
items. It is a teacher’s mandate to procure for the learners the optimum evaluation strategy.

Teachers who create effective tests, develop remedial instruction and allow students
several attempts to elicit success can improve their teaching method and facilitate student
learning. When instructional process incorporates effective classroom assessments so as to make
them the central feature in student learning, both students and teachers derive unlimited benefits.

This unit presents topics on how to select the right assessment objectives for written tests,
design tables of specifications, construct various types of traditional test formats, establish the
validity and reliability of tests and examine the quality of individual test item through item
analysis.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. describe the features of a properly accomplished test;
2. match learning outcomes with appropriate assessment method;
3. set appropriate instructional objectives for written tests;
4. construct one-way and two-way Table of Specifications for a written test;
5.construct self – made test items based on the Table of Specifications and the guidelines in writing
test items;
6. determine methods of securing validity and authenticity of tests; and
7. make informed decisions whether to retain, revise, or delete test items

SETTING UP

Let’s find out how much you already know about the topics in this unit.
I. True or False
Directions: Encircle T if the statement is right and F if the statement is.

T F 1. Double negative statements must be provided in constructing alternative

response test.
T F 2. Essay examination is easy to score.
T F 3. The options and distractors must be probable with others in the
construction of multiple choice tests.
T F 4. Dates and terms should be harmonized in constructing matching tests.
T F 5. The items in a matching test is 15 as a maximum.
T F 6. Essay test is advantageous to students with good
penmanship. T F 7. A balanced matching type is preferable.
T F 8. The items of a matching test must appear in one page.
T F 9. It is psychological to give a test before and after a holiday.
T F 1 10. A periodic succession in the response samples should be observed for
facility in scoring.
T F 11. The objective test encourages cheating and guessing.
T F 12. Essay tests train the core of systematizing, asserting and analyzing.
T F 13. Over-mutilated statements should be included in constructing
completion tests.
T F 14. Options of a matching test must be alphabetically placed if the sequence
is according to dates.
T F 15. Statement form is preferable to direct question in simple recall.

38
II. Multiple choice
Directions: Select the best answer from the four options given in every item. WRITE ONLY THE LETTER of
the correct option on the space provided.

1. This test is mostly appropriate when you need to measure the learners’ ability to identify the
relationship between similar items.
a. matching c. analogy
b. multiple choice d. rearrangement
2. Which one DOES NOT belong to the group?
a. matching c. completion
b. multiple choice d. true-false
3. The other name for a completion test
a. simple recall c. true-false
b. same-different d. filling the blank
4. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to the group?
a. multiple choice c. alternative response
b. matching d simple recall
5. A type of test where 3 or more plausible options are provided in each item.
a. alternative response c. multiple choice
b. completion d. analogy
6. When is a test valid?
a. If it yields scores which are consistent.
b. If the students get high scores in the test.
c. If the test results in few or minimal errors.
d. If the test turn in scores which help one to accomplish his purpose.
7. One of the characteristics of a properly completed examination is content validity. What is the initial
act before test construction?
a. Find out if the items are well constructed.
b. Judge the scope or content coverage.
c. Find out if the total of items are sufficient.
d. Examine the objectives set for the test to determine if they are consistent with the subject
matter.
8. We use a Table of Specification or test blue print in .
a. taking test scores c. outlining the test content
b. formulating an exam plan d. listing instructional objectives
9. A student scored 80 in a mental ability test one Monday morning. After15 days, the same was
retested and she got the same score. What characteristic of a good test was manifested?
a. administrability c. reliability
b. scorability d. validity
10. If your Licensure Examination Test (LET) items sufficiently sample the competencies listed in the
syllabi, it can be said that the LET possesses _ validity.
a. concurrent c. content
b. construct d. predictive

39
EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Let’s read these:

Selecting proper assessment techniques is, among others an intimidating endeavor of a beginning
teacher. The method and quality of the assessment instrument are essential since the evaluation and
judgement that you will render on your students are based on data you obtain using these instruments.
These qualities are so important in assessment methods since they are indicative of your students’ extent
of learning. If there is dearth of expected qualities, evaluation and assessment will be perceived as doubtful.
instructional goals and objectives will be ambiguous.
The success of the teaching-learning process veers toward the accountability earmarked from
assessment in a classroom atmosphere. The results are two-pronged: first, how the learners studied well to
hurdle the subject or course, and second, how the teachers conducted effective instruction. Teachers resort
to summative tests to objectively measure student performance, a method acceptable to the academe and
other concerned parties. To be able to create effective tests, you need to read the following information so
that you will be guided in developing classroom-based tests for valid measurement of how well a student
academically fared.

Features of a Properly Accomplished Test:

Teachers usually receive complaints or comments from students regarding assessments, for
example, test coverage. Some tests may not be covered as to content. Students may not have wholly
studied the subject matter. As a result, the assessment tools are complicated and unaligned with action
verbs in the learning outcomes.
In order to ensure high quality assessment, validity should be in tandem with reliability. Doubts are
cast on reliability if inconsistencies result as the tests are being administered over varying time periods,
sample questions or sample groups.
The tandem is highlighted when collating information or evidence about student achievement.
Santos (2007), De Guzman (2015) and Balagtas (2020) expound the main characteristics of a good test.
1. Validity
The word "valid" is derived from the Latin validus, meaning strong. In view of assessment, it is deemed
valid if it measures what it is supposed to. Validity claims as factual to measure. Your assessment is valid if
it measures your learner’s actual knowledge and performance. For instance, a test of reading
comprehension does not require mathematical ability.
Ways to Establish Validity Description
Face Validity Validity that relies on the physical attributes of a test
When the test is presented well, administered well, free of
errors

Content Validity The extent an evaluation procedure adequately represents

content of the assessment domain being tested

Predictive Validity A measure should predict a future criterion

Example is an entrance exam predicting the grades of the
students after the first semester
Construct Validity The components or factors of the test should contain items
that are correlated
Concurrent Validity Two or more measures of the same characteristics are
present for each examinee
Convergent Validity Components or factors of a test are hypothesized to
accomplish a positive correlation
Divergent Validity Components or factors of a test are hypothesized to effect a
negative correlation

Factors which affect the validity of test scores (Ramadan, 2018):

A. Factors in the test:
1. Vague test directions
2. Difficulty of the reading vocabulary and flaw in sentence structure

40
 3. Too easy or too difficult test items
4. Ambiguous statements
5. Inappropriate test items for measuring a particular outcome.
6. Insufficient time provided to take the test
7. The test is so concise
8. Test items are not scaled in the level of difficulty from “easy” to “difficult”

B. Factors in test administration and scoring:

1. Unfair response to students, who individually ask for clarification
2. Cheating during testing
3. Unreliable subjective scoring of essay type answers
4. Insufficient time to finish the examination
5. Learner(s) experience malaise before and/or during the test

C. Factors related to students:

1. Test anxiety of the students
2. Physical and psychological state of the student

2. Reliability - The reliability of an assessment method refers to its consistency. It is also a term
synonymous with dependability or stability. It is the extent to which an assessment tool produces a stable
and consistent result.
Types of Reliability What it is? How do you establish it?

You have a test, and you need to administer it

Test-Retest A measure to determine one time to a group of examinees. Administer it
the stability of test results again at another time to the same group of
examinees.
A measure of equivalence There are two versions of a test. The items need
Parallel Forms or comparative analysis to exactly measure the same skill. Administer one
form at one time and the other form to another
time to the “same” group of participants.
This procedure is used to determine the
Inter-Rater consistency of multiple raters when using rating
scales and rubrics to judge performance samples,
A measure of agreement
essays, portfolios, etc. The reliability here refers
to the similar or consistent ratings provided by
more than one rater when they use an
assessment instrument
A measure of how You correlate the performance on each item with
Internal Consistency consistently each item the overall performance across participants
measures the same
underlying construct

Ways to improve reliability of assessment results

a. Utilize enough number of test items, longer tests are more credible
b. Create tests with the correct level of difficulty
c. Employ impartial raters or observers who can give reasonably the same or almost similar scores on
performance
d. Be sure that there ample time to finish the assessment task
e. Focus on the the careful formulation of test questions
f. Conduct regular item analysis to improve ambiguous or poorly answered questions.

3. Practicality and Efficiency - Practical test is a test that is developed and administered within the
available time and with available resources. In other Moreover, a test should be easy to design, to

41
administer, to mark and to interpret as to results. Efficiency, in this context, refers to the development,
administration and grading of assessment with the least effort and resources.
4. Fairness. The fairness of a test refers to freedom from any biases. Your students must know exactly what
the learning targets are and what method of assessment will be used. They have to be informed how their
progress will be evaluated in order to make strategies and perform optimally.
Other aspects of fairness include:
1. Opportunity to learn further;
2. Pre-requisite knowledge and skills;
3. Avoidance of student stereotyping
4. Avoidance of bias in assessment procedures; and
5. Accommodating special needs and requirements

Other Support Materials Available:

For this lesson, there are other materials that are available from your course professor. These include the
following:
1. A PowerPoint presentation on the topic Characteristics of a Good Test
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gzv8Cm1jC4M

Learning Target and Assessment Method Match

De Guzman, et al., (2015) defined learning target as a description of performance that includes what
learners should know and be able to do. This definition is similar to that of a learning outcome. In other
words, learning targets provide students with a roadmap along which points to their destination and what
to expect upon reaching it.
Learning targets should comply with the standards prescribed by a program or level and should
align with the instructional or learning objectives of a subject or course. Balagtas, et al (2020). Simply put,
teachers must be cognizant of the learning targets of the lesson prior to classroom instruction. Without the
alignment between learning targets and learning activities/assessments, students will spend time on
activities, assignments and assessments that stray from intended goals. If the objective is to “defend" an
idea, but the assessment used is a multiple-choice quiz, students cannot defend the idea with proper skills.
What is taught in the classroom instruction and subsequently assessed should be aligned with the
learning targets of a lesson. When assessment is aligned with instruction, both students and teachers
benefit. There is a better chance for learners to learn more because instruction is focused assessed
appropriately. Teachers are also able to focus, making the best use of their time. Because assessment
involves real learning, they can integrate it into their daily classroom activities.

Types of Learning Targets

Chappuis, Stiggins, Chappuis, & Arter (2012) classify learning targets into five categories:
knowledge, reasoning, skill, product and disposition.
Types of Learning Description Examples
Targets
Knowledge targets Refers to factual information, You can identify and describe the
procedural knowledge and conceptual elements of design in a work of art.
understanding that strengthen each
discipline.
Reasoning targets Specify the thought processes students You can evaluate the quality of your
are to learn to do well within a range work in order to improve it.
of subjects.
Skill targets Use of a variety knowledge and/or You can use an air brush to create
reasoning to perform or demonstrate different effects.
physical skills
Product targets Use of knowledge, reasoning and skills You can create a still life oil painting.
in creating a fixed or tangible product
Disposition Targets Refer to attitudes, motivations, and You question the validity of various
interests that affect students’ positions including your own.
approaches to learning.

42
Appropriate Methods of Assessment
Once learning targets are clearly set, you can easily determine the appropriate assessment method.
McMillan (2007) as cited by De Guzman et al (2015) prepared a scorecard as a guide on how well a
particular assessment method measures each level of learning. The table below shows the relative strength
of each assessment method in measuring different learning targets.
Table 1. Learning Targets and Assessment Methods (McMillan 2007)
Assessment Methods
Learning Targets Selected-response Essay Performance Oral Observation Student Self-
and Brief- Tasks questioning assessment
constructed
response

Knowledge and
Simple 5 4 3 4 3 3
Understanding

Deep Understanding
and Reasoning
2 5 4 4 2 3

Skills 1 3 5 2 5 3

Products 1 1 5 2 4 4

Affects 1 2 4 4 4 5

Note: Higher numbers indicate better matches (e.g. 5 = excellent, 1 =poor)

Other support Materials Available:

For this lesson, the following materials are available from your course professor.
1. A PowerPoint presentation on the topic Learning Target and Assessment Method
2. https://study.com/academy/lesson/matching-assessment-items-to-learning-objectives.html

Preparing a Table of Specifications

A Table of Specifications or (TOS) is a test map that guides the teacher in constructing a test. It is a table
that maps out the test objectives, contents, or topics covered by the test, the levels of cognitive behavior to
be measured; the distribution of test items, number placement and weights of test items and the test
format. It helps ensure that the course’s intended outcomes, assessments and instructions are aligned.
Importance of TOS:
1. Ensures that the instructional objectives and what the test captures match
2. Ensures that the test developer will not overlook details that are considered essential to a good test
3. Makes developing a test easier and more efficient
4. Ensures that the test will sample all important content areas and processes
5. Is useful in planning and organizing
6. Offers an opportunity for teachers and students to clarify achievement expectations

Steps in Developing a Table of Specifications

1. Determine the objectives of the test. There are 3 types of objectives: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor. When planning for assessment, choose only the objectives that can be best captured
by a written test. There are objectives that are not meant for a written test. For example, if you test
the psychomotor domain, it is better to do a performance-based assessment. Those that require
demonstration or creation of something tangible like projects would also be more appropriately
measured by performance-based assessment. For a written test, you can consider cognitive
objectives that could be measured using common formats for testing.
2. Determine the coverage of the test. Only topics or contents that have been discussed in class should
be included in the test.
3. Calculate the weight for each topic. The weight assigned per topic in the test is based on the time
spent to cover each topic during instruction. The percentage of time for a topic in a test is

43
 determined by dividing the time spent for that topic during instruction by the total amount of time
spent for all topics covered in the test.
4. Determine the number of items for the whole test. As a general rule, students are given 30-60
seconds for each item in test formats with choices. For a one- hour class, this means that the test
should not exceed 60 items. However, you need also to give time for test paper distribution and
giving instructions, the number of items should be less, maybe just 50 items.
5. Determine the number of items per topic. To determine the number of items to be included in the
test, the weights per topic are considered.

Simply remember this equation:

Number of items = no. of hrs spent in teaching the topic x total number of items of the test
total amount of time spent for all topics

Formats of TOS
1. One-way TOS. A one-way TOS maps out the content or topic test objectives, number of hours spent,
format number and placement of items. A one-way TOS cannot ensure that all levels of cognitive behaviors
that should have been developed by the course are covered in the test.
Sample 1. One-Way Table of Specifications
Time Spent on Percent of Class Number
Topics Test Placement
Topic (in hours) Time on Topic of Items

Selection and Organization of Content 6 22.2% 18 1-18

Selection and Use of Teaching

3 11.1% 9 19 - 27
Strategies
Different Approaches and Methods 12 44.4% 35 28 - 62
Selection and Use of Instructional
3 11.1% 9 63-71
Materials
Classroom Management 3 11.1% 9 72-80
27 99.9% 80

2. Two-Way TOS. A two-way TOS reflects not only the content, time spent, and the number of items but
also the levels of cognitive behavior targeted per test content. One advantage of this format is that it allows
one to see the levels of cognitive skills and dimensions of knowledge that are emphasized by the test.
Sample 2. Two-Way Table of Specifications
Item Specification
Topic No. of % No. of R U Ap An E C
Hours Items
21st Century Assessment 2 20% 4 1-3 4-5 6-7
Types of Assessment 3 30% 6 8-10 11-13
Nature of Performance-Based 5 50% 10 14-15 16-18 19-20
Assessment
Total 10 100% 20

Other support Materials Available:

For this lesson, the following materials are available from your course professor.
1. PowerPoint presentation on the topic Preparing a TOS
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6KPuAPuUtgk

Assessment Tools Development

The previous lesson has familiarized you with the initial process in developing classroom tests, let
us now discuss the different methods by which such assessment can be gauged. Years of experience in
school have introduced you to various types of formal and informal tests. To enhance your skills in drafting
effective test items for a particular test format, you must be familiar with such common tests formats. Let
us see how much you remember them.

44
Categories and Formats of Traditional Tests
As cited by Balagtas, M. (2015), traditional tests fall into two general classifications:
1. Selected-response type, require learners to choose the correct answer from several choices. Selected-
Response Tests include:
a. Multiple Choice Test - it is the most commonly used format in formal testing and typically consists
of a stem (problem), one correct or best alternative (correct answer), and three or more incorrect
alternatives (distractors)
b. True-False or Alternate Response Test - it generally consists of a statement and deciding if the
statement is true (accurate/correct) or false (inaccurate/incorrect)
c. Matching-Type Test - it consists of two sets of items to be matched with each other based on a
specified attribute.

2. Constructed-response type - it requires learners to supply answers to a given question or problem.

a. Short Answer Test - it consists off open-ended questions or incomplete sentences that require
learners to write the correct answer which may consist of a single word or a short phrase. This
includes the following sub-types:
a.1 Completion - it consists of incomplete statements that require the learners to fill in the
blanks with the correct word or phrase.
a.2 Identification - it consists of statements that summon the learners to identify or recall the
terms/concepts, people, places or events being described.
a.3 Enumeration - It directs the learners to list down all possible answers to the question.
b. Essay Test - it consists of problems/questions that require learners to compose or construct
written responses, usually long ones with several paragraphs.
c. Problem-Solving Test - It consists of problems/questions that require learners to solve problems in
quantitative or qualitative settings using knowledge and skills in mathematical concepts and
procedures, and/or other higher-order cognitive skills.

FIGURE 1. Types of Objective tests

General Guidelines in Choosing Appropriate Test Format

How can you design fair, yet challenging tests that accurately gauge student learning? To guide you
on choosing the appropriate test format, you should ask the following questions:
1. What are the objectives or desired learning outcomes lesson/unit?
2. What level of thinking is to be assessed (i.e., remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing,
evaluating or creating)?
3. Is the test matched or aligned with the course’s desired learning outcomes and the course contents
or learning activities?
4. Are the tests realistic to the students?

45
Test Item
Formulation True-
False Test
True or false items are used to measure learners’ ability to identify whether a statement or
proposition is correct/true or incorrect/false. A learner who knows nothing of the content of the test would
have 50% chance of getting the correct answer by sheer guess work. A modified true-false test can offset
the effect of guessing by requiring learners to explain their answer and to disregard a correct answer if the
explanation is incorrect.
Here are some rules of thumb in constructing true-false items as cited by Balagtas, et al (2020),
Santos, et al (2007) and de Guzman et al (2015):
1. Include items that are completely true or completely false.
Faulty: The presidential system of government, where the president is only the head of state or
government, is adopted by the United States, Chile, Panama and South Korea.
Good: The presidential system, where the president is only the head of state or government, is Chile.
2. Avoid lifting statements from the textbook and other learning materials.
3. Use single idea in each test item.
Faulty: The true-false item, which is favored by learners, is often referred to as an alternative-response
item.
Improved: The true-false item is also called an alternative-response item.
4. Refrain from using negatives, especially double negatives.
Faulty: There is nothing illegal about buying goods through the internet.
Good: It is legal to buy things or goods through the internet.
5. Avoid using absolutes such as “always” and “never.”
Faulty: The news and information posted on the CNN website is always
accurate. Good: The news and information posted on the CNN website is usually
accurate.
6. Avoid the use of unfamiliar words or vocabulary.

Multiple Choice Items

The most versatile type of test since it can take several forms such as completion, questions and
direct form. Writing multiple choice items requires content mastery, writing skills, and time. Only good and
effective items should be included in the test. Poorly-written test-items could be confusing and frustrating
to learners. Each item in a multiple choice test consists of 2 parts: a) the stem, and b) the options. In the set
of options or alternatives, there is a “correct” or “best” option while the others are considered
“distracters”.
The following are the general guidelines in writing good multiple choice items.
1. Do not lift and use statements from the textbooks or other learning materials.
2. Keep the vocabulary simple and understandable based on the level of learners/examinees.
3. A direct question is preferred over an incomplete
sentence. Faulty : Cement is ordinarily produced by _.
Good : How is cement ordinarily produced?
4. Word the stem positively and avoid double negatives, such as NOT and EXCEPT in a stem. If a negative
word is necessary, underline or capitalize the words for emphasis
Faulty: Which of the following is not a measure of variability?
Good: Which of the following is NOT a measure of variability?
5. Write the stem as clearly described question or task.
Faulty: Validity refers to
a. the consistency of test scores
b. the inference made on the basis of the test scores
c. measurement error as determined by standard deviation
d. the stability of test scores
Good: The inference made on the basis of the test scores refers to
a. Reliability
b. Validity
c. Stability
d. Measurement error

46
6. Avoid the use of unnecessary words or phrases which are not relevant to the problem at hand.
Faulty: While ironing his formal polo shirt Darwin burned his hand accidentally on the hot iron. This
was due to a transfer of heat because….
Good: Which of the following ways of heat transfer explains why Darwin’s hand was burned after he
touched a hot iron?
7. Write the distracters to be plausible yet clearly wrong.
Faulty : Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Michigan
b. London
c. New York
d. Berlin
Good : Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Los Angeles
b. Chicago
c. New York
d. Miami
8, Write options that are parallel or similar in form and length to avoid giving clues about the correct
answer.
9. Place options in logical order (e.g. alphabetical, shortest to longest)
10. Place correct response randomly to avoid a discernible pattern of correct answers.
11. Use none of the above carefully and only when there one absolutely correct answer.
12. Avoid all of the above option, especially if it is intended to be the correct answer.

Short Answer Test Items

A short answer test item requires the learner to answer a question or to finish an incomplete
statement by filling in the blank with the correct word or phrase.
The following are some guidelines in writing good fill in the blank or completion test items.
1. Omit just the appropriate word from the sentence
Faulty: Every atom has a central _called a
nucleus. Good: Every atom has a central core called a(n) .
2. Avoid having too many blanks in a statement.
Faulty: The is the answer in .
Better: The product is the answer in __.
3. Be sure that there is only one correct response.
Faulty: A four-sided polygon is called .
Good: A quadrilateral with four equal sided is called .
4. Avoid grammatical clues to the response.
Faulty: A group of islands surrounded by waters is called an _
Good: A group of islands surrounded by waters is called a(n) ___
5. Put the blank at the end of a statement rather than at the beginning.
Faulty: _is support system that helps a learner accomplish
tasks Good: A support system that helps a learner accomplish tasks is called .

Matching Type Items

The matching test item format requires learners to match a word, sentence or phrase in one column
to a corresponding word, sentence or phrase in second. Column. It is most appropriate when you need to
measure the learner’s ability to identify the relationship or association between similar items. However, it
is not suited for gauging the learners’ higher understanding (analysis and synthesis levels). It can only be
used to assess homogeneous knowledge.
The following are some guidelines in writing good and effective matching type tests:
1. Include homogenous premises and responses in a single matching exercise
2. Clearly indicate in the directions the basis for matching where answers should be written, and
if responses or answer choices can be used more than once.

47
3. Keep the list relatively short. The ideal number of items is 5 to 10, and a maximum of 15.
4. Arrange premises and responses with maximum clarity. It is desirable to use longer statements as
premises and numbered at the left of the page. The shorter responses are placed at the right and
each identified with letters.
5. Have more responses or answer choices than premises. This will reduce guessing and using the
process of elimination in choosing the correct answer.
6. Place all the premises and responses on a single page
Faulty:
Directions: Match the following.
Food A. Primary reinforcer
Psychoanalysis B. Sigmund Freud
B.F. Skinner C. Operant conditioning
Standard deviation D. Measure of variability
Schizophrenia E. Hallucinations
Good:
Directions: Match the theories in Column I with their advocates in Column II. Write the letter of the correct
answer.
Column I Column II
1. Psychodynamic Theory A. Albert Bandura
2. Trait Theory B. B.F. Skinner
3. Behaviorism C. Carl Rogers
4. Humanism D. Gordon Allport
5. Social Learning Theory . Karn Horney
F. Sigmund Freud

Essay Test
Essay test is the preferred method of evaluation when teachers want to measure learners’ higher
order thinking skills particularly their ability to reason, interpret, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate.

Types of Essay Items

Extended response type -requires much longer and complex responses
Restricted response type - the learners are free to organize and expound on their ideas.

Santos, et al (2007) and Balagtas et al 92019) present the following rules of thumb in constructing good
essay questions:
1. Clearly define the intended learning outcomes to be assessed by the essay test.
2. Refrain from using essay test for intended learning outcomes that are better assessed by other kind
of assessment.
3. Phrase the direction in such a way that students are guided on the key concepts to be included.
Example: Write an essay on the topic: “Plant Photosynthesis” using the following key words and
phrases: chlorophyll, sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, by-product, stomata.
4. Note that the learners are properly guided in terms of the keywords that the teacher is looking for
in this essay test.
5. Inform the students on the rubrics to be used for grading their essays. This rule allows the learners
to focus on relevant and substantive materials rather than on peripheral and unnecessary facts and
bits of information.
6. Present tasks that are fair, reasonable and realistic to students
7. Be specific in the prompts about the time allotment.

48
Other support Materials Available:
For this lesson, there are other materials that are available to your course professor. These include the
following:
1. PowerPoint presentation on the topic Test Construction
2. Handbook on Test Development - Testing and Evaluation
https://testing.wisc.edu/Handbook%20on%20Test%20Construction.pdf

Item Analysis
After drafting objective test items and administering it, how do you determine if the test items are
properly constructed as to degree of difficulty? How do you set apart students who excel well on the
overall test, and those who do not? An item analysis, as a valuable procedure, can easily provide the
teachers with answers to both questions.
Here are the basic concepts of item analysis:
Item analysis is a technique which evaluates the effectiveness of items in tests. It helps to improve
the test by revising or discarding ineffective items.
An item analysis provides three kinds of important information about the quality of test items.

Item difficulty: A measure of whether an item was too easy or too hard.
Item discrimination: A measure of whether an item discriminated between students who knew the
material well and students who did not.

Effectiveness of alternatives: Determination of whether distractors (incorrect but plausible answers)

appear to be identified by the less able students and not by the more able students.

How to Determine if an Item Is Easy or Difficult

An item is difficult if majority of learners are unable to provide the correct answer. The item is easy
if majority of the learners are able to answer correctly. An item can discriminate if the examinees who
score high in the test can answer more items correctly than examinees who got low scores (Balagtas, et al.,
2015).
Below is a data set of five items on the addition and subtraction of integers. Follow the procedure to
determine the difficulty and discrimination index of each item.
1. Get the scores of each learner and arrange scores from highest to lowest.
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5
Student A 0 0 1 1 1
Student B 1 1 1 0 1
Student C 0 0 0 1 1
Student D 0 0 0 0 1
Student E 0 1 1 1 1
Student F 1 0 1 1 0
Student G 0 0 1 1 0
Student H 0 1 1 0 0
Student I 1 0 1 1 1
Student H 1 0 1 1 0
Obtain the upper and lower 27% of the group. Multiply 0.27 by the total number of students, a value of
2.7. the rounded whole number value is 3.0. Get the top 3 students and the bottom 3 students based on
their total scores. The top 3 students are students 2, 5,9 while the bottom 3 are students 7, 8 and 4. the rest
of the students are not included in the item analysis.
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Total score
Student 2 1 1 1 0 1 4
Student 5 0 1 1 1 1 4
Student 9 1 0 1 1 1 4
Student 1 0 0 1 1 1 3
Student 6 1 0 1 1 0 3
Student 10 1 0 1 1 0 3
Student 3 0 0 0 1 1 2
Student 7 0 0 1 1 0 2
Student 8 0 1 1 0 0 2
Student 4 0 0 0 0 1 1

49
2. Obtain the proportion correct for each item. This is computed for the upper 27% group and the lower
27% group. This is done by summating the correct answer per item and dividing it by the total number of
students.

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Total score

Student 2 1 1 1 0 1 4
Student 5 0 1 1 1 1 4
Student 9 1 0 1 1 1 4
Total 2 2 3 2 3
Proportion of the high group (PH)
0.67 0.67 1.00 0.67 1
Student 7 0 0 1 1 0 2
Student 8 0 1 1 0 0 2
Student 4 0 0 0 0 1 1
Total 0 1 2 1 1
Proportion of the low group (PL)
0.00 0.33 0.67 0.33 9.33

3. The item difficulty is obtained using the

formula: Item difficulty = pH + pL
2
The difficulty is interpreted using the table:
Difficulty Index Remark
0.76 or higher Easy item
0.25 to 0.75 Average item
0.24 or lower Difficult item
Computation
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5
= 0.67 + 0 = 0.67+0.33 = 2.0 + 0.67 = 1.00 + 0.33 = 1.00 + 0.33
2 2 2 2 2
Index of 0.33 0.50 0.83 0.50 0.67
difficulty
Item Difficult Average Easy Average Average
difficulty
4. The index of discrimination is obtained using the
formula: Item discrimination = pH - pL
The value is interpreted using the table:
Index discrimination Remark
0.40 and above Very good item
0.30 - 0.39 Good item
0.20 - 0.29 Reasonably good item
0.10 - 0.19 Marginal item
Below 0.10 Poor item

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5

= 0.67 - 0 = 0.67 - 0.33 = 2.00 - 0.67 = 1.00 - 0.33 = 1.00 - 0.33
Discrimination 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.67
index
Discrimination Very good Good item Good item Good item Very good
item item

Other support Materials Available:

For this lesson, there are other materials that are available to your course professor. These include the
following:
1. PowerPoint presentation on the topic Test Item Analysis
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cHmVECRT-HE
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oI_7HkgZKj8
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c8r_6bT_VQo

50
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 7
(On learning targets and methods of assessment)

For each of the following situations or questions, indicate which assessment method provides the best match.
Then provide a brief explanation why you choose that method of assessment. Choices are selected response,
essay, performance-based, oral question, observation and self report.

1. 1. Sir Marlon wants to check his students if they are able to construct different types of graphic organizers
correctly like the examples just demonstrated in class.

Method:

Why?

1. 2. Mr. Cabual wants to see if his students are comprehending the characteristics of teacher-made tests before
moving to the next set of instructional activities.

Method:

Why?

1.3. Ms. Esguerra wants to find out how many spelling words her students know.

Method:

Why?

51
1.4. Ms. Castro wants to see how well her students can compare and contrast the traditional face to face
learning from flexible learning

Method:

Why?

1.5. Mr. Rufino’s objective is to enhance his students’ self-efficacy and attitude toward school.

Method:

Why? _

1.6. Teacher Mai wants to know if her class can identify the different parts of a computer.

Method:

Why?

52
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 8
(On validity and reliability)

Answer the following questions briefly.

2.1 Should teachers be concerned about relatively technical features of assessment such as validity and
reliability? Why or why not?

2.2 Which of the following statements is correct, and why?

2.2.1 Validity is impossible without strong reliability.

2.2.2 A test can be reliable and without validity.

53
 2.2.3 A valid test is reliable

2.3. Mr. Villanueva asks the other math teachers in his high school to review his midterm to see if the test items
represent his learning targets. Which type of evidence of validity is being used, and why?

54
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 9
(On fairness, practicality and positive consequences)
3.1 Which aspect of fairness is illustrated in each of the following assessment situations?

3.1.1 Learners complained because they were not told what topic to study for the long test

_
_
_
_
_

3.1.2 Learners studied the wrong way for the test ( e.g., they memorized the content).

_
_
_ __
_
_

3.1.3 The instructor was unable to discuss the last chapter that was given on the final exam.

_
_
_ _
_
_

3.1.4 The test was about a story about life in Manila and students who had been to Manila showed
better comprehension scores than students who had not been there.

_
_
_ _
_
_

55
Activity 4 (On Test Construction)

4.1 Give an example to illustrate the following rules of thumb in the construction of a true-false test.
4.1.1 Avoid giving clues in the body of the question.

_
_
_ _
_
_

4.1.2 Avoid using determiners “always”, “never”, and other adverbs which tend to be always true or always
false.

_
_
_
_
_

4.1.3. Avoid long sentences which tend to be true. Keep sentences short.

_ _
_
_ _
_
_

4.1.4 Avoid a systematic pattern for true and false statements.

_
_ _
_ _
_
_

4.1.5 Avoid ambiguous sentences which can be interpreted as true and at the same time false.

_
_
_ _
_
_

56
4.2 Give an example to illustrate the following rules of thumb in the construction of multiple choice
tests:
4.2.1 Phrase the stem to allow for only one correct or best answer.

_
_ _
_ _
_
_

4.2.2 Avoid giving away the answer in the stem.

_
_
_ _
_
_

4.2.3 Choose distracters appropriately.

_ _
_
_ _
_
_

4.2.4 Choose distracters so that they are all equally plausible.

_
_
_ _
_
_

4.2.5. Phrase questions so that they will test higher order thinking skills.

_
_
_ _
_
_

57
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 10
Directions: Construct a 10-item matching type on the topic “Parts of Computer and their Uses”

58
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 11
Directions: Construct a 10-item supply type test on the topic “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.”

59
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 12
(On Item Analysis)

Find the difficulty index in each of the following situation:

1. N = 60, number of wrong answers; upper 25% = 2; lower 25% = 6

2. N = 80, number of wrong answers; upper 25% = 2; lower 25% = 9

3. N = 30, number of wrong answers; upper 25% = 1; lower 25% = 6

60
UNIT IV – DESIGNING ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
OF ASSESSMENT RESULTS

OVERVIEW
Statistics plays a vital role in the complexities of life. It aids in decision making, summarizes or
describes data, helps to forecast or predict future outcomes, aids in making inferences, and helps in
comparisons or establishing relationships. In education, statistics give information about the school's
population change (statistics in enrolment and dropout rate), assist in processing specific evaluations, and
surveys were given to improve the school system and evaluate the achievements, grades, and in
preparations of the test (proficiency level).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. determine the different ways in presenting assessment results;
2. present assessment results using textual, tabular and/or graphical;
3. identify the level of measurements; and
4. utilize the various measures in interpreting assessment results.

SETTING UP
What data was gathered by SWS (at least 5)?

MORE PINOYS FAVOR DIVORCE – SWS

By CATHERINE S. VALENTE, The Manila Times
March 11, 2018
More Filipinos support legalizing divorce in the country, especially those with live-in partners,
according to the latest Social Weather Stations (SWS) survey.
The poll, conducted on December 8 to 16, 2017, showed an average 53 percent of adult Filipinos
nationwide agree with the statement, "Married couples who have already separated and cannot reconcile
anymore should be allowed to divorce so that they can get legally married again." The survey was
conducted using face-to-face interviews of 1,200 adults, aged 18 years old and above, nationwide.
Thirty-two percent disagreed with the statement while 15 percent were undecided resulting in a
net agreement score of +21, classified as "moderately strong." SWS noted that support for legalization of
divorce was "very strong" among women with live-in partners (+44), men with live-in partners (+37) and
widowed or separated men (+33).
Metro Manila support for divorce was strongest at +35 ("very strong"). Support from the rest of
Luzon, the Visayas and Mindanao was "moderately strong" at +23, +14 and +15, respectively.
Catholics support for divorce was strongest at +23, followed by other Christians at +12. Members of
the Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) felt "neutral" about it at -8. SWS said although it interviewed
Muslims, the results were not relevant as divorce is legal under Shari'ah Law.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Statistics is the process of collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting data to create a valid conclusion and rational decisions.

Stages of Statistical Enquiry

a. Collection of Data – the process of data gathering, such as interview, questionnaires, tests,
observations, registrations, and experiments.
b. Presentation of Data – organizing of data through tabular, graphical, or textual presentation.
c. Analysis of Data – the process of extracting from the given data relevant and noteworthy
information using statistical techniques and methods
d. Interpretation of Data – drawing of conclusions or inferences from the analyzed data.

There are two divisions in statistics, which are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

61
Descriptive Statistics is a statistical procedure concerned with describing the characteristics and
properties of a group of persons, places or things that based on confirmable facts. It organizes the
description, presentation and interpretation of data gathered.

Inferential Statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences from the population by obtaining
information from the sample by using techniques of descriptive statistics.

Classification of Variables

Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Qualitative variable – contains categorical or qualitative responses. It refers to the characteristics or
attributes of the sample such as civil status, religious affiliations, gender
Quantitative variable – contains numerical responses representing an amount or quantity such as height,
weight, number of children
a. Discrete – values obtained by counting, e.g., births, students in the class
b. Continuous – values obtained by measurement, e.g., age, height

Dependent – a variable which is affected by another variable, e.g., test scores

Independent – a variable which affects the other variable
e.g., number of hours spent for studying

Levels of Measurements of Variables

Normally, when you hear the term measurement, you may think terms like in measuring length (ie.
the length of a book) or measuring a quantity (ie. a cup of sugar). In statistics, the term measurement deals
with the scales of measurement. Scales of measurement refer to the variables/numbers are being defined
and categorized. Each scale of measurement has properties that determines the suitability for use of a
particular statistical analyses. The data can be categorized into nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

Nominal: data are categorical and the numbers are used as identifiers or a representation. The
numbers on the back of a jersey (COED Blazer 1 = Juan dela Cruz) and the social security number are some
examples of a nominal data. If you conduct a survey and you will include gender as a variable, code the
Female as 1 and Male as 2 or vice versa when you enter your data into the computer. Thus, using numbers
1 and 2 can be used to represent the categories of data.
Ordinal: it denotes an ordered series of associations or rank order. In a contest, an individuals are
competing to achieve first, second, or third place. The first, second, and third place represents ordinal data.
If Rose takes first and Willy takes second, we do not know if the competition was close; we only know that
Rose outperformed Willy. Likert-type scales also represent ordinal data. Basically, these scales do not
represent a measurable quantity. An individual may respond 8 to a question and he actually feel less than
someone who responded 5. Another person may not be in half as much pain if he responded 4 than if he
responded 8. This data may only indicate that an individual responded 6 is in less pain than a person
responded 8 and in more pain than a person responded 4. Therefore, Likert-type scales represent a
ranking.
Interval: it represents a quantity and has equal units in which zero indicates an additional point of
measurement is an interval scale. For Example 10 degree Fahrenheit or -10 degrees Fahrenheit are an
interval data. Each of these scales are a direct measures of a quantity with equality of units. Thus, zero does
not represent the absolute lowest value. Rather, it is the point on a scale with numbers both above and
below it.
Ratio: it is a scale of measurement which is similar to the interval scale that represents quantity
and has equality of units. However, ratio has an absolute zero (no numbers exist below zero). It is
commonly used in physical measures like height and weight. If one is measuring a height of a person in
centimeters, there is quantity, equal units, and that measure cannot go below zero centimeters. A negative
height is not possible.
The table below shows a summary of fundamental differences between the four scales of
measurement

62
DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is gathering information from some person or some other ways to get data. Data collection
is done to keep on record for further use, to make essential decisions about different problems, and to
disseminate information on to others.

Primary Data - the collection of data from the first-hand source. This type of data is mostly pure and
original.

Secondary Data –the collection of data from the second-hand source. Information could be from another
researcher or agency.

DATA-GATHERING TECHNIQUES
Method Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Direct or
Researcher has direct contact to Clarification can do Costly and time-
interview
method the respondents easily consuming
Researcher gives or distributes
Indirect or questionnaire to the respondents Saves time and money;
questionnaire either by personal delivery or by A large number of Problem of retrieval
method mail samples can reach

Information is based on the

Registration compliance with specific laws,
Method policies, rules, regulations, or
standard practices.
The researcher wants to control
Experimental the factors affecting the variable
Method being studied to find out cause
and effect relationships
Utilized to gather data regarding
Observation attitudes, behavior or values and
method cultural pattern of the samples
under investigation
DATA PRESENTATION
Data are limited to what
Most reliable since law
is registered in the
enforces it
documents
Can go beyond plain Lots of threats to internal
description or external validity
Data can be quickly
gathered with the Information may be
available time of the subjected to subjective
researcher since it can judgments
be done anytime.

The collected data can be presented in 3 different ways which include:

1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical

TEXTUAL PRESENTATION

Data presented in a paragraph or in sentences are said to be in textual form. This includes an
enumeration of essential characteristics, emphasizing the most significant features, and highlighting the
most striking attributes of the set of data.

Example:
According to a rapid survey conducted by the government, 77 percent of micro and small firms and
62 percent of medium-sized firms had to close due to the enhanced community quarantines. Those that
remained open suffered a 66.5 percent drop in sales.
The growth forecast for 2020 assumes that the containment measures will gradually ease in the
second half of the year, and economic activities return in some sectors of the economy. Given income losses
and heightened uncertainty, household consumption and private investment are expected to remain weak.
However, economic growth prospects and poverty figures are expected to improve in succeeding
years driven by a rebound in consumption, a stronger push in public investment, supportive fiscal and
monetary policies, and the recovery of global growth. Economic growth is projected to return to above 6
percent in 2021 and 7 percent in 2022. Increased economic activity surrounding national elections will also
boost growth in 2022.
(Philippines: Social Assistance to Poor Households, Support for Small Enterprises Key to Broad-Based
Recovery; http://worldbank.org; June 9, 2020)

63
 TABULAR PRESENTATION

The tabular method makes use of rows and columns. The data are presented in a systematic and
orderly manner, which catches one's attention and may facilitate the comprehension and analysis of the
data presented.

Frequency Distribution Table

The frequency distribution table (FDT) is a statistical table that shows frequency of observations
for each of the defined classes or categories.

Parts of Statistical Table

1. Table Heading – contains table number and title of the table
2. Body – it is the main part of the table that covers the information or figures
3. Stubs or classes –it is the classification or categories describing the data and usually found at the
left most side of the table.
Boxhead – located in the top of the body which includes the stubhead, the master caption and the column
caption.

Types of Frequency Distribution Table

1. Qualitative or Categorical FDT – A frequency distribution table where the data are grouped
according to some qualitative characteristics; data are grouped into non-numerical categories.

Table 2
Frequency Distribution of Gender of the Respondents
Gender Number of Respondents
Male 77
Female 45
Total 122
WEIGHT
2. Quantitative FDT – a frequency distribution table where the data are grouped according to some
numerical or quantitative characteristics.

Table 3 Table 4
Ungrouped Frequency Distribution for Grouped Frequency Distribution for the
the Weights of 50 Students in Prof Ed 6 Weights of 50 Students in Prof Ed 6
Class Class
WEIGHT (in kg) FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
49 2 (in kg)
50 3 48 – 49 2
51 5 50 – 51 8
52 7 52 – 53 17
53 7 54 – 55 0
54 0 56 – 57 0
55 0 58 – 59 12
56 0 60 – 61 7
57 0 62 – 63 6
58 12 64 – 65 1
59 0 Total 50
60 7
61 0
62 4
63 2
64 1
Total 50

64
Steps in Constructing Grouped FDT
1. Determine the range

Consider the following raw data on the first quiz in Prof Ed 6

37 24 37 41 38 28 35 32 41 31
51 48 33 29 34 46 39 33 32 39
41 49 28 29 45 27 43 49 39 27
43 54 39 49 57 22 38 32 49 50
44 45 33 42 39 40 48 35 43 47

R = 57 – 22 = 35

2. Determine the number of classes (class intervals)

Note: There's no definite rule in determining the number of class intervals for as long as the number can
provide the necessary information needed. However, the ideal number of class intervals is between 5 and
20 depending on the nature of data. What is important is that the class agrees on a standard method to use
for uniformity and consistency.
Remarks: There are other alternatives to determining the number of intervals.
𝑘 = √𝑛
where n is the number of observations and k is the number of intervals.
Example: n = 100, then k = √100 = 10
n = 72, then k = √72 = 8.49 ≈
9 n = 50, then k = √50 = 7.07
≈8

3. Determine the class size (ἱ), also known as class width

i = 𝑅⁄ 𝑘
where R is the range, and k is the number of the interval.
R = 35; n = 8, then ἱ = 35/8 = 4.375 ≈ 5

4. List the limits of each class interval. Preferably, lower limit of the lowest class interval is a multiple of
the class size of the class interval
Example: 20 – 24
20 is the lower limit, and 24 is the upper limit
Table 5
Frequency Distribution Table of the scores
in the First Quiz in Prof Ed 6
Class Intervals Frequency
20 – 24 2
25 – 29 6
30 – 34 8
35 – 39 11
40 – 44 10
45 – 49 9
50 – 54 3
55 - 59 1
N 50

A simple grouped frequency distribution table consists only of class interval and frequency. Table 4 and
5 are simple grouped FDT tables.

A complete grouped frequency distribution table has a class mark or midpoint (x), class boundaries
(c.b), relative frequency (rf), cumulative frequencies, (cf) and relative cumulative frequency.

Class mark – the midpoint of the class interval getting the average of the upper and lower limits
𝑈𝐿 + 𝐿𝐿
𝑥= 2

Example: class mark of class interval 20 –

24
20+24
𝑥= 2 = 22

65
Class boundaries – these are the true limits of class intervals. Each class boundary equals the number
midway between the upper limit and the lower limit of the succeeding class interval.
Example: the class boundaries of 20 – 24 is 19.5 – 24.5
Relative Frequency – also called percentage frequency. It is the proportion of observations falling in a
class and is expressed in percentage. It is obtained by dividing the frequency of each class by N.
𝑅𝐹 = 𝐹 𝑥100%
𝑁

Example: If the frequency of class interval of 20 – 24 is 1 and N = 50,

𝑅𝐹 = 50 𝑥100% = 2%
1
Cumulative Frequency (cf) – accumulated frequency of the classes
a. Less than cf (<cf) – total number of observations whose values do not exceed the upper limit of the
class.
b. Greater than cf (>cf) – total number of observations whose values are not less than the lower limit
of the class.

Relative Cumulative Frequency

a. Less than RCF (<RCF)
b. Greater than RCF (>RCF)
Table 6
Complete Grouped Frequency Distribution Table of the
scores in the First Quiz in Prof Ed 6
C.I. F x c.b. rf <cf >cf <rcf >rcf
20 – 24 2 22 19.5 – 24.5 4% 2 50 2 100
25 – 29 6 27 24.5 – 29.5 12% 8 48 16 98
30 – 34 8
35 – 39 11
40 – 44 10
45 – 49 9
50 – 54 3
55 - 59 1
N = 50

The contingency table

This is the table which shows the responses of subjects to one variable as a function of another
variable. One type of this kind of table is the row by column where the columns refer to the samples and the
rows refer to the choices or alternatives.

Table 7
The Contingency Table for the opinion of viewers on the New TV Program
Samples
Choices Men Women Children Total
Like the Program 59 67 32 158
Indifferent 21 32 12 65
Do not like the Program 46 12 78 136
Total 126 111 122 359

Table 7 is a 3 x 3 table since it has 3 columns and 3 rows. The samples enumerated in columns are
men, women, and children while the choices or alternatives enumerated in rows are: like the program,
indifferent and do not like the program. Column and row totals are not included in the count.

66
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

The numerical data provided in a frequency distribution table or contingency table can be made
exciting and easier to understand when depicted in GRAPHICAL FORM. A graph is a pictorial
representation of a given data.

Common Types of Graph

1. Scatter Graph – a graph used to present measurements or values

that are thoughts to be related.

2. Line Chart – a graphical presentation of data especially useful for

showing trends over a period of time.

3. Pie Chart – it is a circular graph

that is useful in showing how a total
quantity is distributed among a
grouped of categories. Each pieces of pie represent an amount on the total
portion of the category.

4. Column and Bar Graph – like pie charts, column charts and bar
charts are applicable only to grouped data. It is used for
DISCRETE grouped data of ordinal or nominal scale.

Other Type of Graphs

1. Frequency Histogram – a bar graph that presents the classes on horizontal axis and the
frequencies of the classes where on the vertical axis. The vertical lines of the bars are on the class
boundaries, and the height of the bar corresponds to the class frequency.
2. Frequency Polygon – a line graph that is constructed by plotting the frequencies at the class marks
connecting the plotted points by means of straight lines and encloses the polygon by adding an
additional class at each end, for which the ends of the line are connected to the midpoints of the
additional classes at the horizontal axis.
3. Relative Frequency Histogram – it displays graph in which horizontal axis represetns the classes
and the vertical axis represents the relative frequencies.
4. Ogives – forms a graph of the cumulative frequency (cf) distribution
a. <ogive – the less than cf is plotted against the Upper true class boundary
b. >ogive – the greater than cf is plotted against the Lower true class boundary

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

(Descriptive Statistics)

Any single value that describe the "center" of the given data. It is often known as the average.

Numerical descriptive measures which indicate or locate the center of a distribution of a set of data.

SUMMATION NOTATION

Suppose that a variable X is a variable of interest and that 𝑛 measurements are taken. The notation
X1, X2, …., Xn will be used to represent the 𝑛 observation.
The Greek letter “Σ” indicates the "summation of…" and you can write the sum of the observations
as
𝑛

∑ Xi = X1 + X2 + ⋯ + X𝑛
i=1
The number 1 and n are called the lower and upper limits of summation, respectively.

67
Example: Write out the following in full, that is, without summation signs:
5
1. ) ∑ 𝑥i = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5
i= 1
4
2. ) ∑ 𝑥i𝑦i = 𝑥1𝑦1 + 𝑥2𝑦2 + 𝑥3𝑦3 + 𝑥4𝑦4
i= 1

Rules on Summation
1) The summation notation is distributive over addition.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 i + 𝑦i = ∑ 𝑥i + ∑ 𝑦i
i= 1 i= 1 i= 1
2) If c is a constant, then
𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑐𝑥i = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑥i
i= 1 i= 1 𝑛
3) If c is a constant, ∑ 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐
i= 1
then

A. Expand of the given expression using the rule of summation.

4 4 4
∑ 2𝑥i + 3 = ∑ + ∑ 3 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒 1
2𝑥i
i= 1 i= 1 i= 1

4
= ∑ + 4(3) 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒 3
2𝑥i
i= 1

4
= 2∑ + 4(3) 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒 2
𝑥i
i= 1

= 2(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4) + 12

B. Write the following into summation notation with appropriate limits.

8
1. 𝑥5 + 𝑥6 + 𝑥7 + 𝑥8 = ∑ 𝑥i
i= 5

5
2. (𝑥3 − 2) + (𝑥4 − 2) + 𝑥5 − 2) = ∑ (𝑥i − 2)
i= 3

ARITHMETIC MEAN

The most common average and sometimes referred to as the mean. It is the summation of the
observed values divided by the total number of observations. The Greek letter 𝜇 (mu) denotes the mean for
a finite population with N elements while the sample mean, used to estimate the population means 𝜇, is
∑𝑛
computed as 𝑥̅= i=1 Ki
𝑛
, where n is the number of observations in the sample.

Examples:
1. The numbers of employees at 5 different fastfoods are 11,11,10,15 and 13. Find the mean number of
employees for the stores.

𝑥̅= ∑5
i=1 Ki 11+11+10+15+13
, 60 = 12
5 5 = 5
=

2. Scores in the first long quiz for a sample of 6 students are as follows: 88, 87, 90, 94, 75 and 82.

𝜇= 6
∑i=1 Ki 51
, = 88+87+90+94+75+82 = 6 = 86
10 6
6

WEIGHTED MEAN

68
 The weighted mean is a method of computing the mean which each observation in the data set is
assigned or multiplied by a weight. Weighted mean is the average in which each quantity to be averaged
has a designated weight for each quantity on the total value of the average.

69
Finding the weighted mean of a variable X by multipling each value to its corresponding weight, and then
divide the summation of the products by the total of the weights.
∑𝑛
𝑥̅ = i=1 wiKi
∑𝑛 wi
where w = weights i=1

X = values

Example: Shows how the weighted mean is used to compute a grade.

A student receives equivalent grades in quizzes of 74 and 81. The student's final exam score is 83 and
seatworks are 72, 88, 80, 93, and 94. Each quiz is worth 20% of the final grade, seatworks worth 5% each
of the final grade, and the final exam is 35% of the final grade. What is the student's mean score in class?

Solution:
74(20%)+81(20%)+72(5%)+88(5%)+80(5%)+93(5%)+94(5%)+83(35%)
𝑥̅ = 100% = 81.4
The student’s final grade is 81.4.

Approximating the Mean from a Frequency Distribution

This is possible only when the class mark can be assumed to be representative of all the values in
the class. If the assumption holds, the following equation may be used to approximate the mean from a
frequency distribution.
𝑥̅ = ∑𝑘 f 𝑥
i=1 i i
𝑛
Where fi = the frequency of the ith class
𝑥i = the class mark of the ith class
k = total number of classes
n = total number of observations

Example: Using the data from the previous sample;

Table 6
Scores in the First Quiz in Elementary Statistics
Score Frequency (𝑓i) Class Mark (𝗑i) 𝑓i𝗑i
20 – 24 2 22 44
25 – 29 6 27 162
30 – 34 8 32 256
35 – 39 11 37 407
40 – 44 10 42 420
45 – 49 9 47 423
50 – 54 3 52 156
55 - 59 1 57 57
N = 50 1,925

𝑥̅ =
∑𝑘
i=1 fi𝑥i 1,925 = 38.5
𝑛 = 50

The average score of 50 students in the first quiz in Elementary Statistics is 38.5.

Properties of Mean

- The total deviations of all measurements in a set from the mean is 0.

- Mean can be computed for any set of numerical data.
- There has only one mean in a set of numerical data.
- It lends itself to higher statistical treatment.
- It is the most reliable central measures since it takes into account every item in the set of data.
- It is significantly affected by extreme or deviant values.
- It is used only if the data are interval or ratio and when normally distributed.

70
MEDIAN

Median is the positional middle of an array. In an array, one-half of values precede the median and
other half follow it.

The median is denoted by 𝑀𝑑, and to calculate it, arrange the data in an array.
Let Xi be the ith observation in an array, I = 1,2,…N
If N is odd, the median position is equal to (𝑁+1), and the value of the (𝑁+1)th observation in an array is
2 2
taken as the median, i.e.
If the N is even, the mean of the two middle values in the array is the median,

𝑀𝑑 X𝑛
+ X(𝑛 )+1
⁄2 ⁄2
= 2
Example: Compute for the median of the given data set:

a) 11,11,10,15 and 13
Solution: Arrange the data in order.
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5
10 11 11 13 15

𝑀𝑑 = X5+1= X3 = 11 ; The median is 11.

2

b) 88, 87, 90, 94, 75 and 82.

Solution: Arrange the data in order.
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
75 82 87 88 90 94
Since the data set is even, then use formula
K𝑛⁄ + K(𝑛⁄ )+1 87+88
𝑀𝑑 = 2 2
= = 87.5 ;
2 2

The median is 87.5

Approximating the Median from a Frequency Distribution

This is possible only if it can be assumed that the values of the observations falling in the median
class are equally spaced throughout the class. (The median class contains the median.)

Median class: Starting from the top, locate the class with < 𝐶𝐹 greater than or equal to N/2 for the
first time. 𝑛
( ) − < 𝐶𝐹𝑚𝑑−1
2
𝑀𝑑 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑑 + 𝑐 [ ]
f𝑚𝑑
Where 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑑 = lower class boundary of the median class
c = class size of the median class
n = total number of observations
< 𝐶𝐹𝑚𝑑−1 = less than the cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class
f𝑚𝑑 = frequency of the median class

Score Frequency (𝑓i) <CF

20 – 24 2 2
25 – 29 6 8
30 – 34 8 16
35 – 39 11 27
40 – 44 10 37
45 – 49 9 46
50 – 54 3 49
55 - 59 1 50
N = 50
Solution:
STEP 1: Determine the median class by dividing the total number of observations by 2. (𝑛⁄2)= 50⁄2 = 25

71
Then, look where it belongs on the <CF. Choice the class that is equal or has a higher value than the
computed median.
Score Frequency (𝑓i) <CF
20 – 24 2 2
25 – 29 6 8
30 – 34 8 16
35 – 39 11 27
40 – 44 10 37
45 – 49 9 46
50 – 54 3 49
55 - 59 1 50
N = 50

STEP 2: Identify the variables

𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑑 = 34.5
c =5
n = 50
< 𝐶𝐹𝑚𝑑−1 = 16
f𝑚𝑑 =11

STEP 3: Substitute the values to the formula then evaluate.

50
( )−16
Md = 34.5 + 5[ 2
] = 38.59
11

The median score of 50 students in the first quiz is 38.59.

Properties of Median

- It is the score or class in a distribution below which 50% of the score fall and above which
another 50% lie.
- It is not affected by extreme or deviant values.
- It is appropriate to use when there are extreme or deviant values.
- It is used in an ordinal data.
- It exists in both quantitative and qualitative data.

MODE

- Mode is the most observed value in a set.

- It is commonly located where the observation values occur with the highest frequency.
- It could not always exist, and if it does, it may not be unique.
- When a data set has one mode, it is called unimodal, two modes are called bimodal, three modes
are called trimodal, and so on.
- It is not affected by extreme values.
- It can be applied to both qualitative and quantitative data.
Example: Identify the mode(s) of the following data sets.

Data Set 1
2 5 2 3 5 2 1
Solution
Mo = 2 because it has the most number of occurrence.

Data Set 2
2 5 5 2 2 5 1
3 5 4 2 5 5 2
Solution
Mo = 2,5 because both occurred 5 times.

72
 Data Set 4
Red Blue Blue White Yellow Red
Green Blue Orange White Yellow Black
Mo = Blue because it has the highest number of occurrences in the data set.

Approximating the Mode from a Frequency Distribution

𝑀𝑜 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑜 + 𝑐 [ f𝑚𝑜 − f1
2f𝑚𝑜 − f1
Where ]
− f2
The modal class has the highest frequency
𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑜 = lower class boundary of the modal
class c = class size of the modal class
f𝑚𝑜 = frequency of the modal class
f1 = class frequency of the preceding the modal class
f2 = class frequency of the following the modal class

Example: Same table from the sample above

STEP 1: Find the modal class by identifying the class with the highest frequency.
Score Frequency (𝑓i)
20 – 24 2
25 – 29 6
30 – 34 8
35 – 39 11 Modal class
40 – 44 10
45 – 49 9
50 – 54 3
55 - 59 1
N = 50

STEP 2: Identify the variables

𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑜 = 34.5
c =5
f𝑚𝑜 = 11
f1 =8
f2 =10

STEP 3: Substitute the values to the formula

Mo = 34.5 +5 * 11−8
+ = 38.25
2(11)−8−10

Most students got a score of 38.25

MEASURES OF POSITION
(Descriptive Statistics)

PERCENTILES

Observed values are divided a set of observations in an array into 100 equal parts. Thus, P1, first
percentile, means that the preceding value belongs to the lowest 1%.
P2, second percentile, means that the preceding values belong to the lowest 2%
and so on. To compute for the ith percentile:
𝑡ℎ
Pi = the value of the *
i(𝑛+1)
observation in the array
100
+
Where i = indicated fractile (the position/ observation that is looking for)
𝑛 = number of observations

Example:

The scores of 8 students in a quiz are as follows:

75 88 94 76 82 90 87 94
Find the 39th percentile.

73
Solution:
STEP 1: First arrange the data from lowest to highest.
75 76 82 87 88 90 94 94

STEP 2: Identify the values of the variables and substitute to the formula

𝑡ℎ
P39 39(8+1) observation = 3.51 or the observation
= * 100 + 4th

Therefore, the 39th percentile is 87, which is interpreted as 39% of the scores are below 87.

Approximating the ith Percentile from a Frequency Distribution

i𝑛
− <𝐶𝐹𝑃
𝑃i = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑃i + 𝑐 [100 i−1
]
f𝑃
i
Where
𝑃 𝑡ℎ = the class where the less than CF is equal to, or exceeds for the first time, i𝑛
.
i 100
𝑡ℎ
𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑃i = the lower class boundary of the 𝑃i class
c = class size of the 𝑃i𝑡ℎ class
𝑡ℎ
f𝑃i = frequency of the 𝑃i class
< i−1
= less than cumulative class frequency of the preceding 𝑃i𝑡ℎ class
𝐶𝐹𝑃

Example:
Find the 80th percentile.
Score Frequency (𝑓i)
20 – 24 2
25 – 29 6
30 – 34 8
35 – 39 11
40 – 44 10
45 – 49 9
50 – 54 3
55 - 59 1
N = 50

Solution:

STEP 1: Make a cumulative frequency, then determine the percentile class by calculating the i𝑛
.
100
i𝑛
80(50)
= 100 = 40
100
Look where it belongs in the <CF. Choice the class that is equal or has a higher value than the computed
value.

Score Frequency (𝑓i) <CF

20 – 24 2 2
25 – 29 6 8
30 – 34 8 16
35 – 39 11 27
40 – 44 10 37
45 – 49 9 46
50 – 54 3 49
55 - 59 1 50
N = 50

STEP 2: Identify the variables

𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑃i = 44.5
c =5
f𝑃i =9
< 𝐶𝐹𝑃i−1 = 37

74
STEP 3: Substitute the values to the formula then evaluate.

80(50)
Md = 44.5 + 5[ ( 100 )−37
] = 46.16 ;
9
Eighty percent of the scores in the quiz are below 46.16.

QUARTILES
Quartiles are values that divide the array into 4 equal parts. Thus,
Q1, first quartile, the preceding values belong to the lowest 25% of the set of data.
Q2, second quartile, the preceding values belong to the lowest 50% of the set of data.
Q3, third quartile, the preceding values belong to the lowest 75% of the set of data.

To compute for the ith quartile:

𝑡ℎ
Qi = the value of the *
i(𝑛+1)
+ observation in the array
4

Example:
The scores of 8 students in a quiz are as follows:
75 88 94 76 82 90 87 94
find the 1st quartile or Q1.

Solution:
STEP 1: First arrange the data from lowest to highest.
75 76 82 87 88 90 94 94

STEP 2: Identify the values of the variables and substitute to the formula
𝑡ℎ
1
1(8+1)+ observation = or the 3rd observation
Q = * 4
2.25th

Therefore, the 1st quartile is 82, which is interpreted as 25% of the scores are below 82.

Approximating the ith Quartile from a Frequency Distribution

i𝑛
− <𝐶𝐹Q
𝑄i = 𝐿𝐶𝐵Qi + 𝑐 [ 4 i−1
]
fQ
i
Where
𝑄 𝑡ℎ class = class where the <CF is equal to, or exceeds for the first time, i𝑛.
i 4
𝑡ℎ
𝐿𝐶𝐵Qi = the lower class boundary of the 𝑄i class
c = class size of the 𝑄i𝑡ℎ class
𝑡ℎ
fQi = frequency of the 𝑄i class
< i−1
= less than cumulative frequency of the class preceding the 𝑄i𝑡ℎ class
𝐶𝐹Q
Example:
Using the previous table. Find the 1st quartile.
Solution:
STEP 1: Make a cumulative frequency, then determine the quartile class by calculating the i𝑛.
4
i𝑛 1(50)
= 12.5
4 4 =
Look where it belongs on the <CF. Choice the class that is equal or has a higher value than the computed
value.

Score Frequency (𝑓i) <CF

20 – 24 2 2
25 – 29 6 8
30 – 34 8 16
35 – 39 11 27
40 – 44 10 37
45 – 49 9 46
50 – 54 3 49
55 - 59 1 50

75
 N = 50

STEP 2: Identify the variables then substitute the values to the formula then evaluate.

1(50)
Md = 29.5 + 5[( 4 )−8
] = 32.31
8

Twenty-five percent of the scores in the quiz are below 32.31.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
(Descriptive Statistics)

Measures of dispersion indicates the scatteredness of the observed values from the mean. It is used
to identify the degree of the scatteredness so steps may be done to control the current variation. It is also
used to determine the measure of the reliability of the average value.

These are also the measures of the average distance of each observation from the center of the distribution.
It also indicates the homogeneity or heterogeneity of a particular group.

A small measure of variability would indicate that the data are

1. clustered closely around the mean… or… far away from the mean
2. more homogeneous … or… heterogeneous
3. less variable … or … more variable
4. more consistent … or … less consistent
5. more uniformly distributed … or … less uniformly distributed

MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE DISPERSION

The measures of absolute dispersion are stated in the units of the original observations. It cannot
be used to compare variations of two data sets when the average of these data set differs a lot in value or
when the observations differ in a unit of measurement.

Range
The range of a set of measurement is the difference between the largest and smallest values.
Range (R) = maximum value – minimum value

Example:
The IQ scores of 6 members of the Gonzalvo's family are 112,114,109,120, 119 and 116. Find the range.

Solution: R = 120 – 109 = 11

There is a problem in using range as a measure of dispersion, it makes no distinction between a diverged
distribution of data in which the observed values could be close to either the minimum or maximum values.

15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Observe the graphs above, data are distributed differently, but the range is the same.

The Standard Deviation and the Variance

𝑁
For a finite population of size 𝑁, the population variance is 𝜎2 = ∑i=1(𝑥i− 𝜇)2
and the population standard
∑𝑁 𝑁
deviation is = √ (𝑥i− 𝜇)2
i=1 .
𝑁

76
The population
𝑁 2variance 𝜎2, can
2
𝑁 be estimated
2 by the sample variance, 𝑠2 where
∑ (𝑥i− 𝑥̅) 𝑛𝑁 𝑥i −(∑ 𝑥i)
∑
2
𝑠 = i=1 i=1 i=1
and population standard deviation (𝜎) can be estimated using the
𝑛−1 = 𝑛(𝑛−1)
𝑛 ∑𝑁 𝑥i2−(∑𝑁 𝑥i)2
sample standard deviation (s), where s =√ i=1
.
𝑛(𝑛−1)

i=1

Example:
A sample of 5 students showed the following number of subjects they currenly taking: 3,8,5,4, and 4. Find
the standard deviation.

Solution:
5

∑ 𝑥i2 = 32 + 82 + 52 + 42 + 42 = 130
i=1

(∑ 𝑥i)2 = (3 + 8 + 5 + 4 + 4)2 = (24)2 = 576

i=1

𝑛 ∑𝑁 𝑥i2−(∑𝑁 𝑥i)2 5(130)−576 74

s =√ i=1 i=1
=√ = √ = 1.924
𝑛(𝑛−1) 5(4) 20

Approximating the Variance and Standard Variation from a Frequency Distribution

𝑛
𝑠2 = ∑𝑘
2 ∑ 𝑘 2 𝑘 2
i=1 fi (𝑥i − 𝑥̅ ) i=1 fi 𝑥i −(∑ i=1 fi𝑥i)
= 𝑛(𝑛−1)
𝑛−1

Where
fi = frequency of the ith class
𝑥i = class mark of the ith class
𝑥 = mean of the frequency distribution
n = total number of observations

Scores in the First Quiz in Prof Ed 6

Score Frequency Class Mark f i𝑥 i fi𝑥i2
(fi) (𝑥i)
20 – 24 2 22 44 968
25 – 29 6 27 162 4,374
30 – 34 8 32 256 8,192
35 – 39 11 37 407 15,059
40 – 44 10 42 420 17,640
45 – 49 9 47 423 19,881
50 – 54 3 52 156 8,112
55 - 59 1 57 57 3,249
TOTAL N = 50 1,925 77,475

𝑠2 = 𝑛 𝑘 2
i=1 fi 𝑥i − fi𝑥i)2 50(77,475)− (1,925)2 168,125
∑ 𝑘 = = = 68.6224
(∑ i=1 50(49) 2,450
𝑛(𝑛−1)

𝑘 2 𝑘 2
𝑠 = √𝑛 i=1 fi 𝑥i −(∑i=1 fi𝑥i)
= √68.6224 = 8.28
∑ 𝑛(𝑛−1)

STANDARD SCORE

The standard score is the measures of standard deviations in relation to the mean. It is computed as
𝑥− 𝜇
Z =77
 𝜎

And the sample counterpart is

𝑥− 𝑥
Z= 𝑠

78
 The standard score can be used to compare values from the series of data mainly when the means
and the standard deviations are different.

Examples:

Dante obtained a grade of 70 in English and 93 in PE. The mean grade in English is 65, and the
standard deviation is 4, whereas, in PE, the mean grade is 80 having a standard deviation of 15, in which
subject did Dante perform better?

Solution:
ZPE = 93−80 = 0.87 ; Zenglish = 70−65 = 1.25
15 4

Dante performed better in English.

A normal probability is a distribution that is continuous in which both symmetrical and mesokurtic.
The curve representing the normal probability distribution is often described as being "bell-shaped". This
is sometimes called "Gaussian Distribution" or the "Normal Curve".

Properties of Normal Curve

1. The mean = median = mode.

2. It is symmetrical about the mean.
3. The tails or ends are asymptotic relative to the horizontal axis.
4. The total area under a normal curve is 1.0 or 100%.
5. The normal curve area maybe subdivided into standard deviations, at least 3 to the left and 3 to
the right.

EMPIRICAL RULE (OR 68–95–99.7 RULE)

For data with a normal distribution, the standard deviation has the following characteristics.
1. About 68% of the data are within one standard deviation of the mean.
2. About 95% of the data are within two standard deviations of the mean.
3. About 99.7% of the data are within three standard deviations of the mean.

Example:
The mean salary in Cabanatuan is ₱15,000, with a standard deviation of ₱200. Estimate the percent
employees that have a salary between ₱13,000 and ₱17,000.

Solution:
Assuming that the distribution is in bell-shaped. So, we can use the empirical rule. Given that the mean is
₱15,000, 𝑥̅ − 𝑠 = ₱13,000 is equivalent to one standard deviation which has 34% and 𝑥̅ + 𝑠 = ₱13,000 is

79
equivalent to one standard deviation which also has 34%. Therefore, there are 64% of employees in
Cabanatuan that takes a salary between ₱13,000 and ₱17,000.

Areas under the Normal Curve

One must first learn how to find areas under the normal curve before solving certain types of
statistical problems. The first step in finding areas under the normal curve is to convert the normal curve of
any given variable into a standardized normal curve. The formula to be used is:

𝑥̅ − 𝑥
𝑧= 𝑠
where z = standard score
𝑥̅ = mean
x = given value of the variable
s = standard deviation

Some considerations and reminders when solving statistical problems using the areas under the
normal curve table:
1. The total area under a normal curve is 1 or 100%.
2. Since the normal curve is symmetrical about the mean; then half the normal curve has an area of 0.5
or 50%.
3. The table you will use gives only the area to the right of the mean.
4. The given area in the table is the area from z = 0 to ±𝑧.
5. The area is always positive, but z can be positive or negative.

Example:
(a) Determine the area from z = 0 to z = 1.15
P(z ≤ 1.15)

Solution:
Step 1: Shade the required region.
Step 2: Find the area using the table.

The area on the normal curve from z=0 to z=1.15 is 0.3749.

(b) Find P(−1.0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 1.5)

Solution:
Step 1: Shade the required region.
Step 2: Find the area using the table.

The area on the normal curve from -1 to 1.5 is 0.7745.

(c) Find the z-probabilities of the following given the x-values with mean of 30 and standard deviation of 8.

1. area from 27 to 35

𝑧 = 27−30 = −0.375
358 − 30
𝑧= = 0.625
8

P(27≤ 𝑥 ≤ 35)
= 𝑃(−0.375 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 0.625)
= 0.3802 or 38.02%

2. area greater than 32

𝑧 = 32−30 = 0.25
8

P( x ≥ 32)
= P (z ≥ 0.25)

80
= 0.4013 or 40.13%

81
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 13
Directions: Identify the data set’s level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).
Level of Measurement
1. hair color of women _

2. numbers on jersey shirts _

3. ages of students in a statistics class _

4. temperatures in a refrigerator _

5. number of mg of sugar in cookies _

6. number of pages in a book _

7. marriage status _

8. Social Security System numbers _

9. ratings of a movie _

10. plate numbers _

11. annual salaries for all teachers _

12. list of zip codes _

13. height of students _

14. color of the eyes _

15. student number _

16. professional academic rank _

17. source of income _

18. Tax Identification Number _

19. birth order of children in the family _

20. Length of TV commercials _

82
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 14
Directions: Determine the dependent variable, independent variable, levels and the level of measurement.

1. Students watched "The Notebook" movie either alone or with others and then rated how they found the
movie romantic.
Independent variable: _ _
Dependent variable: _
Level of Measurement of DV:

2. Mary tries to enhance her students' performance by making an experiment of giving monetary incentives
to the students. To test this experiment, she gives the students a math test. Before giving the test, she told
to the half of the students that they would receive ₱1.00 for every correct answer and the other half of the
students was not given a monetary incentive. Every number of correct answers was recorded for each
student.
Independent variable: _ _
Dependent variable: _
Level of Measurement of DV:

3. A company conducted a stress management training program. They determine the number of sick days
taken by their workers who attended the stress management training and not for two subsequent months.
Independent variable: _ _
Dependent variable: _
Level of Measurement of DV:

4. Two groups of students at a University were splitted, and each received a different text for a philosophy
course. One group received a traditional textbook, while the other group received an interactive digital
textbook. At the end of the course, the final grades between the two groups of students were compared.
Independent variable: _ _
Dependent variable: _
Level of Measurement of DV:

5. A teacher wants to determine the best method of learning shapes: using a coloring book for shapes or
singing a rhyming song. Students are scored on a shapes test after using their method for two weeks.
Independent variable: _ _
Dependent variable: _
Level of Measurement of DV:

83
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 15
Directions: Present the given data as indicated.

1. The enrolment data for Education courses, A.Y. 2015 - 2019 are the following:

BSE: 345 (2015), 167 (2016), 233 (2017), 482 (2018), 55 (2019)
BEED: 254 (2015), 136 (2016), 209 (2017), 198 (2018), 201 (2019)
BSIE: 57 (2015), 62 (2016), 45 (2017), 48 (2018), 38 (2019)

Present the data using textual form.

2. A survey was taken at a restaurant that 20 guests preferred the appetizer. Construct bar graph.
Mojo Onion Rings Bread Sticks Bread Sticks Mojo Onion Rings Mojo Mojo
Onion Rings Bread Sticks Onion Rings Mojo Mojo Mojo Onion Rings Bread Sticks Onion Rings
Onion Rings Bread Sticks Mojo

Construct a categorical distribution.

84
3. Given below is the Midterm Grades of students in Prof Ed 6. Construct a grouped frequency distribution
table with the data arranged from lowest to highest. Then make a line graph.

2.25 3.5 1.0 3.5 4.0 1.25 1.25 1.5 1.25

2.5 2.25 1.5 4.0 2.5 2.75 1.5 4.0 3.0
2.75 2.5 2.25 3.5 3.0 2.0 1.0 3.5 3.5
2.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 2.5 1.5 1.5 3.0 3.5
3.0 1.5 1.0 2.75 3.0 1.5 3.5 3.0 3.0
4.0 3.0 1.75 2.0 3.0 2.5 3.0 2.75 4.0
1.75 2.0 1.0 1.25 1.5 2.5 2.25 1.75 1.25
1.25 1.75 3.0 1.0 1.75 1.0 2.25 1.5 1.25

85
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 16
A. Write each of the following without summation signs:
5
1) ∑i= 1 𝑥i
2) ∑3 (𝑥i−1)2
i= 1

3) ∑4i= 2 𝑥i + 2

4) ∑6i= 3 𝑥 3
i

5) ∑5i= 2 𝑥i + i= 2 𝑦i −4
∑3

B. Write the following expressions into summation notation with appropriate limits.

1. (𝑎1 − 𝑏2) + (𝑎2 − 𝑏3) + (𝑎3 − 𝑏4) + (𝑎4 − 𝑏5)

2. (X2 + 𝑌2) + (X3 + 𝑌3) + (X4 + 𝑌4)

3. (X6 + 4) + (X7 + 4) + (X8 + 4) + (X9 + 4) + (X10 + 4)

4. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ….. + n

5. 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + …. + 𝑛2

C. Evaluate the following:

1. Given: X1 = −3 X2 = −2 X3 = −1
X4 = 1 X5 = 2 X6 = 3
𝑎)
i= 1 𝑥i

∑5
𝑏) ∑3 (𝑥i−1)2
i= 1

𝑐) ∑4
i= 2 𝑥i + 3

𝑑) ∑6
i= 3 𝑥
2
i

𝑒) i= 2
i= 2 𝑥i + Xi − 4 _
∑3
∑5

86
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 17

Directions: Find the mean, median, and mode. If any of the measures cannot be is not applicable, explain
why.

1. The number of concert tickets purchased online for the last 7 purchases
4 2 5 8 6 6 4

2. The weight of a sample of 10 female employees in pounds

154 240 171 188 235 203 184 173 181 275

3. The responses of a sample of 1,127 young adults who were asked what surprised them the most after
living on their own
(Adapted from Charles Schwab)
Amount of the first salary: 73
Trying to find a job: 210
Number of decisions: 163 Money needed:
209 Paying bills: 328
Trying to save: 351
Difficulty in breaking away from parents: 85

87
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 18
Directions: Compute the mean, median, and mode of the data set given below.

Frequency Distribution of Scores in Statistics

Scores Frequency (fi)

90 – 100 12
80 – 89 32
70 – 79 23
60 – 69 14
50 – 59 10
40 – 49 2
30 – 39 4
20 – 29 1
10 – 19 1
0–9 1
Total 100

Which measure best interprets the scores in Statistics?

88
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 19
1. A Psychologist obtained the IQ scores of 10 students. The IQ scores are as
follow 100 95 70 85 100 110 95 85 140
132
Find P65 and Q3, Interpret the values.

2. Find the 3rd quartile and the 90th percentile of the average weight of 50 COED students of NEUST.
Interpret the results.
Weight(in lbs) # of students
118-126 3
127-135 7
136-144 11
145-153 14
154-162 7
163-171 5
172-180 3
TOTAL 50

89
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 20
Directions: Find the range, standard variation and variance of the following data sets, then interpret the
absolute dispersion of each data set.

I. Data set A : 16, 15, 7, 5, 14, 10

Data set B : 110,125, 85, 62, 100, 98

II. Weight of 50 Male COED Students of NEUST

Weight(in lbs) # of students
118-126 3
127-135 7
136-144 11
145-153 14
154-162 7
163-171 5
172-180 3
TOTAL 50

90
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 21

A. Assuming that the distribution of in bell-shaped, use the empirical rule to estimate the following:

1. The mean weight of 100 college students is 54kg, with a standard deviation of 3.
a) Between what two values do about 95% of the data lie?

b) Estimate the number of students who has a weight between 48 kg and 57 kg.

c) If 25 additional students were sampled, about how many students has a weight between 51 kg and 57
kg?

B. 1. Determine the z-scores of the following when the mean is equal to 40 and a standard deviation of 6:
a) 30

b) 40

c) 48

2. Missy scored 88 on her History test which had a mean of 90 with a standard deviation of 3. She scored 84
on her English test which had a mean of 80 with a standard deviation of 2. Which test did she score better?

91
3. If a Prof Ed 6 test scores were normally distributed with a mean of 83 with a standard deviation of 5, find
the probability that a randomly selected student scored

a) 75 or less.

b) above a 93.

c) between 77 and 84.

C. Shade the required area, and find the

area. P (z ≥0.25)

P(2.11≤z)

P(0≤z≤-1.6)

P(-0.29≤z≤ 2.36)

92
D. Answer the following problem:
The average grade in the college entrance exam in NEUST is 88 with standard deviation of 13. There are
2,800 examinees for the year 2019. Determine the number of students
a. whose average is 80.

b. whose average is equal to or between 79 and 82.

c. whose average is 85 and above.

93
REFERENCES
Brown, G. (1997). Assessing Student Learning in Higher Education. Routledge: London, New York.
McMillan, James H. (1997). Classroom assessment: Principles and practice for effective instruction.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Airasian, P. (1997). Classroom Assessment 3rd ed. McGraw Hills Companies, Inc.
Navarro, R.L., Santos, R.G & Corpuz, B.B. (2017). Assessment of Learning 1. Lorimar Publishing, Inc: Quezon
City.
Hansen, J. (1989). Outcome-Based Education: A Smarter Way to Assess Student Learning. The Clearing
House, 63(4), 172-174. Retrieved July 9, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/30182065
Hena, L. (2015). Classroom Assessment 1. Great Books Trading: Quezon City.
Clark, D.R. (2004). Concepts of leadership. Retrieved
from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadcon.html
Clark, D.R. (2012). Design Methodologies: instructional, thinking, agile, system, or x
problem? Retrieved from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/design/design_models.html
Harrow, A.J., (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. New York: David McKay Co. retrieved from
http://cehdclass.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/harrowstax.htm
Seels and Glasgow (1990). Exercises in instructional design. Columbus OH: Merrill Publishing Company.
retrieved from http://cehdclass.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/harrowstax.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_observed_learning_outcome
Balagtas, M. et al., (2020). Assessment in Learning 1. Manila. Rex Bookstore
Chappuis, J., Stiggins, R., Chappuis, S., Arter, J. (2012). Classroom Assessment for Student Learning: Doing it
right -- Using it Well. Boston: Pearson.
Clay, Ben. (2001). A Short Guide to Writing Effective Test Questions Kansas Curriculum Center
De Guzman, E., et al., (2015). Assessment of Learning 1. Quezon City. Adriana Publishing Co.
McMillan, J. H. (2014). Classroom Assessment: Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based
Instruction. Boston:Pearson
Notar, C.E., Zuelke, D. C., Wilson, J. D. & Yunker, B. D. (2004). The table of specifications: Insuring
accountability in teacher made tests. Journal of Instructional Psychology.
Almuk kahal, Raja, et al., (2012). Elementary Statistics. CK-12 Foundation.
FlexBook(http://www.ck12.org/saythanks)
Blay, B. (2007). Elementary Statistics. Anvil Publishing, INC. Mandaluyong City
Bluman, Allan G. (2009). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Appoach 7th Edition. Mc Graw-Hill Companies
Inc.
Larson, Ron & Farber, Betsy(2012). Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World Fifth Edition. Prentice Hall.
Person Education, Inc.
Weiss, Neil A.(2012). Introductory Statistics 9th Edition. Addison-Wesley Pearson Education, Inc.
Zamora-Reyes, C. & Ladao-Saren,(2003). National Book Store. Mandaluyong City

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 TABLE OF
CONTENT Page

COURSE BRIEF OUTLINE 2

UNIT I – Preliminary Concepts and Recent Trends

Assessment 5
Testing 7
Measurement 8
Evaluation 9
Principles of High Quality Assessment 9
Recent Trends and Focus in Education 10
Activity 1 12
Activity 2 13
Activity 3 15

UNIT II – Target Settings

A. Standard-Based Assessment 17
Types of Standards 19
Content Standards 19
Performance Standards 20
Characteristics of Good Performance Standards 20
Assessment Type Selection 21
Assessment Flow (An Overview) 22
Types of Educational Assessment 23
Unpacking Learning Competencies 24
4 Parts of an ABCD Objective 24
Activity 4 25
Activity 5 27
B. Appropriate Learning Targets 28
Three Types of Learning Targets 28
COMPETENCIES, OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES 29
Characteristics of Objectives (SMARTER) 30
S.M.A.R.T.E.R. Objective Setting 30
D. Cognitive Domain 30
E. The Psychomotor Domain 32
F. The Affective Domain 34
Activity 6 36

UNIT III – Designing and Developing Assessments

Features of a Properly Accomplished Tests 40
Validity 40
Reliability 41
Practicality and Efficiency 41
Learning Target and Assessment Method Match 42
Types of Learning Targets 42
Appropriate Methods of Assessment 43
Preparing a Table of Specifications 43
Assessment Tools Development 44
Categories and Formats of Traditional Tests 45
General Guidelines in Choosing Appropriate Test Format 45
Item Analysis 49
Activity 7 51
Activity 8 53
Activity 9 55
Activity 10 58

95
 Activity 11 59
Activity 12 60

UNIT IV – Designing Analysis and Interpretation of Assessment Results

Stages of Statistical Enquiry 61
Divisions in Statistics 62
Classification of Variables 62
Levels of Measurements of Variables 62
Data Collection 63
Data-Gathering Techniques 63
Data Presentation 63
Measures of Central Tendency 67
Arithmetic Mean 68
Weighted Mean 68
Median 70
Mode 71
Measures of Position 72
Percentiles 72
Quartiles 74
Measures of Dispersion 75
Measures of Absolute Dispersion 75
The Standard Deviation and the Variance 75
Standard Score 76
Properties of Normal Curve 77
Areas Under the Normal Curve 78
Activity 13 80
Activity 14 81
Activity 15 82
Activity 16 84
Activity 17 85
Activity 18 86
Activity 19 87
Activity 20 88
Activity 21 89

REFERENCES 92

96