A Dilution-based Stability Graph

for Open Stope Design

F T Suorineni1, A Papaioanou2, L Baird3 and D Hines4

ABSTRACT
The Mathews et al (1981) stability graph was developed to provide guidance in the determination
of stope sizes to control dilution in bulk mining of large orebodies. Longhole and sublevel open
stoping (LHOS and SLOS) are the lower end in scale of underground mass mining with panel and
block caving (PBC) at the higher end. Currently, the stability states of stopes in the stability graph
are described qualitatively as stable, unstable or cave. The alternative quantitative option to the
qualitative stability graph is the Equivalent Linear Overbreak Slough (ELOS) stability graph. The
ELOS stability graph only applies to narrow vein orebodies. It is easy for the Mathews et al (1981)
and the ELOS stability graphs to be applied outside the limits of their databases. What is currently
referred to as ‘stable’ in the present stability graphs has diverse interpretations at different mines
depending on their acceptable dilution values. In 2014, a research program was conceptually
conceived at the UNSW Australia School of Mining Engineering to develop a quantitative
dilution-based stability graph independent of orebody width to address some industry concerns
on the use of the stability graphs. A dilution-based stability graph provides the mining engineer
the flexibility to determine open stope sizes based on what dilution amounts are acceptable. The
graph also unifies both the Mathews et al (1981) and ELOS stability graphs for wide and narrow
vein orebodies, thus, eliminating their potential misapplications. To date, the concept is proven
with case studies from metalliferous underground mining operations located across Australia.
This paper presents the dilution-based stability graph concept, the initial results and future plans
to account for other critical factors and increase confidence in its application with the addition of
more data outside Australia.

INTRODUCTION
The history behind open stope mining in North America is
given in Tatman (2001) and summarised here. Between 1970
and the late 1980 there was a rapid decline in underground
mining in North America in favour of open pit mining, as
open pit mining made near surface low-grade ore deposits
economic. In the early 1990s underground mining rejuvenated
in part due to environmental concerns emanating from the
destruction caused by open pit mining and the consequent
community and government pressures. The consequence
of the mining industry shift from underground to open pit
mining was loss of most expertise in underground mining
to open pit mining. Hence, the about turn from open pit to
underground mining in the early 1990s implied employing
miners with little underground mining experience but with
expertise in open pit mining. These employees were used
to large volume mining in open pits and unconscientiously
transferred that experience to underground mining.
The mining of large tonnages with underground mining
methods is now rightly termed bulk mining methods. The
mass mining conference series refer to these bulk mining
methods as mass mining methods.
Open stope mining is a bulk or mass mining method.
Hustrulid (2000) arbitrarily defined large underground mines
as those producing greater than 5000 t/d with the following
mining methods:
• panel/block caving
• sublevel caving
• longhole/sublevel stopping.
Brown (2004) puts large underground producing mines as
those producing about 10 000 t/d or higher.
In the move from open pits to underground mining, practices
that proved effective in open pit mining were transferred
directly to the new underground mines (Tatman, 2001).
Obviously, not all of the practices transferred from open pits
to underground proofed effective in these environments and
there was a need to effectively manage the resulting adverse
effects such as unplanned dilution.
The development of the stability graph coincided with the
period when most mines preferred open pits and marked
the beginning of the transition from open pit mining to
underground mining with the tendency to employ experience
from the open pit mining underground. A critical factor

1. MAusIMM, Professor and Chair of Mine Geotechnical Engineering, UNSW Australia, Kensington NSW 2052. Email: f.suorineni@unsw.edu.au
2. SAusIMM, Student, UNSW Australia, Kensington NSW 2052. Email: alexander.papaioanou@gmail.com
3. SAusIMM, Student, UNSW Australia, Kensington NSW 2052. Email: lewis.baird@student.unsw.edu.au
4. SAusIMM, Student, UNSW Australia, Kensington NSW 2052. Email: domhines92@gmail.com

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governing the effective use of open pit mining expertise original charts for determining these factors can be found in
underground is the management of dilution. Increasing Potvin (1988). Mathews et al (1981) noted that while the small
production capacity with the objective of lowering costs to database was adequate in proving the concept of the stability
increase profits is only true if dilution is properly managed to graph it was not sufficient to calibrate the method including
an acceptable level. factors A, B and C.
Potvin (1988) increased the original database from 26 case
The stability graph histories to 175 case histories from 34 mines and calibrated
The stability graph is the outcome of a study that was the original chart and factors A, B and C. When the Potvin
commissioned by the Department of Energy, Mines and (1988) calibrated factors A, B and C are used in computing the
Resources in Canada in 1980 to determine information stability number N, it becomes N-prime (N’) in Equation 1.
required to predict stable spans for open stopes at mining The calibrated factors A, B and C are determined from
depths below 1000 m (Mathews et al 1981). By adopting this empirical charts in Figure 2 and the corresponding stability
strategy, dilution could be managed. Open stopes are large
graph is referred to as the modified stability graph (Figure 1)
openings produced by a non-entry mining method (Mathews
with different transition zones compared to those in the
et al 1981) called open stope mining. The term ‘non-entry’ in
original stability graph.
description of open stopes is important as it implies some
degree of instability can be allowed. Same cannot be accepted
in entry mining methods such as cut-and-fill mining. A
In open stope mining the stopes must remain open until all
the ore is extracted with acceptable dilution from wall and back
overbreak. Open stope mining continues to get more attractive
as stope sizes can be increased with continued improvements
in drilling, blasting and ground support technologies, given a
suitable orebody size and ground condition.
The stability graph (Figure 1) is an empirical method
developed for designing open stopes. The original stability
graph by Mathews et al (1981) is a plot of a stability number
N (Equation 1) against a shape factor S or hydraulic radius
HR (Equation 3):

N = Q' # A # B # C (1)

Where Q’ (Equation 2) is modified, Barton, Lien and Lunde

(1974) Tunnelling Quality Index (Q) with joint water reduction
factor Jw and stress reduction factor SRF are each set to 1: B

RQD Jr
Ql = # (2)
Jn Ja

Area of stope surface investigated

S or HR = (3)
Its perimeter
Note that in the stability graph, each of the stope surfaces is
assessed separately and independently.
In Equation 1, A is defined as stress factor, B critical joint
orientation factor and C gravity factor. A, B and C were
conceptualised in the development of the stability graph and
proven adequate using 26 case histories from three mines. The

FIG 2 – Empirical charts for the determination of factors (A) stress

FIG 1 – Stability graph (modified from Nickson, 1992). factor A; (B) joint orientation factor B; and (C) gravity factor C.

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In this study, the Potvin (1988) calibrated stability graph
factors is used to calculate the stability number N’ except the
suggested footwall gravity factor, which has been recently
acknowledged by Potvin (2014) to be illogical.
The stability graph method for open stope design is
internationally accepted. The authors greatly acknowledge
the contributions of the following to the advancement of the
method following its initial inception: Potvin (1988), Stewart
and Forsyth (1995), Pakalnis and co-workers (Nickson, 1992;
Milne, 1997; Clark, 1998; Caceres, 2005), Diederichs and Kaiser
(1996), Hadjigeorgiou and co-workers (Hadjigeorgiou, Leclair
and Potvin,1995; Germain, Hadjigeorgiou and Lessard, 1996)
and Trueman and co-workers (Mawdesley, Trueman and
Whiten, 2001; Mawdesley, 2002; Trueman and Mawdesley
2003; Stewart, 2005; Stewart, Trueman and Lyman, 2007) and
Villaescusa (2014). Suorineni (2010) provides a comprehensive
review of developments on the stability graph since its
inception over three decades ago.
Several different versions of the stability graph have emerged
since 1981, aimed at improving its predictive reliability or
providing other uses of the graph. The stability graph versions
aimed at improving its predictive reliability either modify
the locations of the transition zones, as in Potvin (1988),
Nickson (1992), Stewart and Forsyth (1995), and Trueman and
Mawdesley (2003) or the stability graph factors A, B and C as
in Milne, Pakalnis and Lunder (1996), Diederichs and Kaiser
(1999), Suorineni, Kaiser and Tannant (1999a, 199b) and Mitri,
Hughes and Zhang (2011) or both. Other authors (Potvin and
Milne, 1992; Diederichs, Hutchinson and Kaiser, 1999) have
adopted the stability graph for cable bolt design. A complete
catalogue and further details of the various developments are
given in Suorineni (2010) while Suorineni (2011, 2012) provide
critiques of the use of the stability graph.
One of the earlier major complaints from industry on the use
of the stability graph was that the method does not account
for major adverse structures, such as faults and or shear zones
close to stopes under investigation. In such cases such stopes
classified as stable but tended to be unstable or cave when
put into production. In order to account for faults close to
open stopes Suorineni (1998) introduced a fault factor F for
incorporation into the stability number (Equation 4):
N l = Q' # A # B # C # F (4)
The fault factor F was calibrated against case histories from
Kidd Mine (Suorineni et al 2001). In this study, the fault factor
will be applied to the stopes in one Australian mine practising
open stoping in which the stopes are generally influenced by
faults and shear zones. Further details of this case study can
be found in Baird (2015). The quantitative dilution-based
stability graph is applied to the stopes of this mine with and
without the fault factor to further evaluate its impact on
improving the stability graph predictive reliability.
Dilution
One of the primary objectives of the stability graph is to
determine open stope sizes that will minimise dilution.
Unfortunately, this objective is not explicitly conveyed in the
stability graph. The stability graph is qualitatively divided
into stable, unstable and cave zones by two transition zones
as shown in Figure 1. Clark and Pakalnis (1997) developed
an indirect quantitative measure of dilution based on what
is known as the Equivalent Linear Overbreak Slough ELOS
(Equation 5) stability graph (Figure 3). Figure 3 is developed
from a database of narrow vein orebody open stopes in
SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 9–11 MAY 2016
A DILUTION-BASED STABILITY GRAPH FOR OPEN STOPE DESIGN
FIG 3 – Equivalent linear overbreak slough stability
graph (Clark and Pakalnis, 1997).
which dilution is indirectly measured by the average depth
of overbreak:
Volume of wall slough
ELOS = (5)
Wall surface area
Table 1 provides a summary of the various definitions of
dilution from Canadian mine practices. Scoble and Moss (1994)
reported that Equations 5 and 6 in Table 1 are commonly used
in the Canadian hard rock mining operations. Pakalnis, Poulin
and Hadjigeorgiou (1995) suggest that Equation 5 be adopted
as Equation 6 is insensitive to wall sloughage. Other mines
around the world (including Australia) will inadvertently use
one of these definitions for its dilution calculation. Clearly,
the table shows dilution is normally measured as a percentage
of waste in ore or extra muck above the planned tonnage. The
multiple definitions of dilution in Table 1 also shows different
mines can have different definitions of unplanned dilution
which presents a challenge in what dilution really means as
these definitions can give entirely different values for the same
volume of waste overbreak. This poses a question on what
reconciliation achieves. For example, according to Henning and
Mitri (2008) a 2:1 sloughage to ore ratio produces a 66 per cent
dilution according to Equation 6, whereas Equation 5 gives a
dilution of 200 per cent. A similar problem with dilution values
calculated based on ELOS (Equation 9) from two orebodies
with different widths but same ELOS arises.
In this paper, dilution refers to per cent unplanned waste
overbreak to separate it from planned dilution or overbreak in
ore (Figure 4).
THE PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVE
The stability graph was developed for bulk mining of wide
orebodies. The word ‘dilution’ is not mentioned in the graph
can only vaguely be qualitatively deduced. By the qualitative
definitions it can be deduced ‘stable’ implies acceptable
dilution; unstable means manageable dilution and cave
representing unacceptable or unmanageable dilution. In this
context, the word ‘Stable’ which is equivalent to acceptable
dilution is vague as individual mines or even the same mine
will have different acceptable levels of dilution depending
on cut-off grade, what is mined and orebody characteristics.
This fluidity in what is acceptable dilution has the tendency
to cause chaos in the industry in a manner similar to what
led to the introduction of the rock mass classification systems
in geomechanics. One of the objectives for the introduction
of rock mass classification systems is to ensure we have a
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TABLE 1
Various definitions of dilution in Canadian mines (Pakalnis, 1986).

Parameter Equation Equation number

Dilution 1 (%) ]Tons waste minedg (6)
# 100
]Tons ore minedg + ]Tons waste minedg

Dilution 2 (%) ]Tonnage muckedg - ]Tonnage blastedg (7)

]Tonnage blastedg
# 100

Dilution 3 (%) ^Backfill tonnage placedh - ^Theoritically required backfillh (8)

# 100
^Theoritically required backfillh

Dilution 4 (%) ^Hangingwall ELOSh + ]Footwall ELOSg]mg (9)

# 100
^Orebody widthh]mg

Dilution 5 (%) Waste tons mined # 100 (10)

Ore tons mined
Dilution 6 (%) Undiluted in situ grade reserves (11)
# 100
Mill headgrades from same tonnage

Equations 6 and 10 are the most widely used for calculation

of dilution. Equation 10 was recommended as a standard
measure of dilution (Pakalanis et al 1995), as it was more
sensitive to wall sloughage.
To express dilution independent of stope width, Dunne
and Pakalnis (1996) suggested that dilution values be
calculated in terms of average metres of wall slough per
square metre of wall (m/m2). However, the ELOS stability
graph (Figure 3) is based on average depth of failure and the
definition of dilution (Equation 9) is based on ELOS and is
orebody width dependent.
FIG 4 – Differentiating between planned and unplanned
The mining industry traditionally quotes dilution in
dilution (Henning and Mitri, 2008).
percentages and immediately gets a feel for the impact of
common language of communication among practitioners the number on their operation. Bawden (1993) shows the
and academics in geoscience, mining and civil engineering economic impact of dilution on an operation (Figure 5).
such that when one says a rock mass quality is ‘good’, all the Papaioanou and Suorineni (2015) argue that a generalised
stakeholders understand the implication. Based on the above quantitative dilution-based stability graph has more attached
observations the term ‘stable’ will mean different things to value to miners and mine planners as they appreciate dilution
different mines. Mines have different levels of acceptable numbers more and their implication to the profitability
dilution and so different standards for what means ‘stable’. of their operation than merely knowing whether a stope
is stable, unstable or cave in the case of the conventional
The introduction of the ELOS stability graph by Clark and
stability graph by Mathews et al (1981) or the average depth of
Pakalnis (1997) tends to improve the qualitative nature of the
failure ELOS. It is also clearly demonstrated above that what
stability graph to an implicit indirect quantitative assessment
is acceptable dilution and hence ‘stable’ varies from mine to
of dilution. The ELOS stability graph is for narrow vein open
mine. Equation 9 in Table 1 also shows dilution obtained from
stopes assessment while the stability graph by Mathews et al is
for the assessment of stopes in wide orebodies. Unfortunately,
as to when the modified stability graph or ELOS stability
graph should be used tends to be a matter of preference in
practice, rather than based on the databases from which
they were developed and has the tendency to lead to wrong
designs and conclusions. This observation implies there is a
need to unify the definition of dilution.
Narrow and wide orebodies produce different values of
dilution based on Equation 9 in Table 1. For example, if both
the hanging wall and footwall of a steeply dipping 1.5 m-wide
tabular deposit (narrow vein) contributes 0.3 m of overbreak
from each wall, then an unplanned mining dilution of
40 per cent results based on Equation 9 in Table 1. If this ore
zone was 6.0 m thick (wide orebody) and mined in the same
ground conditions, the resulting dilution becomes ten per cent.
Scoble and Moss (1994) based on survey on dilution
calculation practices in Canadian mines observed that FIG 5 – Economic impact of dilution on an operation (Bawden, 1993).

514 SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 9–11 MAY 2016

ELOS is orebody-width dependent. Figure 6 further confirms
this dilution orebody-width dependency without the impact
of ground condition. Ground condition dictates potential for
sloughage and is a function of rock mass quality and stress,
including gravity effects.
Obviously, the definition of dilution is not unique in the
mining industry and poses a challenge in the development of
a dilution-based stability graph. However, this challenge can
be overcome by careful validation of observed dilution values
against the various definitions and through cavity monitoring
surveys (CMSs).
The objective of this paper is to develop a quantitative
dilution-based stability graph independent of orebody size,
here referred to as a unified stability graph. A unified stability
graph has the benefit of preventing misuse as well as creating
immediate impact in the minds of mining engineers of the
consequences of their designs if not adequately prepared.
Additionally, a quantitative dilution-based stability graph
gives the mine or geotechnical engineer the ability to
determine stope sizes based on what the operation considers
as acceptable dilution. A dilutions-based stability graph also
eliminates the inherent ambiguity in the term ‘stable zone’ in
the conventional stability graph as it is dependent on what is
acceptable dilution.
FAULT FACTOR
The other problem identified earlier by industry with the
conventional stability graph is that the graph does not
account for the effects of adverse major geological structures,
such as faults and/or shear zones when close to a stope. The
Suorineni (1998) fault factor F was developed to account
for this limitation. The fault factor was calibrated against
observed stope performance at Kidd Mine (Suorineni et al
2001) and Detour Lake Mine (Suorineni, Tannant and Kaiser,
1999a, 1999b) but rarely used in practice.
Recent developments show there is growing realisation for
the importance of the use of the fault factor in the stability
graph. The first author of this paper, who is the developer of
the fault factor, F has recently received a number of requests
from Canada, South America and Australia on how to use
the fault.
The validity and effectiveness of the fault factor is
independently tested in this study at a mine where there are
obvious observations that the presence of shear zones and
faults has adverse effects on open stope performance.
FIG 6 – Orebody width dependent dilution (Pakalnis, 1986).
SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 9–11 MAY 2016
A DILUTION-BASED STABILITY GRAPH FOR OPEN STOPE DESIGN
APPROACH
The determination of dilution for the development of the
quantitative dilution-based graph is based on CMS. CMSs
enable volumes (tonnages) of waste rock to be determined
and compared with original stope designs to calculate
dilution percentages.
We hypothesis that because ELOS is not orebody size
independent it can be misleading when applied to orebody
widths outside the database from which it was developed
(narrow vein orebodies). Also, the term ‘stable’ in the
conventional stability graph is ambiguous as it is in reality
dependent on what is acceptable dilution at a mine. In
Figure 6, the amount of dilution for same ELOS depends on
orebody width when calculated from ELOS definition using
Equation 9 in Table 1.
Development of a dilution-based stability
graph
The development of a quantitative dilution-based stability
graph requires the compilation of a new database from mines
practising open stoping. Data collection was undertaken at a
number of mines in Australia starting in May 2014 to date and
is continuing.
As much as possible the data in Australian mines was
collected firsthand at the mine sites via stope notes,
geotechnical reports and CMSs. At each site, a baseline
data set was developed with input from geology, planning
and the geotechnical engineering departments to allow for
benchmarking and validation of all other data provided,
bearing in mind the issues raised earlier on the different
methods used for calculation of dilution. Underground visits
were also undertaken to understand firsthand the geotechnical
ground conditions.
Proof of concept
The concept of a quantitative dilution-based stability graph
was proven using 226 case histories of open stope performance
data collected between May and July 2014 at a number of
mines in the New South Wales Central West.
Data validation was undertaken to identify and further
investigate causes of any outliers within the database. Such
outliers were discussed with site geotechnical engineers
and planners to understand the causes of the anomalies and
rectified. For consistency, all data in the proof of concept
database were determined using the prescribed calibrated
stability number parameters and procedure. The gravity
factor for sliding is ignored in this study following concerns
raised in Potvin (2014) on its validity.
As the study is focused on the development of a dilution-
based stability graph, all dilution values provided at
the various mine sites were assessed for reliability and
independently validated. This was achieved by the following
techniques:
• As much as possible, all N’ and HR values were determined
from mine plans and final stope shapes from CMSs and
confirmed though discussions with mine staff.
• In most cases, dilution was determined by a comparison
between planned stope shape and the final resultant
stope shape measured by CMS. Geovia Surpac™ was
used to determine the difference in volumes between
planned and final stope sizes to calculate a dilution
value (Figure 7) illustrates the method. This approach
implicitly uses the definition of dilution in Equation 6
in Table 1 and is practical. Indirectly, the dilution is
defined as difference between observed stope geometry
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F T SUORINENI et al
FIG 7 – Procedure for determination of dilution using cavity monitoring
surveys and stope plans (Papaioanou and Suorineni, 2015).
and planned stope geometry divided by observed stope
geometry. This definition is also similar to Equation 7 in
Table 1 (assuming time is ignored). The authors recognise
that these definitions are based on drilling accuracy and
blasting practices.
• When availability of site data allowed, the most
appropriate dilution equations were used to cross
reference dilution values determined from CMS and
ELOS (noting the deficiency of ELOS dilution definition).
Comparisons were made between the calculated dilutions
and site provided stope dilution as a check.
Defining dilution boundaries
In the proof of concept database, the dilution boundaries were
established by arbitrarily grouping dilution values into the
following categories:
FIG 8 – Dilution-based stability graph with boundaries between dilution categories derived from logistic regress: proof of concept (Papaioanou and Suorineni, 2015).
516 SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 9–11 MAY 2016
• <5 per cent
• 5–10 per cent
• 10–15 per cent
• 15–20 per cent
• >20 per cent.
Objective definition of the boundaries between the dilution
categories is best achieved with the use of statistical tools rather
than ‘eyeballing’. Two well-known statistical tools in defining
boundaries between data clusters are the Bayesian likelihood
statistic and the logistic regression method. Suorineni (1998)
used the Bayesian likelihood statistic to statistically analysis
the stope stability states in the stability graph. Details of the
procedure can be found in Suorineni, Kaiser and Tannant
(2001). Mawdesley (2002) on the other hand adopted logistic
regression to define the boundaries between stable stopes
and failed/major failure stopes and between failed/major
failure stopes and caving. Further details of the logistic
regress method can be found in Mawdesley, Trueman and
Whiten (2001).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Proof of concept results
Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the results for the Bayesian
likelihood statistic and the logistic regression as applied to the
proof of concept database.
Figure 8 and Figure 9 both show that the concept of a
quantitative dilution-based stability graph is plausible as
distinct clustering of the defined dilution groups are clearly
observed in the two figures. Either figure can be used for the
selection of open stope sizes depending on what a mine will
consider as its acceptable dilution level. The two figures are
independent of orebody widths and are therefore less likely
to be misused.
Expanded application of the quantitative
dilution-based stability graph concept
Expanded database
Following the successful proof of concept, additional mine
sites using open stoping have been visited across Australia in
2015. As expected, expansion of the database to include more
 A DILUTION-BASED STABILITY GRAPH FOR OPEN STOPE DESIGN

FIG 9 – Dilution-based stability graph with boundaries between dilution categories derived from
Bayesian likelihood statistic discriminant analysis: proof of concept (Papaioanou and Suorineni, 2015).

mine sites implies encountering diverse geology. One of the

mine sites that uses longhole open stoping is characterised A
by faults and shears (Figure 10) that cannot be ignored in
the evaluation of stope stability and estimation of dilution
as suggested by Suorineni (1998). This mine data is first
presented in the following section and later combined with
other mine sites data to give a dilution-based database for
improved definitions of the dilution categories boundaries.
Addition of more data is still welcome to fine-tune the current
dilution level boundaries.

Effects of faults and shear zones

The fault factor (Suorineni, Tannant and Kaiser, 1999a, 199b)
was applied to stopes affected by faults and shear zones
at the studied mine to further validate its impact on the
stability graph. Figure 11a shows dilution values plotted on
the conventional stability graph without correction for faults
while Figure 11b shows dilution values with corrections for
faults using the fault factor F. Obviously, Figure 11a and b
show that there is merit in the use of the fault factor when
faults and shear zones are close to a stope. However, it is
evident that for stope backs affected by faults the fault factor
B
is not efficient in adjusting N’ to move stope backs to their
appropriate stability states. The reason for this will be given
in the discussion section of this paper.
Figure 12 shows the data in Figure 11b (after adjustments for
faults) replotted (but without stope backs) with boundaries
based on dilution levels/categories.

Combined and expanded database

Having proven and validated other sources of data, the proof
of concept data was combined with other sources of data
within Australia. More data continue to be collected within
Australia. We have also received data from outside Australia
and work is continuing to include data from mines in North
and South America. The combined current data and eyeballed FIG 10 – Role of shear zones on open stope performance (Baird, 2015). (A) Plan
dilution boundaries for the purposes of this paper is presented view of shear zone intersection stopes at 6 level; (B) Intersection of shears with
in Figure 13. a stope. Failure of stope can be seen as a deviation of final size from planned.

SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 9–11 MAY 2016 517
F T SUORINENI et al

FIG 11 – Mathews stability graph for stopes affected by faults and shear zones with (A) no adjustment for faults and (B) adjustments for faults.

518 SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 9–11 MAY 2016
 A DILUTION-BASED STABILITY GRAPH FOR OPEN STOPE DESIGN

FIG 12 – Quantitative dilution-based stability graph from an independent mine confirming the concept.

FIG 13 – Quantitative dilution-based stability graph from combined data.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS dilution categories can be defined. Such dilution categories

Arguments have been advanced in this paper for a quantitative
dilution-based stability graph independent of orebody width.
It was hypothesised that such a graph can be obtained by
collecting and compiling dilution values from various open
stope operations together with the modified stability graph
parameters N’ and HR and that by classifying the dilution
values and plotting them in the stability number N’ and
hydraulic radius HR space, boundaries between various
can then be used by mine operators to design their open
stopes according to what the mine considers as its acceptable
dilution. This approach has the added value of being robust
and foolproof against misuse as it represents a unified stability
graph applicable to both narrow vein and wide orebodies.
A proof of concept database consisting of 226 case histories
(Figure 8 and Figure 9) showed unambiguously that the
concept of a quantitative dilution-based stability graph is

SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 9–11 MAY 2016 519
F T SUORINENI et al
indeed plausible. The concept has been applied to the data
from a different mine in a different geological setting in which
faults play a major role in the stability of open stopes.
Experience in the use of the Mathews et al (1981) and its
derivatives showed that the graph had a major deficiency by
not accounting faults when such discrete structures are close
to stopes. In order to offset this deficiency Suorineni (1998)
introduced a fault factor F to be incorporated into N’.
Figure 11 and Figure 12 show that the fault factor is successful
in accounting for faults when these structures are close to an
open stope. However, the fault factor is seen to be ineffective
when the fault occurs in a stope back as shown in Figure 12.
This deficiency has also been observed in stopes in a mine in
Chile (Vallejos, personal communication). The fact that this is
so is not surprising as in the original development of the fault
factor F, faults in stope backs were not considered. Figure 14
shows the fault/stope geometry situations considered in the
fault factor development and clearly shows that the presence
of faults in stope backs was not considered. More details on
the development of the fault factor can be found in Suorineni,
Tannant and Kaiser (1999a, 1999b) and Suorineni et al (2001).
Future work will be directed at accounting for faults in stope
backs, as well as managing stopes completely established in
shear zones. Another issue often overlooked is the role of
undercutting in causing stope instability and dilution as well
as the change in HR from previous stope surface failures.
The latter will also be considered in subsequent studies.
Obviously, the effect of time on stope stability remains a
challenge and will be considered in future studies.
In this paper the dilution category boundaries in the
combined data dilution graph are not objectively defined using
statistics but eyeballed. Future work will employ Bayesian
likelihood statistics and logistic regression objectively defined
these boundaries to minimise bias.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The paper has taken a fresh look at the stability graph. While
this method has been useful in the selection of open stope
sizes to manage stope stability, the qualitative nature of the
approach exposes it to some confusion in the mining industry.
Hence, a quantitative explicit dilution-based stability graph is
introduced to counter some of the difficulties and minimise
the confusion in the use of the method. More work lies ahead
FIG 14 – Fault factor F logic schematic illustration (Suorineni, 1998).
520 SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 9–11 MAY 2016
and efforts are continuing to establish confidence in the use of
the dilution-based stability graph.
Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from the study:
• The concept of a quantitative dilution-based stability
graph is plausible based on results on 226 case histories
used for the proof of concept.
• A quantitative dilution-based stability graph is robust and
eliminates inappropriate use that is always likely with
either the ELOS stability graph or the Mathews stability
graph and its derivatives such as the extended Mathews
stability graph as each of these graphs can only be applied
to a certain orebody size. The quantitative dilution-based
graph is a unified stability graph that is orebody size
independent.
• The expanded proof of concept quantitative dilution-based
graph further improves the dilution category boundaries
and confirms the concept.
• It is shown that the word ‘stable’ in the stability graph
is ambiguous as what is a stable stope depends on the
individual mine acceptable dilution level. A quantitative
dilution-based stability graph gives mining engineers the
flexibility to decide their stope sizes based on what they
consider their acceptable dilution.
• Application of the fault factor to stopes adversely affected
by faults and shear zones shows that the fault factor is
effective for hanging walls and footwalls but ineffective
when the faults are in stope backs.
• The role of undercutting in causing stope instability and
dilution as well as the change in HR from previous stope
surface failures needs to be further studied.
• Drilling accuracy and blasting practice on wall stability
and dilution are important factors to be considered in the
determination of dilution and stope sizes.
• There remains no unique method for the calculation of
dilution and this poses a challenge in the development of
the dilution-based stability graph.
Recommendations
The following recommendations stand out from the research:
• Use of the quantitative dilution-based stability graph
is recommended based on its merits over the Mathews
stability graph and its derivatives.
• The use of discriminant statistics to define the dilution
category boundaries in the expanded dilution-based
stability graph to remove any subjectivity from eyeballing
is recommended in the future.
• It is recommended that additional data be collected
and the dilution boundaries fine-tuned to improve the
predictive reliability of the graphs. It is also recommended
to continue the research using the Bayesian likelihood
discriminant method because of its capacity to account for
data category in-balances.
• The use of the fault factor in determining the stability
number N’ when a stope is close to the influence of a fault
or shear zone is highly recommended.
• Future work will focus on expanding the database for
the quantitative dilution-based stability graph and the
extension of the fault factor approach to cover faults in
stope backs.
• Finding a unique definition for dilution is recommended
but remains a challenge. This challenge must be born in
mined in using the dilution-based stability graph.

• Whether it is the modified stability graph or its derivatives,
accounting for the time of exposure of stope surfaces in
dilution remains a challenge. At present, to minimise the
effect of exposure time strict adherence to stope schedules
in terms of start to finish and timely use of backfill is
recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the numerous industry
contacts (both nationally and internationally) for their
valuable support and contributions throughout the project.
The project was funded by the School of Mining Engineering
Research Grant (SRG).
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