HRE I-History Guidebook

Succession to Mohammad PBUH Abstract It has been known by divine revelation that Prophet Mohammad PBUH was the seal of the Prophets PBUH, but it was necessary to choose a new head of community after the death of Prophet Mohammad PBUH. This was a very crucial point in the history of Islamic world. It gave different tribes an opportunity to revolt against new head, severance in Muslims and anti-Islam communities to rise against Muslims. However, Muslims were able to retreat those revolts as well as expand the territory of Islamic world. In this theme will discuss the merits and demerits during the period of first three caliphs and a detail account of Hazrat Alis A.S role in the said period. We will also discuss the policies and threats faced by him. This theme will also cover the treaty between Mawia and Hazrat Hassan, the will of Mawia to Yazid and his reign, and the consequences of the event of Karbala Objective

Student will be able to analyze the state of Islamic world after the death of Hazrat Mohammad
PBUH.

Student will be able to know the different opinions & interpretations about succession to
Mohammad PBUH.

Student will be able to learn the historical perspective of Hazrat Alis succession.(according to Shia
sources)

Student will explore the constraints faced by Hazrat Abu Bakr as first caliph. Student will be able to know the expansion of boundaries of Islamic world during Hazrat Umars
caliphate.

Student will be able to learn & analyze the consequences of rise of opposition to Hazrat Usman
causing his death.

Student shall be able to analyze the circumstances at the time of appointment of Hazrat Ali A.S as
Fourth caliph.

Student will discuss the policies implemented by Hazrat Ali A.S and the reasons civil war between
Muslims and its effect on Islamic world.

Student will be able to identify the reasons of event of Karbala.

Learning points

The meaning and importance of Succession in Arabs. The race of Succession between Ummayads and Hashmites. The animated discussion at Saqifa Bani Saad. (Shia Sources) The historical accounts of appointment of Hazrat Ali AS as successor to Hazrat Mohammads
PBUH

Rise of false prophecy and rebellions Expansion of Islamic preaching and territory

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Hazrat Umars period, expansion of state and induction of new policies Selection of Third Caliph Hazrat Usmans Political decisions and rise of opposition Battle of Jamal, Saffin and Naherwan and Kharijites. Treaty between Mawia & Hazrat Hassan Will of Mawia to Yazid Event of Karbala
Theme Summary Prophet Mohammad PBUH was the seal of the Prophets has been known by divine revelation. When the Prophet Mohammad PBUH died (632 AD), Hazrat Abu Bakr was elected by some of the companions as the Prophets PBUH successor, or Khalifa (caliph) at the Saqifa (assembly hall) of Banu-Saad1 in Medina. Here the Ansaar and Muhajirin were gathered to elect their new leader. The Ansaar were urged to select Saad b. Ubada, the leader of Banu Saad from the clan of Khisraj. This was quite natural because they belonged to Medina and they wanted to make leader of their own, while the Muhajirin although accepting this reality, wanted to hold the leadership. Hazrat Abu Bark and Hazrat Umar came at Saqifa and Hazrat Abu Bakr addressed people that the leadership must remain in Prophet Mohammad PBUH clan of Quraish. Hazrat Umar instantly gave Bayyat to Hazrat Abu Bakr and so he became the first Muslim caliph. According to Sunni traditions, the Hazrat Abu Bakr was right person to be the caliph because he was senior, chief advisor of Prophet Mohammad PBUH and a close friend. It is well known that Prophet Mohammad PBUH was the community leader in both political and religious matters. The Arabs, especially the Southern part were, accustomed to the hereditary succession in the leadership based on heredity sanctity2. When the Prophet Mohammad PBUH died, (632 AD) the question of his succession was therefore understood to combine in both political and religious leadership, a principle well known to the Arabs though naturally with different degrees of emphasis on one or the other of these two aspects. To some it was more religious than political aspect. The majority of the Muslims, who readily accepted Hazrat Abu Bakr, laid more emphasis on the socio-political side in accepting the customary procedure of succession to the caliph. Hazrat Umar and his companions disregarded the religious principle and the idea of the heredity sanctity of a certain house. This assumption is strongly supported by the statement of Hazrat Umar bin Khatab to Ibn Abbas3, The people do not like having the prophet hood and caliphate combined in the Banu Hashim. We must assume that both Hazrat Abu Bakr and Hazrat Umar were well aware of the importance which the idea of inherited sanctity held in one section of the Umma. They nevertheless considered it necessary to dissociate the caliphate from the priesthood of the Kaba, which was the enshrined in the hereditary sanctity of the Banu Hashim. Neither Banu Taym b. Murra, the clan of Hazrat Abu Bakr, nor Banu Adi b. Kab, the people of Hazrat Umar, had ever been regarded with esteem on the religious grounds, thus those who laid stress on the religious principle could not accept them as candidates for succession to Prophet Mohammad PBUH. The candidate could come only from Banu Hashim, and amongst them, the figure of Hazrat Ali A.S was by far the most prominent. He too great-grandson of Hashim, the grand son of Abd Al-Mutalib and was the son of former leader of Quraish tribe Abu Talib. Hazrat Ali A.S was the nearest and the closest associate of Prophet Mohammad PBUH, for the Prophet Mohammad PBUH had acted as his guardian during the famine of Mecca and he had
1 2

The Early Shi`i Thought, By: Dr. Arzina Lalani P. 2 The Origins and Early Development of Shi`a Islam, By: SHM Jafri, P. 12 3 Tarik-e-Tabari, By: Tabari Vol.-I, P. 2769

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subsequently adopted him as a brother both before the Hijra and again in Medina. He was the first male to embrace Islam1. Hazrat Alis A.S superior qualification for the caliphate was further strengthened by a series of events, which took place during the life of Prophet Mohammad PBUH. A few of these should be pointed out as illustration of Hazrat Alis A.S growth in prestige and favour:

Dawat-e-Ashira, when Hazrat Ali A.S was 13 and Prophet Mohammad PBUH announced, He is
my successor.

The prerogative of the religious brotherhood between Hazrat Ali A.S and Prophet Mohammad
PBUH both before the Hijra and again in Medina

Leaving Hazrat Ali A.S at Mecca to fulfill incomplete task of Prophet Mohammad PBUH at Hijra The role of Hazrat Ali A.S during the wars specially the Badar, Uhhad, Khandaq and Khyber. The nomination of Hazrat Ali A.S by the Prophet Mohammad PBUH as his deputy at Medina during
the expedition to Tabuk.

The communication of the chapter of Sura Barat in the ninth year of Hijra.
There are no serious grounds to doubt the authenticity of these events. In this series of events, the famous, but controversial tradition of Gadir-e-Khum, upon which the Shia place utmost importance, has been intentionally ignored. When Prophet Mohammad PBUH was returning from his farewell Pilgrimage he stopped at Gadir-e-Khum on 18 Dhul-Hajj (March 632) and after gathering people announces Man kuntu mawlahu fa Ali Mawlahu (He of whom I am the Master, of him Ali is also the Master). A commonly obstacle in the way of Hazrat Ali A.S is said to have been his comparatively age at the time of Prophet Mohammad PBUH death that was around thirty-three. Hazrat Ali A.S, though he did not or could not nominate him explicitly, perhaps because of the old North Arabian custom of leaving the selection of a leader to the people. However, other sources do not fail to point out that, though the Senate Nadwa of pre-Islamic Mecca was generally a council of elders only, the sons of the chieftain Qusayy were privileged to be exempted from this age restriction and were more liberal concessions seem to have been vogue. Abd Rabbih tells us, There was no monarchic king over the Arabs of Mecca in Jahiliya. So whenever there was a war they took a ballot among chieftains and elected one as King, were he a minor or a grown man2. The character of Hazrat Ali A.S as presented by both Sunni and Shii sources alike suggests that his feelings of love, dedication, sincerity and undivided loyalty to the cause of Islam were above personal consideration. The election at Saqifa was carried out in haste as the rivalry between the Ansaar and the Muhajirin threaten to split the community. Hazrat Ali AS was not present at the deliberations since he had stayed at the Prophets PBUH deathbed. Although Hazrat Ali AS was not sent for, it is significant that at the Saqifa some people did object to give Bayyat to Hazrat Abu Bakr, declaring that they would not offer Bayyat to anyone but Hazrat Ali A.S3. Such sentiments, contained in the earliest surviving historical material, are extremely important from historians point of view. Hazrat Alis A.S firm conviction that he had the best claims to succeed Prophet Mohammad PBUH, as is evident from all the sources, one would have expected him to fight for his rights to the bitter end. He did not resort to this course of action, even though such opportunities presented themselves. He declined to make use of strong military support offered to him by Abu Sufyan to fight for his right, because Hazrat Ali A.S considered that such action would lead to destruction of infant Islam. At the same time, on the other hand, he did not recognize that Hazrat Abu Bakr had refused to pay him
1

Ibn Hisham Vol.-I, P. 262 According to Ibn Ishaq Ali was ten years old at that time when Prophet Mohammed PBUH received his first revelation and was the first who prayed with Prophet Mohammed PBUH and Hazrat Khatija (AS). 2 The Origins and Early Development of Shi`a Islam, By: SHM Jafri, P. 22 3 Tarik-e-Tibri, By: Tibri Vol.-I P. 1817-18 - The Succession to Mohammed, By: Welfered Madelung P. 35

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homage for six months1. In addition to demoralizing factor of Hazrat Fatimas A.S death, which occurred six months after the succession of Hazrat Abu Bakr, what perhaps compelled Hazrat Ali A.S to reconcile his position with existing order was the serious eruption of apostasy and rebellion among the Arab tribes. Hazrat Ali A.S did occasionally help the caliphs despite of maintaining his withdrawn and passive attitude towards Hazrat Abu Bakr and Hazrat Umar. According to Sunni sources, Hazrat Ali A.S was valued counselor of the caliphs who preceded him; according to various sources his personal grievances, saved the caliphs from committing the serious mistakes to which they were often prone and which would otherwise have been suicidal for Islam. Hazrat Umar is thus often reported to have said Had there not been Ali, Umar would have perished.2 Whilst Shii sources give completely different and extreme view of Hazrat Alis A.S disagreement, not only with Hazrat Usman but also with Hazrat Abu Bakr and Hazrat Umar on almost every matter whether religious or political. His disagreement with Hazrat Umar on the question of diwan (distribution of stipends) and his absence from all the wars fought under Hazrat Umar can be well cited. The caliphate of Hazrat Abu Bakr lasted just over two years, in which he was mostly engaged in fights against the rebellion, which rose after the death of Prophet Mohammad PBUH. He explicitly appointed Hazrat Umar as his successor. In Hazrat Umars reign, territorial expansions of Islamic world begin to flourish and so does the Islamic teachings. There were many institution established e.g. treasury, law & order was enforced. Hazrat Umar made a Shura whose purpose was to elect the next caliph among six people in 644 AD. After some animated discussion between the committee, Hazrat Ali AS was offered the caliphate on the condition that he rule according to Quran and the Sunna of Prophet Mohammad PBUH as well as the precedents set by Hazrat Abu Bakr and Hazrat Umar. Some traditions maintain that he decline the second condition and while other maintain that he agreed to do so to the best of his ability. However, Hazrat Usman was elected as a third caliph. Hazrat Usman made the government by nominating the people of his clans. This decision made the government week and people started to revolt against the government. Hazrat Usman was assassinated in 656 AD. There was an enormous amount of controversy regarding Hazrat Usman death. Hazrat Usmans death created a colossal vacuum and it was difficult to decide who will lead the Muslim world because nobody was ready to take the burden of Caliphate. Eventually Hazrat Ali (A.S) became the fourth Islamic caliph. Hazrat Ali A.S tried to stabilize the situation by removing some of the governors that were appointed by Hazrat Usman. Mawia who was the governor of Syria did not paid homage to Hazrat Alis decision. Hazrat Ali A.S tried to remove Mawia but Hazrat Aishia revolted against Hazrat Ali A.S because she was determined to trace the killer of Hazrat Usman and that resulted in the Battle of Camel (656 AD). The aftermath of Battle resulted in the battle of Saffin (657 AD) & Naherwan (658 AD). Hazrat Ali A.S was then also assassinated (661 AD). After Hazrat Ali A.S, people of Medina choose Hazrat Hassan Ibn Ali A.S as their caliph. There was an accord between Mawia and Hazrat Hassan A.S that Mawia will not designate any person as his successor3. Hazrat Hassan A.S was poisoned to death. Mawia broke the accord by appointing his son Yazid ibn Mawia as his successor. He forcefully took the allegiance of people according to will of his father Mawia4. Hazrat Hussain ibn Ali A.S who was also the potential candidate for khilafat refused to accept the allegiance. This created a tussle between Hazrat Hussain A.S and Yazid and resulted in Battle of Karbala. Hazrat Hussain A.S was assassinated in that battle. Teaching Methodology/Activity Students will be divided into the groups and they will be given certain clues/ questions regarding any of the above objectives after discussing those clues, they will reflect accordingly. Example Questions/ clues
1 2

The Origins and Early Development of Shi`a Islam, By: SHM Jafri, P. 59 The Origins and Early Development of Shi`a Islam, By: SHM Jafri, P. 61 3 The Origins and Early Development of Shi`a Islam, By: SHM Jafri, - Ch. vi, P.130 4 Ibid Ch.vii, P.175

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Concept of succession in Arab & amongst Quraish Discuss the heredity and its importance in Arab Discuss the conflict and problems that happened after the death of Prophet Mohammad PBUH Discuss the Government of Hazrat Usman and its effects.
Bibliography The Cambridge History of Islam The Succession to Mohammad Tabcaat Ibn Saad Khilafat-o-Maloqiat The History of Arab The Early Shii thought The Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam Reading Material: Page No.: 106 115 Special Instruction Teachers should try to avoid the bias while discussing the first three caliphs and give them the holistic views. Teacher should avoid quoting those stories/myths & narration that does not have concrete historical evidence. P.M. Holt Wilferd Madelung Ibn Saad (Urdu) Allama Modadi Philip K. Hitti Dr. Arzina Lalani S.H.M Jafri

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The Origins of Sects and Their Ideology Abstract After the death of Imam Husayn AS, the Shii group had split into several groups and the instability in Shii community continued at Imam al-Sadiq AS, when there was further division that includes the early Ismailis and the Twelver Shii. In this theme we will see the circumstances that bring the instability and emergence of doctrinal principles in Muslims, specifically in early ShiI community and the concealment of Shii communities at the time of Imam al-Sadiq AS, due to the establishment of doctrines on the Imamate and worse political scenarios. Objectives Students will able to understand the dynamic nature of Islam and the diverse and pluralistic societies which were emerging with the passage of time. Students will able to learn the emergence of different sects and their ideology, in early Islam Students will able to evaluate the unsteadiness in Shii community and the reasons for being dichotomized. Student will able to discourse that the early Ismailis were living in an extremely hostile milieu and the information is available on the history of early Ismailis is little reliable, causing irreconcilable disagreement among scholars regarding some vital issues. Learning Points The teachers will have several flavors of learning aspects in the history of the specific time period, but according to theme teachers are advisable, to be specific in achieving the objectives of theme. Following are the learning points, focus on theme objectives The Islamic community emerged from its first civil war, Battle of Saffin and especially after the event of Karbala, severely tested and split into factions that were confront one another throughout subsequent centuries. In line with the spread of Islamization and the building relationships with different non-Arab societies, provides substantial support in Shii moment. The continuous schism in Shii due to gaining political power as well as religious authority and another most important factor that Shii revolved around differences of opinion on the compositions of the Ahl al-Bayt The role of Imamate and the activities of Shii Imams during the period. The reconciliation of Shii at the time of Imam al-Sadiq AS and the schism of partisans of Imam alSadiq AS on the dispute of succession. The emergence of Ismailism in the form of different groups and their ideologies. Summary Muslim society is, and always has been pluralistic. The message of Islam was revealed in the cultural frame of the time and the resulting responses had to be gradual, interactive and diverse. In the course of its rapid expansion, the Umma established by the Prophet PBUH incorporated a variety of social groups with extremely diverse traditions and inclinations. This encounter of Islam with a kaleidoscope of traditions naturally meant varied interpretation as well as understanding.

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The death of Prophet Mohammed PBUH after a brief illness, however, confronted the nascent Islamic community (Umma) with its first major crisis. This crisis of succession marks the beginning of what was eventually to develop into a permanent Sunni-Shii division in the Islamic community. After the death of Hazrat Ali AS in 661 AD and Mawiyyas hold in Islamic world, the remnants of the non-Shii supporters of Hazrat Ali AS and his family either defected to the victorious party, or else scattered. Consequently, eclectic Shiism of Hazrat Alis AS time was now reduced to the true Shii who continued as a small but zealous opposition party in Kufa. On the other hand, it was the expanding party of Mawiyya, Umayyads, 661 750 AD that eventually came to represent the central body of the community, also called the assembly of the believers (jama at al-muminin). By the early Abbasid times, 750 -795 AD the majority of the Muslims upholding the caliphates of the Umayyads and the Abbasids, became known as people of the Sunna of the Prophet (Ahl al-Sunna wal-Jama`a), or simply as the Sunnis. This designation was used not because the majorities were more attached than others to the Sunna of the Prophet, but because they claimed to be the adherents of correct Prophetic practice and such, they stood opposed to those who deviated from the common ways and principles of the Jamaa1. The heroic martyrdom of Prophets PBUH grandson Imam Husayn AS in 680 AD brought a new religious enthusiasm in the Shii. This event, solidly establishing the Shii martyrology, was destined to play a significant role in the consolidation of the Shii identity. In the immediate aftermath of Karbala, the Shii s and many other Kufans who had so persistently invited Imam Husayn AS into their midst, were deeply moved. Until that time of Imam Husayn AS, there seems to have been no disputes of leadership among the Shii themselves. After Imams death, differences arose resulting in various Shii groups. These groups acknowledged imams mainly from the descendents of Al-Hasan, Imam Husayn AS, the sons of Hazrat Ali AS by Fatima AS, and the Mohammad b. al-Hanafiyya, his son by Khawla of the Bau Hanifa tribe2. The identity of the Shii imams, that is, which of Hazrat Alis AS descendants inherited his authority, as well as the discussion about the nature and extent of his authority, have always been one of the main reasons for the existence of several tendencies and inclinations among the Shii who, from the time of Imam Husayn AS, were never a monolithic group. Within a year of Imam Husayns AS tragedy, a movement known as Tawwabun or the Penitents, those felt the urge to avenge the murder of Imam Husayn As and to expiate their own failure to support him, arose to fight the Umayyads. However they were overwhelmed by the Umayyad forces and most of them lost their lives. Those who survive joined al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi at Kufa. It is believed that Imam Zayn al-Abidin b. Imam Husayn AS was approached and, on his refusal, Mohammad b. Hanifiyya became the figurehead of Mukhtars movement. In 685 AD he succeefully revolted in Kufa against Ibn-al-Zubayr, proclaiming Muhammad b. al-Hanifiyya as the Mahdi, the divinely-guided saviour who would establish justice on earth and deliver the oppressed from tranny, zulm3. This doctrine proved very appealing to the mawali, who were considered socially and racially inferior to Arab Muslims. They provided a valuable recruiting ground for any movement opposed to the exclusively Arab order under the Umayyads. Mukhtars success proved short-lived but his movement survived under the name of Kaysaniyya. In these early Kaysaniyya beliefs4, circulated mainly amongst the mawali, came the first Shii statements of the eschatological doctrines of ghayba, the absence or occultation of an imam whose life has been miraculously prolonged and who is due to reappear as the Mahdi, and raja, the return of messianic personality from the dead, or from occultation, sometime before the Day of Resurrection (qiyama). The closely related concept of the Mahdi had now also acquired, for the first time, an
1 2

Farhad Daftry, The Ismalis: their history and doctrines ch.2 pg 48 Dr. Arzina Lalani, Early Shii thoughts ch.1 pg. 6 3 Dr. Arzina Lalani, Early Shii Thought, ch.1 pg.7, Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Vol. 1 ch. 2.1 pg. 265, Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: their history and doctrines, ch. 2 pg. 53 4 Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: their history and doctrines, ch. 2 pg. 60

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eschatological meaning, with the implication that no further imam would succeed the Mahdi during his period of Ghayba. It is not clear by the title al-Mahdi, to which the participle expected, alMuntazar was sometimes attached, came to be adopted for the messianic deliverer in Islam. As the term does not in the Quran, the origin of this eschatological idea has been the subject of varied explanations. Some modern scholars, citing the ultimate Zoroastrian savior, who is destined to carry out what in Zoroastrian eschatology is called the final transfiguration or renovation of the world (frashkart), ascribe its origins to Iranian sources. Still others have attributed its roots to the JudaeoChristian teachings. Regardless, henceforth the idea of a future deliverer, who would eventually appear before the end of time, became a doctrinal feature common to most Muslim groups. This included the early Ismailis and the Ithna-ashaari (Twelvers) who are still awaiting the arrival of their twelfth imam. The majority of Ibn-Hanifiyyas followers, however, accepting his death in 700 AD, now recognized the imamate of his eldest son Abu Hashim died 716 AD, whom they believed to have been personally designated by Ibn-Hanifiyya as his successor. This probably marks the first evident instance of the important Shii principle of nass imamate, where by an imam is appointed through the explicit designation, nass of a preceding imam. At that time, Abu-Hashim was slightly younger than his cousin Imam Zayn-al-Abidin AS, thus became the imam of the Shii majority known as Hashimiyya. After Abu-Hashim death, several radical Shii groups emerged such as Bayaniyya and the Harbiyya1. These groups, all together came as so-called Ghaliya or Ghulat2 (singular, ghali, exaggerator) due to their free religious speculations. The bulk of Hashimiyya, however, recognized Mohammed b. Ali b. Abd Allah b. al-Abbas, the greatgrandson of the Prophets PBUH uncle, as their imam after Abu-Hashim and later founded the Abbasids Caliphate3. Another small group Imamiyya, a group of those Shii supported Imam Ali b. Husayn AS, who carried the title of Zayn al-Abidin, the Ornament of the Pious due to his renowned piety. He had gradually come to be held in great esteem, especially by the pious circles of Medina. Since he refrained from any form of political activity and devoted his time mainly to praying, he did not acquire any following. By the closing years of his life, he had; however, develop a following, consisting of some relatives and few piety-minded Arabs. According to the later Twelver and Ismaili Shii, Imam Zayn-al-Abidin AS had designated nass his eldest son Imam Mohammad al-Baqir AS, as his successor. During Imam al-Baqirs AS time many groups were dissatisfied with their rulers. They detested specially the rulers who, by leading a luxurious life themselves, set an undesirable example to others, thus sanctioning that which religion abhorred. The twin cities the Mecca and medina, specially the Mecca, had been transformed into centres of luxury where wealth and singing girls from the conquered lands poured in. This led many people to indulge in past times like chess, dice, backgammon and habits such as drinking and gambling. Another cause of wide spread discontent was division of society between the ruling class, formed by the caliphs family and the aristocracy of Arab conquerors; and the non Arab Muslims who were the clients (Mawali) to the Arab tribes. Thirdly, there were the non Muslims i.e. Christians, Jews and others who were known as dhimmis for the tribute they paid in return for protection dhimma. Last on the social ladder stood the slaves. Therefore, the question of the fitness of the ruler to rule when he sins was very crucial. This doctrine of Sin became the most characteristic feature of the kharijiyya, who seceded from Imam Alis AS army, protesting at the proposal to arbitrate. They believe that any Muslim, including the imam, on committing a mortal sin becomes an apostate and hence deserves death.

Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Vol. 1 ch. 2.1 pg. 258, Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: their history and doctrines, ch. 2 pg. 61-64 2 Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: their history and doctrines, ch. 2 pg. 61-64 had explained the principles of doctrines of Ghulat and their origins. 3 Refer the given genealogical chart of the Hashimids and the early Shii imams

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At the opposite extreme to the kharijiyya, and mainly as a reaction to it, were the Murjias, who shrank from judging human conduct, leaving this exclusively to God, to be determined after death. By refusing the Umma the right to judge, the Murjia denied the duty to enjoying good and forbid evil, thus encouraging political quietism. But the question of human or moral responsibility continued to trouble the community. From around 690 AD, the Qadariyya, so called because they debated the meaning of Quranic term qadar, prederterminism, upheld in one form or another, the principle of free will, believing that man was the author of his acts and human will was free. The reaction to this view was the emergence of Jabariya, who held that mans actions were completely predetermined. By the time of Imam al-Baqir AS, the various groups had begun to argue over different juridical issues. The traditionalists opposed the jurists regarding the position of the sunna of the Prophet PBUH and the exegetes gave varying interpretations of the Quranic verses, all apparently based on Prophets PBUH traditions. Furthermore, serious theological discussions took place among scholars on topics revolving around the imamate such as iman, Islam and qada wa qadar, some of which had obvious political undertones. Therefore, it is also to this period that we may trace the rudiments of many of those religio-philosophical movements and religio-political communities which formed the earliest sects such as the Kharijiyya, the Qadariyya and the Murjia. The Shii, one of the camps into which the Muslims split on the issue of the imamate, also took clear shape during Imam al-Baqirs AS period. It was in such an environment that Imam al-Baqir AS responded to the numerous queries brought to him by Shii and non Shii alike. The new claimants to the imamate provided yet more diverse outlets for the allegiance of Shii, who were already divided into numerous groups. Of particular importance was the movement started by the Imam al-Baqirs AS half-brother Zayd b.Ali. Zayd appears to have emphasized the need for a just imam and the communitys obligation to remove and unjust one. He also paid special attention to the Islamic principle of commanding the good and prohibiting the evil (Al-Amr Bil-Maruf Wal-Nahy an Al-Munkar). Furthermore, he is reported to have stated that if imam want to be recognized he had to assert his rights publicly, sword in hand if need be. In other words, Zayd was not prepared to accept the idea of a concealed Mahdi or a quiescent imam; nor did he attach any significance to hereditary succession and to nass imamate1. Meanwhile, Imam al-Baqir AS contented himself with teaching and thinking about the rudiments of some of the ideas which were to become the legitimist principles of the Imami branch. Above all, he seems to have concerned himself with explaining the functions and the divinely bestowed attributes of the imams. He is also credited with the introducing the principle of taqiyya, dissimulation of the ones true belief under adverse circumstances; a principle which was quite alien to Zayds thinking but was later adopted by both Twelvers and the Ismailis. It may be pointed out here that Imam al-Baqirs AS imamate also coincide with the initial stages of the Islamic science of law, ilm al-fiqh. It was, however, in the final decades of the second Islamic century that the old Arabian concept of sunna, the normative custom or the established practice of the community, which had reasserted itself under Islam, came to be explicitly identified by the piety-minded Muslims with the sunna of the Prophet PBUH. This identification, in turn, necessitated the collection of those Hadiths or traditions which claimed to be the reports on the sayings and actions of the Prophet PBUH, handed down orally through an uninterrupted chain of trustworthy authorities. The activity of collecting and studying Hadith, which had initially arisen mainly in the opposition to the extensive use of human reasoning by the Islamic judges (singular, qadi) and for citing the authority of the Prophet PBUH to determine proper legal practices, soon became a major filed of Islamic learning, complementing the science of Islamic jurisprudence. On the death of Imam al-Baqir AS, his following split into several groups. One group, Baqirya, awaited his reappearance as Mahdi, while another group went over to Hasanid al-Nafs al-Zakiya. There were also those who transferred their allegiance to al-Mufhira and Abu-Mansur, both inspired with the doctrines of Ghulat. But a faithful group of Imam al-Baqir AS partisans recognized his elder son Abu Abd Allah Jafar as their new imam designated by nass. This group of Imami Shii continued to support Imam Jafar AS and in time expanded significantly. Imam Jafar Sadiqs AS long imamate of
1

Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: their history and doctrines, ch. 2 pg. 70

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some thirty plus years, coinciding with the most unstable era of early Islamic history, may best be studied in terms of two periods. During the first period, lasting until shortly after the accession of the Abbasids, he remained overshadowed by certain other claimants to the imamate, while the Abbasid movement was successfully unfolding. It was during the second period, covering roughly the final decade of his imamate, that Imam Jafar AS acquired unique prominence. Imam Jafar AS taught fiqh and is credited with founding, after the work of his father, what was to become the Shii schools of religious law or madhhab, which differs some what from the four Sunni schools. Hence the Twelvers, when referring to their madhhab, have called it the Jafari. It is important to note that Imam Jafar AS was accepted as a teaching authority by much wider circle, including the Abu-Hanifa al-Numan (d. 767 AD) and Malik b. Anas (d. 795 AD), the famous jurists and eponyms of the Hanafi and Maliki Sunni schools of law, reportedly studied or consulted with him. Throughout the turbulent years preceding the Abbasid revolution, and also following it, when as a result of the great Shii disappointment a fundamental re-orientation in Shii sm was called for, Imam Jafar AS was quietly propounding his views regarding the imamate. Some of these had already been formulated in rudimentary form by the Imam al-Baqir AS, but it remained for Imam Jafar AS1. The doctrine of Shii was embodied with several principles that we had already discussed in our theme The Idea of Imamat. After Imam Jafar AS in 765 AD, Imami Shii again splited into several groups of which Twelvers and Ismailis are majors were splited over the dispute of Imam Jafars AS succession. According to majority of the available sources, Imam Jafar AS had designated his son Ismail as his successor, by the rule of the nass2. There can be no doubt about the authenticity of this designation, which forms the basis of the claims of Ismailiyya and which should have settled the question of Imam al-Sadiqs AS succession in due course. Before going to discuss about the traces found regarding Imam Ismail AS death in the life of Imam Jafar AS or not, first we discuss about the Twelver and other groups. According to Twelver, and most of the anti-Ismaili groups, Imam Ismail AS of had been deprived of his succession rights due to his indulgence in drink. Such reports about Ismails dipsomania and his denial by his father by Twelver, may represent later fabrications by those who did not accept the Ismaili line of imams. They also claimed nass for Musa b. Jafar, the younger half brother of Imam Ismail AS, producing several Hadiths to this effect3. However, none of other sons of Imam Jafar AS, could convincingly prove to have been the beneficiary of a second nass but claimed his succession. As a result, the Shii partisans of Imam Jafar AS, split into six groups, two of which constituted the nucleus of the nascent Ismailiyya. Musa al-Kazim soon received the allegiance of the majority of the Imami Shii. Musa, later counted as seventh Imam of the Twelvers, refrained from all political activity and was more quiescent than his father. Nevertheless Musa was not spread the Shii persecutions of the Abbasids. He was arrested several times and finally died (possibly having been poisoned) in 799 AD, whilst imprisoned at Baghded on the caliph Harun al-Rashids orders. Subsequently, one group of Musa partisans acknowledged the imamate of his eldest son Ali b. Musa al-Rida, who later became the heir apparent and son-in-law of the caliph al-Mamun. This sub-sect of the Imamiyya eventually became known as the Ithna-Ashariyya, or the Twelver Shii; referring to those imamis who recognized a line of twelve imam, starting with Ali b. Abi Talib and ending with Mohammad b. al-Hasan alMahdi, Lord of the time (Sahib al-Zaman) whose emergence or Zahur is still being awaited. Two other groups supporting the claims of Imam Ismail b. Jafar AS and constituting the protoIsmailis, issued from amongst the Imami Shii following of the Imam al-Sadiq AS. These Kufan groups had actually come into being earlier, on the death of Imam Ismail AS. One group, denying the death of Imam Ismail AS during his fathers lifetime, maintained that he was the true Imam after Imam al-Sadiq AS; they further believed that Imam Ismail AS remained alive would return as Mahdi. These Shii s defended their claims by noting that Imam al-Sadiq AS, who as a Imam could speak only the truth, had done nothing to revoke Imam Ismails AS succession rights to the Imamate; accordingly, they had no reason renouncing their allegiance to Imam Ismail AS, they believed that the Imam al1 2

Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: their history and doctrines, ch. 2 pg. 48 Ibid pg. 93 3 Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: their history and doctrines, ch. 2 pg. 94

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Sadiq AS had announced Imam Ismails AS death merely as ruse to protect his son, whom he had hidden because he faired for his safety. Al-Nawbukhty and al-Qummi called the member of this group, recognizing Imam Ismail AS, as their Imam-Mahdi, the pure-Ismailiyya (al-Ismailiyya-al-Khalisa). There was a second group of pro-Ismail Shii who, affirming Imam Ismails AS death during the life time of Imam al-Sadiq AS, now recognized Imam Mohammad b. Ismail AS, as their Imam. They held that he was the right full successor to Imam Ismail AS and that the Imam al-Sadiq AS had personally designated as such after Imam Ismail AS death. According to these partisans of Imam Mohammad b. Ismail AS, the Imamate could not be transferred from brother to brother after the case of the Imams alHasan AS and Imam Husayn AS, this was why they rejected the claims of Musa and other brothers of Imam Ismail AS, as they did that of Mohammad b. Hannifiya, who, according to them, had falsely claim the Imamate in rivalry with Imam Ali b. Husayn AS (Zayn al-Abidin). The Ismailis heresiographers called this group the Mubarakiyya, the name supposedly after their leader alMubarak, a Mowla of Ismail. However, W. Ivanow has shown that in all probability al-Mubarak (meaning the blessed) was the epithet of Imam Ismail AS himself, citing some passages from the famous Ismaili Dai of the 4th/10th century, al-Sijistani, in which Imam Ismail AS is repeatedly referred to by his name. According to later Ismailies this period is known period of concealment, Daur al-Satr starts after the death of Imam al-Sadiq AS and ending with the establishment of Fatmid Caliphate. All and all, it can be said that after the event of Karbala, Muslims were divided into two major groups, the Shii who believed that the right to rule belongs to family of Imam Ali b. Talib AS and the other non-Shii group, initially known as Jama and later as people of the sunna of the Prophet, Ahl al-Sunna wal-Jama`a, or simply as the Sunnis at the time of Abbasid emergence. Later early Shii partisans of Imam Husayn AS were further split into several groups on the basis of their Shii leader belongs to the family of Imam Ali AS. Finally the great Shii disappointment after the establishment of Abbasids Caliphate, a fundamental re-orientation in Shii sm was called for, Imam Jafar AS, as their Imam. Later the followers of Imam Jafar AS split into two major branches of Imami Shii, the Twelver and the Ismailiyya. However, the Ismailiyya was only the group holding the chain of imamate in the generation of Imam Ismail b. Jafar AS whilst the Twelvers remained awaiting for their Imam alMahdi. Moreover, the Ismailiyya is only the Shii group at present time following their living Imam (Hazir Imam) and other believing on the re-appearance of their Imam as al-Mahdi will establish justice and peace in the world, on the basis of the doctrine, ghayba. Teaching Methodologies / Activity Interactive and questions based session Use of genealogical charts to explains evolution of different Shii activities Research work and Group Activities For e.g. Student will asked to study on the different Shii groups and let the students will present their work in the forms of groups. Teachers will equipped with set of questions to elaborate the ideology and activities of different Shii groups Bibliography Farhad Daftarry Farhad Daftarry Dr. Arzina Lalan Marshall G.S. Hodgson Mumtaz Ali, Sadiq Ali The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines, London, 1990 The Short History of the Ismailies, Edinburgh, 1998 Early Shii Thoughts, London, 2000 The Venture of Islam, Volume I, Chicago, 1958 Ismaili Through History, Pakistan, 1997

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Early Ismaili Dawa Abstract By the middle of 7th and 9th century, the Ismailis organized a revolutionary movement commonly known as Dawa to spread their religion widely across the globe. They adopted different strategies to keep their movement secret because of the fear of Abbasids. This theme intends to discuss the method of Ismaili dawa and its success; it will focus on some of the concept and terminologies that were used in that period; the theme will also provide the account of territorial expansion and the number of people that were converted to Ismailism. Finally it will provide the detail of the impact of the early Ismaili Dawa and it importance in the context of religious development. Objectives To help students to understand the early Ismaili Dawa starting from Imam Jafar Sadiq AS To facilitate students in analyzing the strategies of Dawa applied by the Early Ismaili dais To introduce some concept and terminologies (Daur-Satr, Taqiyya) and explain their importance in Dawa. To assist the students in exploring the impact of early Ismaili Dawa. Learning Points Early Ismaili Dawa was initiated by Imam Jaffer Sadiq AS in 7th Century. Abul Khitab was first amongst dais to have preached the Shii doctrines tinctured with esoteric interpretation. When the animosity of Ismaili enemies reached to its extreme, the Imams had to hide themselves to elude discovery. This era is known as Daur-Satr. The word taqiya is derived from the root tuqat, means "conceal" or "hide". Because Ismailies couldnt preach their Dawa openly due to Abbasids fear, they introduce this system in which Imam concealed their real authority. Maymun Al Qadah one the primary dai of Ismailism was canonized in the rank of hijab (screen), whose integral function was to screen the real Imam from his enemies. After Imam Mohammad b. Ismail AS the Ismailies Spread their missionary activites in Southern Iraq, Eastern Arabia i.e. Bahrain (Bedouins), and Yemen, Jibal, Khorasan and Transoxania. Summary The word dawa (pl. du'at) is derived from du'a means to call, invite or summon, and thus the term dai denotes, "he who summons", whose corresponding term in English is "missionary" (derived from the Latin, mittere). The word dawa is also used in the sense of prayers, such as dawat al-mazlum (prayer of the oppressed), or dawa bi'l shifa (prayer of the health). The word dawat virtually originated in the time of Imam Jafar Sadik, and Abdullah bin Maymun had founded the Ismaili dawa organisation in Basra. T.W. Arnold writes in "The Preaching of Islam" (Aligarh, 1896, p. 277) that, "The Ismailis were the master of organization and tactics at the time of Abdullah bin Maymun." W. Ivanow writes in

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"Collectanea" (Holland, 1948, p. 20) that, "The only branch of Islam in which the preaching of religion, dawat, was not only organized but even considered of special importance, was Ismailism." According to "The Encyclopaedia of Islam" (Leiden, 1965, 2nd vol., p. 168), "The word dawat is well known as applied to the wide-spread Ismaili propaganda movement, appealing to Muslims to give their allegiance to an Imam descended from Ismail bin Jafar Sadik." In the period of Imam Jafer Sadik AS, Abul Khattab Muhammad bin Abi Zaynab Maqlas al-Asadi al-Kufi (d. 167/783), surnamed Abul Khattab was an eminent disciple. He was first to have preached the Shii doctrines tinctured with esoteric interpretation. For quite some time, he was closely associated with the imam, who had commissioned him as his chief dai in Kufa. Kashi narrates that once Imam put his hand on Abul Khattab's breast, and said: "You know the mystery (ghayb)." Imam al-Sadik AS had certainly worked out that an open dawat based on esoterism in the line of Imam Ismail AS would mean a sure doom in the powerful Abbasid regime. It was, of course, risky for the Imams and their followers to openly propagate their minoritarian beliefs then onwards; therefore, the secret mission system was introduced with the help of taqiya, which could also avoided great deal of persecution. The practice of taqiya22 conveniently protected the Shii s, especially the later Ismailies, from persecution, and served in the preservation of their sectarian existence under hostile circumstances. With the death of Imam al-Sadik AS in 765 AD, Imam Ismail AS (d. 775 AD) and Imam Muhammad AS (d. 813 AD), the gravity of brutal persecutions of the Abbasids had considerably increased. The Abbasids left no chance to grind the Ismailis under the millstone of cruelty. This period from Imam Ismail AS to Imam Razi Abdullah AS is well known as Daur-Satr. The word satr (pl. satur) is derived from astar, meaning hide, cover or shield. As it is said, masatra (he concealed enmity), or tastir (to hold within a curtain). The word satr23 means to veil, conceal or hide a thing. The early Ismailis had employed the term satr with regards to those periods in their history when the Imams were hidden from the eyes of their followers. When the animosity of their enemies reached to its extreme, the Ismaili Imams had to hide themselves to elude discovery. On that juncture, the hujjats represented the Imams in the community. Thus, the hujjat was himself a living proof, acting as the custodian until the time of the Imam's reappearance. This period is called Daur-Satr (period of concealment) in Ismaili history. In contrast, the period following the concealment is known as an unveiling (Daur-Kashf), or the period of manifestation (Daur-Zuhur), when the Imams publicly made their appearance. Before highlighting the strategies of early Ismaili dawaa, it is imperative that one should clearly understand that because the imams were in threat from Abbasids, they adopt different tactics to hide themselves. The Qaddahid theory or Maymun al-Qadah was an integral part of this tactic in early Ismaili dawa Maymun al-Qadah was one of most imperative figures in Ismailism. He was canonized in the rank of hijab (screen), whose function was in addition to screen the real Imam from his enemies, and was thus the hijab of Imam Ismail AS and his son. According to W.Ivanow in "The Rise of the Fatimids" (Calcutta, 1942, p. 56), "The idea of the hijab, or a dignitary, whose duty was to pretend to be the Imam, thus sheltering the real holder of the office." Admittedly, it is learnt that after leaving Medina, Imam Muhammad bin Ismail AS made his way towards Iran and Syria accompanied by Maymun al-Qadah. The bitterest of the Abbasids' enmity was daily growing in intensity. Apprehending lest the enemies should resort to some violent measures against him, Muhammad assumed the name of Maymun al-Qadah to elude discovery. Thus, the name Maymun alQadah24came to be used by two characters at one time. It was also resolved, if the real identity of the Imam be traced, Maymun al-Qadah was to come forward as Imam Muhammad bin Ismail AS to sacrifice his own life in order to protect the line of Imamate from extinction.
22 23

Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: their History and Doctrines ch. 2 p. 85 Edward William Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon vol. 4, p. 1304 24 Al Qadah, W. Ivanow ch. Introduction

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Henceforward, Imam Muhammad bin Ismail AS had also a sobriquet of Maymun al-Qadah to conceal his identity. In fact, Maymun al-Qadah had a son, named Abdullah (d. 260/874), while Imam Muhammad bin Ismail AS had also a son at the same time, called Imam Abdullah AS (d. 212/828), surnamed al-Wafi Ahmad. With the passage of time, Muhammad became known as Maymun al-Qadah in the places he resided, while Maymun al-Qadah was treated as Imam Muhammad bin Ismail AS in the regions he propagated Ismailism. Abdullah, the son of Maymun al-Qadah was consequently considered as the son of Imam Muhammad bin Ismail AS in the regions where the Imam had assumed the title of al-Qadah. It therefore gave rise to the contrivance of a story that Abdullah (al-Wafi Ahmad) was the son of Maymun al-Qadah on one hand, and Abdullah (b. Maymun al-Qadah) was the son of Imam Muhammad bin Ismail AS on other. Later on, it became an instrument for the anti-Fatimid propagandists, notably Ibn Razzam25 to join the lineage of the Fatimid Imams with that of Abdullah bin Maymun al-Qadah instead of Imam Abdullah (al-Wafi Ahmad) bin Muhammad bin Ismail. Although this caused lots of confusion and doubtfulness amongst many scholars but this strategy was very successful in concealment of Imam and propagation of Dawat. It seem certain that for almost a century after Imam Mohammd b. Ismail AS, a group of leaders, originally well placed within the nascent Ismailia worked secretly and systematically for the creation of a unified and expanding Ismaili movement. The alids did not for three generations claim the imamate openly. This was a precautionary tactic to safeguard them selves against Abbasid persecution. In fact the true identity of the leader remains known to few trusted associates. Centered on the expectations of the immanent emergence of the Mahdi who would establish the rule of justice, the Ismaili movement of the 3rd/9th century had a great deal of messianic for underdeveloped groups of diverse social background. Ismailies claimed that Mahdi would initiate alids right to leadership. Among those groups mentioned above may be made of landless peasantry and Bedouin tribesman whose interests were set apart from those of the prospering urban classes. Indeed the Ismaili Dawa now appeared as a movement of protest against the Abbasids and their order, including especially the privilege urban classes and the centralized administration of their state. On the bases of such well designed strategy, the region-political message of the Ismaili Dawa spread in different regions and among different social area. Initially the dias were only successful in non-urban milieus, remove from the administrative centers of Abbasids caliphate. This elucidate the early success of Ismailism in Southern Iraq, Eastern Arabia i.e. Bahrain (Bedouins), and Yemen. In contrast the dawa was primarily address to the ruling classes in Iranian lands especially in Jibal, Khorasan and Transoxania. The early Ismaili movement achieved particular success among those Imami Shiis of Iraq and elsewhere who had hitherto acknowledged Musa al-Kazim and certain of this decedents and Imams. These imams shared a theological heritage with the Ismailies, especially the Imami doctrine of the imamate. On the death of their eleventh imam al-Hasan al-Askari, and the simultaneous disappearance of his infant son Mohammad, the imamis were lift without an imam and in a state of utter disarray and confusion. A large number such discontented imamis responded to the summons of the Ismaili dawa spreading in their midst. The mission of Ismaili dawa propagated through different dies or missionaries who speeded the message secretly. Hamdan bin Ashat and his assistance Abdan had extended their activities to areas adjacent to southern Iraq, notably Fars in southern Persia where Abu Syed al-Janabi and Abdans Brother al-Mamun operated as dais. Originally belonging to Imami family in Kufa, Ibn Hawshab, later known as Munsur ul Yamen was converted by Abdan and sent to initiate the dawa in Yamen. He and his chief collaborator Ibnul-Fadl got rapid success in Yamen and in 905-96 when Fadl got the control of Sana, almost all of the Yamen had been brought under the control of Ismailies. Yamen also served as a base for spread of the dawa to the adjoining areas as well as the remote areas. For instance in 883 AD Ibn hawshab sent his relative al-Haysham to Sindh, initiating the dawa on the Indian Subcontinent. It was also on Ibn Hawshab instruction Abu Abdullah Al Ashai was already active among the Kutama Berbers of the Lesser Kabylia

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Mountains in the Maghrib (in present day Algeria). It has been said that Imam Sadiq AS himself sent two men Halwani and Sufiyani to Maghrib for initiating the Ismaili Dawa. The dai Abu Abd ullah also originally belong to imami community of Kufa; he and his elder brother Abul Abbas were converted in Iraq by the dai Ibn Hawshab sent the other dais to Yamama, Egypt and Bahrayn to propagate Ismailism. The initiation of dawa in the west central and northwestern parts of Persia, the region designated generally as the Jibal by Arabs, also dates to the early 870s AD. Khalaf al Hallaj was the first dai Jibalm sent there by center leader of the Ismaili movement. Khalaf establish himself in the area of Rayy (to the south of the modern day Tehran), where an important imami community already existed, and it continued to serve for a long time as the headquarters of the dawa in Jibal. This time Ismailis targeted the elite and the ruling classes. After the initial success in Jibal, the same policies were adopted by the dais of Khorasan and Transoxania. Ghiyat the third dai of the Rayy, extended the dawa to Khorasan on his own. His chief Deputy was a learned theologian philosopher Abu Hatim Alrazi, who in time became the chief dai of Rayy. Abu Hatim further extended his activities to Adharbayjan, in northwestern Persia including Gilan, Tabaristan and Gurgan. Abu Hatim succeeded in converting several Daylami Amirs and governor of Rayy. It can be said that all dais carried their mission strategically, analytically and successfully. The success of the Ismaili dawa culminated in 909 AD in the establishment of an Ismaili dawla or state, the Fatmid Caliphate in North Africa. The Ismailis had not entered into a new phase of their history. The revolutionary activities of the early Ismailis, directed by the hereditary line of central leaders, resulted in the foundation of a state in which Ismaili imam was installed as Caliph, rivaling the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad. The establishment of this first Shii caliphate represented a serious challenge to the authority of the Abbasid caliph, the official spokesman of the Sunni Islam, and the position of the Sunni ulama who legitimized the Abbasids authority and defined Sunnism as the true interpretation of Islam. The Ismailis, echo as imami Shii Muslims had develop their own interpretation of the Islamic message, had now in effect offered a viable alternative to Sunni orthodoxy. Teaching Methodologies / Activity Map Analysis: Students will analyze the early Ismaili dawa and activities of dais through Map. Group Discussion: Student can be divided into groups and they will be asked some questions related to Ismaili dawa. Bibliography Farhad Daftari Farhad Daftar Sayyid Mumammad Husayn T.W. Arnold W.Ivanow W.Ivanow Edward William Lane Arabic-English Lexicon, New York, 1872 Short History of Ismailis, Edinburgh, 1998 Ismailis; their History and Doctrines, London, 1990 Shii Dar Islam The Preaching of Islam Brief Survey of the Evolution of Ismailism Al Qadah, Bombay, 1957