Data & Teleommunications

Data and Telecommunications - 147
DATA AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Data communication model: TCP/IP and OSI; data communication network components;
different types of networks: circuit switching, packet switching networks, ATM, HDLC and X.25;
signal and random processes; review of Fourier transformation and Hilbert transformation;
Introduction to modulation techniques; continuous wave modulation: AM, PM, FM; sampling
theorem; Pulse modulation: PAM, PDM, PPM, PCM; companding; delta modulation; different
PCM; Multiple access techniques: TDM, FDM; quantization; Digital modulation: ASK, FSK, PSK,
BPSK, QPSK; constellation; bit error rate (BER), noise; echo cancellation; intersymbol
interference; probability of error for pulse systems; concepts of channel coding and capacity;
asynchronous and synchronous communications; hardware interfaces, multiplexers,
concentrators and buffers; communication media; fiber optics; Wireless transmission:
propagation, path loss, fading, delay spread; spread spectrum: frequency hopping spread
spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum; CDMA; High speed digital access: DSL, SONET,
SDH; error detection and correction techniques: parity check, CRC, block code and hamming
code; flow and error control techniques: sliding window, stop and wait, ARQ and HDLC protocols;
modes of communications: simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.
Reference Books:
1) Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 4th Edition.
2) William Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, Published by Pearson, 8th Edition.
148 | Data and Telecommunications
CHAPTER 1 PAGE NO: 153
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION MODEL
1) What is data communication? (2021,2020, 2017,2016,2015,2014,2013,2012,2009)
2) Explain data communication characteristics. (2020, 2017,2015)
3) Describe simplified data communication model with proper diagram.(2021,2016, 2014,2013)
4) Briefly describe major communication tasks that involved in data communication. (2008)
5) Describe different types of LAN topologies. (2017)
6) Distinguish between LAN and WAN. (2008)
7) State the difference between TCP/IP with OSI reference Model. (2020, 2017, 2013)
8) What is protocol? What are the key elements of protocol? (2021,2017, 2014, 2013)
9) State the differences between connections less and connection oriented Protocol.
(2016, 2013)
10) Discuss the layers of OSI reference model. (2021,2020, 2016,2014)
11) Describe the layers of TCP/IP model. (2015)
12) Write down the difference between simplex, half duplex and full duplex transmission mode.
(2016, 2013)
13) Write down the difference between circuit switching and packet switching. (2014)
14) What is the difference between a port address, a logical address and a physical address?
[2014]
15) Describe VSAT configuration. [2015,2018]
16) What is transmission impairments? Explain it. [2015]
17) What is IP address? Classify its types. [2015]
18) How does sky propagation differ from line of sight propagation? [2014]
19) What is ISDN? Describe different types of channels used in ISDN? [2021]
20) What is the fundamental purpose of data communication? [2021,2010]
21) Define ATM. Describe ATM architecture protocol. [2021,2015]
22) Define Standard. [2011]
23) Define different type of noise? [2020,2018]
24) What do you understand by QoS of ATM? Brief about ATM service categories. [2021]

DATA TRANSMISSION
(CONTINUOUS WAVE MODULATION & PULSE MODULATION)
1) Define analog and digital signal. (2021,2017)
2) What are transmission impairments? Explain the types of transmission impairments.
(2017, 2015)
3) Briefly explain Nyquist bandwidth and Shannon capacity formula. (2021,2017)
4) What is the channel capacity for a teleprompter channel with a 300 Hz bandwidth and a
signal-to-noise ratio of 3DB? (2017)
5) A digital signaling system is required to operate at 9600 bps. If a signal element encodes a 4
bit word, what is the minimum required bandwidth of the channel? (2016)
6) Given a channel with an intended capacity of 20 Mbps. The bandwidth of the channel is3MHz.
What signal-to-noise ratio is required in order to achieve this capacity?
7) Define transmission media. (2017)
8) What is unguided transmission media? What are the drawback of this? (2020,2013)
9) Explain with figure of a fiber optic cable with its characteristics. (2017)
Or, what is optical fiber communication? Explain the characteristics of this communication
system? (2013)
10) Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission media. (2021,2020,2016)
11) Define the terms frequency, spectrum and bandwidth. [2016,2018]
12) Describe propagation of light though optical fiber. [2011]
13) How Framing in Data Link Layer. [2016]
14) Explain Go-Back-N ARQ. [2021,2018]
15) Explain flow control?
16) Difference between AM, PM, FM.
17) What are the reason for breaking up large data block into smaller data blocks for
transmission? [2021]

DIGITAL MODULATION
1) Briefly explain: ASK, FSK, PSK and QPSK techniques with principal advantages and
disadvantages. (2020, 2017,2014,2013,2012,2010)
2) What is constellation diagram? Show the constellation diagram of QPSK. (2010)
3) Define data rate and signal rate. (2015)
4) Describe data encoding & modulation techniques with figures. (2020, 2015,2009)
5) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitations.
(2020, 2017, 2014, 2013, 2009)
6) What is bit rate and baud rate? (2020, 2012,2010)
7) Construct a relation between data rate and bandwidth. (2021,2017,2016)
8) A signal is carrying four bits in each signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the bit rate and baud rate? (2020, 2012,2010)
9) What do you mean by line coding and block coding? (2010)
10) Describe the classification of line code.
11) Encode a stem using line code technique.
12) Why scrambling technique is used for digital to digital encoding? Depict and describe B8ZS or
HDB3. (2011)
13) Discuss NRZ-L and MDescribe NRZ-Ianchester encoding. [2013]
14) Discuss on hamming code. [2014]
15) Write down the digital signal encoding format. [2013]
16) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitation. [2020,2014]
17) An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 band.How many data
elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal elements do we need? (2021)
18) Describe NRZ-I,Bipolar AMI and Manchester for the following data: 01001101011. (2021)
DATA COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
1) Distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous data transmission. (2017)
2) What do you mean by HDLC? (2021,2016)
3) Describe the basic characteristics of HDLC protocol. (2016)
4) Define data rate and attenuation. (2016)
5) Compare between space-division and time-division switches. (2016)
6) What is Frame Relay? [2010]
7) Explain error detection process. [2013]
8) Discuss Fundamentals of Scrambling Techniques. [2011]
9) What is guided transmission media? [2014]
10) Discus Sliding Window Protocol. [2013]
11) Explain satellite transmission. [2010]
12) Explain the interleaving technique. [2010]
13) Explain the interleaving technique. [2010]
14) Explain Frame Synchronization
15) Describe Frame Relay architecture of HDLC. (2021)
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-hdlc-frames/
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION & MULTIPLEXING
1) What is multiplexing? Describe synchronous time division multiplexing with figure.
(2021,2020, 2017, 2016)
2) Explain how FDM combines multiple signals into one. (2020, 2017)
3) Which of the three multiplexing techniques are common for fiber optic links? Explain with
reason. (2017)
4) Compare between the features of FDM and TDM. (2021,2020,2017)
5) Define IP address and classification of IPV4.
6) What is IP address? (2016)
Find out IPV4 class types and calculating subnet mask as following addresses (2016)
i. 192.16.00/29;
ii. 172.17.0.0/23:
iii. 10.0.0.0/12
7) How data exchange over a full duplex data communication? [2010]
8) Explain multilevel multiplexing. [2018]
9) Define WDM. And compare between TDM & WDM. [2018]
10) Describe NRZ, Bipolar AMI and Manchester. [2016]
11) What do you mean by HDLC? Describe the basic characteristics of HDLC protocol. [2016]
12) Describe how does synchronous TDM works? [2021]
13) “The start and stop bits can be eliminated when character interleaving is used in synchronous
TDM”-Justify your answer. [2021]
HIGH SPEED DIGITAL ACCESS
1) What is packet switching network? Mention the advantages of packet switching over circuit
switching network. (2021,2017)
2) Describe datagram packet switching technique. (2017)
3) Given the following information. find the minimum bandwidth required for the path:
(2017, 2015)
i. FDM Multiplexing.
ii. Five devices, each requiring 4000 Hz.
iii. 200 Hz guard band. For each device.
4) What is router and routing table? Explain the important characteristics of routing function.
(2021,2017)
5) What is SONET? Describe the propagation of light through optical fiber. (2016)
6) What is switching network? Describe circuit switching network with figure. (2016)
7) Explain about X.25 protocol standard. (2021,2016)
8) Explain about virtual circuit and datagram approach of packet switching network with
necessary diagram. (2016)
9) Describe the need for switching and define a switch. (2016)
10) A channel has a bit rate of 4kbps and a propagation delay of 20 msec. For what range of frame
sizes does stop-and-wait give an efficiency of at least 50 percent? (2015)
11) Compare space-division and time division switches. [2014]
12) Discuss the function of Transport layer and network layer. [2013]
13) Describe circuit switching network with figure. [2016]
14) Define digital switch. [2021,2014]
15) Explain Virtual Circuit switching. [2010]
16) What is crossbar switch? [2010]
17) Explain simple switching network with figure. [2018]

ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION TECHNIQUES
1) How to works Parity Check of Error Detection?
2) What is block code?
3) Discuss General Algorithm of Hamming code.
4) Difference between Flow Control and Error Control :
5) Discuss HDLC frame types.
6) Describe CRC technique for error detection. (2015, 2018)
WRITE SHORT NOTES

PAGE NO: 232
1. Satellite (2021,2017)
2. V.24 interface standard (2017)
3. Virtual circuit (2021,2017)
4. VSAT; (2020, 2017,2016)
5. HDLC; (2017)
6. Stop –N wait ARQ (2017)
7. OSI model (2016)
8. Cellular communication (2016)
9. AM and FM techniques (2016)
10. FDM (2016)
11. CRC techniques (2021,2016)
12. CDMA (2021)
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1) What is data communication? (2021,2020,2017,2016,2015,2014,2013,2012,2009)
Solution: Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver
via form of transmission media such as a wire cable. Data communication is said to be local if
communicating devices are in the same building or a similarly restricted geographical area.
2) Explain data communication characteristics. (2017,2015)

Solution: The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.
3) Describe simplified data communication model with proper diagram.

(2021,2016, 2014, 2013)
Or, illustrate a communication model in simplified form. (2008)
Solution: The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data between
two parties. Figure (b) presents one particular example, which is communication between a
workstation and a server over a public telephone network. Another example is the exchange of
voice signals between two telephones over the same network. The key elements of the model are
as follows:
• Source. This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are telephones and personal
computers.
Figure: Simplified Communications Model

• Transmitter: Usually, the data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly in the
form in which they were generated. Rather, a transmitter transforms and encodes the information
in such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of
transmission system.
For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a personal
computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the
telephone network.
• Transmission system: This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting
source and destination.
• Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a
form that can be handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will accept an analog
signal coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.
• Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.
4) Briefly describe major communication tasks that involved in data communication.

(2008)
Solution:
Data Communication System Tasks
There are some tasks performed by the communication systems are:
Signal Generation
To transmit the data over the transmission system, communicating device must be able to
generate and receive these signals. The generation of the signals should be in such a way that the
resultant signal can be acceptable by the transmission mediums.
Interface
Device must interface with the transmission system to communicate or transfer the data over
network.
Data Synchronization
It is the process of establishing consistency among data from a source to destination devices and
vice versa and continuous harmonization of the data over time.
Exchange Management
For meaningful data transaction there should be some management of data being exchanged. Both
the transmitter and receiver should adhere to some common convention about the format of data,
amount of data, time required, data format etc.
Transmission System Utilization
Due to the importance of Data transmissions without interruptions or failures the transmission
systems is usually well dimensioned and are being operated with margins that minimize the
possibility of outages. Various techniques are available to allocate the total capacity of a
transmission channel among connected devices like Digital, Analog, Multiplex, Simplex, Duplex,
Half-Duplex etc.
Error Detection and Correction
In any communication system transmitted data is prone to error. Either it is because of
transmitted signal getting distorted in the transmission medium leading to misinterpretation of
signal or errors introduced by the intermediate devices. Error detection and correction is
required in cases where there is no scope for error in the data transaction. We can think of file
transfer between two computers or even on remote network computers where there is a need for
this. But in some cases it may not be very important as in the case of telephonic conversation.
Flow Control
At the time of transmission of data, source computer is generating data faster than receiver device
capable to receive it. To handle such problem, there is some kind of flow control mechanism used.
Before getting started the transmission of data they have to agree upon between two
communication devices.
Addressing
when more than two devices share a transmission facility, a source system must somehow
indicate the identity or address of the destination. Addresses are in form of IP or we can say ftp
address and there are used lots of credentials.
Routing
Routing means to send data to appropriate destinations. In this process the evolved computer
ensures that the data is being sent on destination system only or any other hacking happening. To
eliminate such problem developers uses SSL level security.
Communication Network and Services
Communication Network is set of equipment or say facilities that provide a communication
services like to transfer of data between two or more nodes located in any of its geographical
point. Example of such networks includes computer networks (LAN/WAN), intranet networks,
telephone networks, television broadcasting networks, cellular networks etc.
Radio and Television Networks
These networks are very common network usage various stations to transmit an ensemble of
signals simultaneously over network of cables. Aside from selecting the station of interest, the role
of the user in these services is passive. Relatively high audio and video quality is expected here
but a significant amount of delay (fraction of second) can be tolerated even in live broadcasting.
Telephone Networks
This service is real-time service provided by a network. Two persons are able to communicate by
transmitting their voice across the network. These services is called connection-oriented service
because to establish such communication users must first interact with the network.
Cellular Networks
These networks extends the normal telephone service to mobile users who are free to move
within a regional area covered by an interconnected array of smaller geographical areas called
cells. Each cell has a radio transmission system that allows it to communicate with users in its
area. Cellular provides also support a roaming service where a subscriber is able to place calls
while visiting regional area other than the home.
5) Describe different types of LAN topologies. (2017)

Solution: Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data
loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction
in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to
each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding
MESH Topology: Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic,
to re-configure the failed nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and it’s very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted
load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if
in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
2. Complex in design.
3. Costly.
6) Distinguish between LAN and WAN. (2008)

Solution:
LAN versus WAN comparison chart
LAN WAN
Stands For Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Covers Local areas only (e.g., homes, Large geographic areas (e.g., cities,
offices, schools) states, nations)
Definition LAN (Local Area Network) is a WAN (Wide Area Network) is a
computer network covering a computer network that covers a broad
small geographic area, like a home, area (e.g., any network whose
office, school, or group of buildings. communications links cross
metropolitan, regional, or national
boundaries over a long distance).
Speed High speed (1000 mbps) Less speed (150 mbps)
Data LANs have a high data transfer WANs have a lower data transfer rate
transfer rate. compared to LANs.
rates
Example The network in an office building The Internet is a good example of a
can be a LAN WAN
Technology Tend to use certain connectivity WANs tend to use technologies like
technologies, primarily Ethernet MPLS, ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for
and Token Ring connectivity over longer distances
7) State the difference between TCP/IP with OSI reference Model. (2017, 2013)
Solution: Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP
Reference Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.
OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol)
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols
standard, acting as a communication around which the Internet has developed. It is a
gateway between the network and end communication protocol, which allows connection
user. of hosts over a network.
2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
guarantees the delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP
model is more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation
layer and Session layer. layer or Session layer.
5. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented. 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented
and Connection less.
6. Network Layer is both Connection 6. Network Layer is Connection less.
Oriented and Connection less.
7. OSI is a reference model around which 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of
the networks are built. Generally it is used the OSI model.
as a guidance tool.
8. Network layer of OSI model provides 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
both connection oriented and connectionless service.
connectionless service.
9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.
10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
are easily replaced as the technology
changes.
11. OSI model defines services, interfaces 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols
and protocols very clearly and makes clear are not clearly separated. It is also protocol
distinction between them. It is protocol dependent.
independent.
12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers
Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model
8) What is protocol? What are the key elements of protocol? (2021,2017, 2014, 2013)
Solution: Communication is achieved by having the corresponding, or peer, layers in two systems
communicate. The peer layers communicate by means of formatted blocks of data that obey a set
of rules or conventions known as a protocol. The key features of a protocol are:
 Syntax – The term ‘Syntax’ refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
 Semantics – The word ‘Semantics’ refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
 Timing – The term ‘Timing ‘refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent.
9) State the differences between connections less and connection oriented Protocol.
(2016, 2013)
Solution:
BASIS OF CONNECTION-ORIENTED CONNECTION-LESS PROTOCOL
COMPARISON PROTOCOL
Prior Connection Necessary Not required
Requirement
Reliability Ensures reliable transfer of data. Not guaranteed.
Congestion Unlikely Occur likely.
Transferring It can be implemented using circuit It is implemented using packet

mode switching and virtual circuit. switching.
Lost data Feasible Practically, not possible.

retransmission
Suitability Suitable for long and steady Suitable for bursty Transmission.
communication.
Signaling Used for connection establishment. There is no concept of signaling.
Packet forwarding Packets sequentially travel to their Packets reach the destination
destination node and follows the randomly without following the
same route. same route.
Delay There is a delay in transfer of Because to the absence of
information, but once the connection connection establishment phase,
is established faster delivery can be the transmission is faster.
achieved.
Resource Need to be allocated. No prior allocation of the
Allocation resource is required.
10) Discuss the layers of OSI reference model. (2021,2016,2014)

Solution:
The OSI Model: Designated ISO/IEC 7498-1, the OSI model is a standard of the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is a general-purpose paradigm for discussing or
describing how computers communicate with one another over a network. Its seven-layered
approach to data transmission divides the many operations up into specific related groups of
actions at each layer
The transmitting computer software gives the data to be transmitted to the applications layer,
where it is processed and passed from layer to layer down the stack with each layer performing
its designated functions. The data is then transmitted over the physical layer of the network until
the destination computer or another device receives it. At this point the data is passed up through
the layers again, each layer performing its assigned operations until the data is used by the
receiving computer’s software.
All of the necessary and desirable operations required are grouped together in a logical sequence
at each of the layers. Each layer is responsible for specific functions:
Layer 7 – application: This layer works with the application software to provide
communications functions as required. It verifies the availability of a communications partner and
the resources to support any data transfer. It also works with end applications such as domain
name service (DNS), file transfer protocol (FTP), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), Internet
message access protocol (IMAP), post office protocol (POP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP),
Telenet, and terminal emulation.
Layer 6 – presentation: This layer checks the data to ensure that it is compatible with the
communications resources. It ensures compatibility between the data formats at the applications
level and the lower levels. It also handles any needed data formatting or code conversion, as well
as data compression and encryption.
Layer 5 – session: Layer 5 software handles authentication and authorization functions. It also
manages the connection between the two communicating devices, establishing a connection,
maintaining the connection, and ultimately terminating it. This layer verifies that the data is
delivered as well.
Layer 4 – transport: This layer provides quality of service (QoS) functions and ensures the
complete delivery of the data. The integrity of the data is guaranteed at this layer via error
correction and similar functions.
Layer 3 – network: The network layer handles packet routing via logical addressing and
switching functions.
Layer 2 – data link: Layer 2 operations package and unpack the data in frames.
Layer 1 – physical: This layer defines the logic levels, data rate, physical media, and data
conversion functions that make up the bit stream of packets from one device to another.
11) Describe the layers of TCP/IP model. (2015)

Solution: TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network
model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern
every possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data
between the source and destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing
schemes.
Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:
Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
1. Lowest layer of the all.
2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer
1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork
layer is called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion
Layer 3: Transport Layer
1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.
Layer 4: Application Layer
The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack.
Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine
and run applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic
mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected
over a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
1) TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol
which handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.
2) UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that does
not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.
12) Write down the difference between simplex, half duplex and full duplex transmission
mode. (2016, 2013)
Solution:
BASIS FOR SIMPLEX HALF DUPLEX FULL DUPLEX
COMPARISON
Direction of Communication is Communication is two- Communication is
Communication unidirectional. directional but, one at two directional and
a time. done
simultaneously.
Send/Receive A sender can send data A sender can send as A sender can send as
but, cannot receive. well as receive the data well as receive the
but one at a time. data simultaneously.
Performance The half duplex and full The full duplex mode Full duplex has
duplex yields better yields higher better performance
performance than the performance than half as it doubles the
Simplex. duplex. utilization of
bandwidth.
Example Keyboard and monitor. Walkie-Talkies. Telephone.
13) Write down the difference between circuit switching and packet switching. (2014)
Solution: Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching: Comparison Chart
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
A physical path is established which is Data is divided into small units called packets
dedicated to a single connection between the with each packet carrying small header
two end points. containing signaling information.
Data transmission takes place after the circuit is Dynamic route is established for each packet
established for the duration of the transmission. which carries the routing information.
A dedicated routing path is followed Each data packet may take a different route to
throughout the transmission and no other user reach the destination, making it flexible
is allowed to use the circuit. throughout the session.
It follows a uniform path throughout the There is no end to end reservation of links.
session.
Data doesn’t carry the signaling information Each data packet carries the signaling
and moves on its own. information containing source and
destination addresses in the packet header.
It’s ideal for voice communication and the delay It’s mainly used for data and voice
is uniform. communication, and the delay is not uniform.
It is connection oriented which is implemented It is connectionless and is implemented at
at physical layer. network layer.
14) What is the difference between a port address, a logical address and a physical address?
(2014)
Through logical address the systems identify a network (source to destination). after identifying
the network physical address is used to identify the host on that network. The port address is
used to identify the particular application running on the destination machine.
Logical Address: An IP address of the system is called logical address. This address is the
combination of Net ID and Host ID. This address is used by network layer to identify a particular
network (source to destination) among the networks. This address can be changed by changing
the host position on the network. So it is called logical address.
Physical address: Each system having a NIC(Network Interface Card) through which two systems
physically connected with each other with cables. The address of the NIC is called Physical
address or mac address. This is specified by the manufacturer company of the card. This address
is used by data link layer.
Port Address: There are many application running on the computer. Each application run with a
port no.(logically) on the computer. This port no. for application is decided by the Kernal of the
OS. This port no. is called port address.
15) Describe VSAT configuration. [2015]
Solution: VSATs (Very Small Aperture Terminals) is a two way, lost cost, Ground micro station for
transmitting data to and from communication satellites. A VSAT has a dish antenna with
diameters between 75 cm to 1 m, which is very small in comparison with 10 m diameter of a
standard GEO antenna. It accesses satellites in geosynchronous orbits or geostationary orbits.
Data rates in VSATs ranges from 4 Kbps to 16 Mbps.
Configurations of VSATs:
 Star Topology – This has a central uplink site which transmits data from and to each VSAT
through the satellite.
 Mesh Topology − Each VSAT transmits data via the satellite to the other stations. The above
diagram shows mesh topology of VSATs.
 Combination of the above
Uses of VSATs:
 In narrowband data − e.g. point – of – sale transactions using debit cards or credit cards, RFID
data
 In broadband data − e.g. Internet access to remote locations, VoIP
 Mobile communications
 Maritime communication
16) What is transmission impairments? Explain it. [2015]

Solution: In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which
tends to deteriorate the quality of analog signal. This imperfection causes signal impairment. This
means that received signal is not same as the signal that was send.
Causes of impairment –
Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance
which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated
signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back.
Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one
signal at two different point.
Attenuation (dB) = 10 log10 (P2/P1)
P1 is power at sending end and P2 is power at receiving end.
Distortion – It means change in the shape of signal. This is generally seen in composite signals
with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium. Every component arrive at different time which leads to delay distortion.
Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse
noise which may corrupt the signal.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as sending
antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna. Thermal noise is movement of
electrons in wire which creates an extra signal.
17) What is IP address? Classify its types. [2015]

IP address: An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP
address serves two main functions: host or network interface identification and location
addressing.
Static IP Addresses: As the name indicates, the static IP addresses usually never change but they
may be changed as a result of network administration. They serve as a permanent Internet
address and provide a simple and reliable way for the communication. From the static IP address
of a system, we can get many details such as the continent, country, region and city in which a
computer is located, The Internet Service Provider (ISP) that serves that particular computer and
non-technical information such as precise latitude and longitude of the country, and the locale of
the computer.
Dynamic IP Addresses: Dynamic IP address are the second category. These are temporary IP
addresses. These IP addresses are assigned to a computer when they get connected to the Internet
each time. They are actually borrowed from a pool of IP addresses, shared over various
computers. Since limited number of static IP addresses are available, ISPs usually reserve the
portion of their assigned addresses for sharing among their subscribers in this way. Static IP
addresses are considered as less secure than dynamic IP addresses because they are easier to
track.
IP Version 4 and IP Version 6: The two versions of IP addresses currently running are IP
versions 4 (IPv4) and IP versions 6 (IPv6). There are many features with these two versions.
IP Version 6: The IPv6 is the most recent version of Internet Protocol. As the Internet is growing
rapidly, there is a global shortage for IPv4. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF). IPv6 is intended to replace the IPv4. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address and it allows
2128 i.e. approximately 3.4×1038 addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller as some ranges
are reserved for special use or not used. The IPv6 addresses are represented by 8 groups of four
hexadecimal digits with the groups being supported by colons. An example:
2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
18) How does sky propagation differ from line of sight propagation? [2014]
Solution:
Sky propagation is not limited to send signals to receivers, line-of-sight is dependent on direction,
range and objects which may occur between sender and receiver.
Sky propagation is not limited in sense of distance of source and destination and not restricted by
being in range or in direction with antennas. In this case, signals are sent towards space and then
signals have vast range to reach receivers back to the earth. We should consider this thing, Sky is
the beyond the troposphere and ionosphere. When signals gone beyond these spheres so when
satellite will reflect those signals back, they will have much vast access to receivers.
On other hand line-of-sight propagation is limited because of earth curvature. If antennas (source
and target) are not directional, not facing each other or something preventing to establish the
connection so communication won’t be made.
19) What is ISDN? Describe different types of channel used in ISDN.(2021)

Solution:
ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network is an international standard for end to end digital
transmission of voice, data and signaling.
ISDN can operate over copper based systems and allows the transmission of digital data over the
telecommunications networks, typically ordinary copper based systems and providing higher data
speeds and better quality than analogue transmission.
The ISDN specifications provide a set of protocols that enable the setup, maintenance and
completion of calls.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network that carries packets data over copper lines and
enabled existing copper wire based landline technology to be used to carry digital services.
Although ISDN has been in use for many years, and it is being retired in some areas, it is still
widely used and some legacy services still make considerable use of it.
1. B (Bearer) Channel: B channels are used for carrying user data such as voice conversations,
video streams, or computer data. Each B channel has a bandwidth of 64 kilobits per second
(Kbps) and can be combined for higher data rates. In basic rate ISDN (BRI), two B channels are
available, providing a total data rate of 128 Kbps. In primary rate ISDN (PRI), there are
multiple B channels, typically ranging from 23 to 30 channels, providing higher data rates.
2. D (Delta) Channel: D channels are used for signaling and control purposes. They carry
signaling information between the user's equipment (such as a telephone or computer) and
the ISDN network. The D channel operates at a lower bandwidth compared to the B channels.
In BRI, a single D channel operates at 16 Kbps, while in PRI, multiple D channels are available,
typically at 64 Kbps each.
3. H (High-speed) Channel: H channels are used in ISDN for high-speed data transmission.
These channels are an extension of the B channels and provide greater bandwidth by
combining multiple B channels together. H channels can be used for applications that require
higher data rates, such as videoconferencing or transferring large files. The bandwidth of H
channels depends on the number of B channels combined. For example, H0 combines two B
channels for 128 Kbps, H11 combines 24 B channels for 1.536 Mbps, and H12 combines 30 B
channels for 1.920 Mbps.
4. S (Signaling) Channel: In some ISDN implementations, particularly older versions, a separate
S channel is used for signaling purposes. The S channel carries signaling information between
the user's equipment and the network, similar to the D channel. It is typically used in older
versions of ISDN and has a lower bandwidth than the D channel.
20) What is the fundamental purpose of data communication? [2021,2010]

Solution: Data communications means the exchange of data between two devices via some form
of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of
hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
Characteristics of Data Communications:
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy:
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of
video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.
4. Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If
some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in
the video is the result.
21) Define ATM. Describe ATM architecture protocol. [2021,2015]

Solution: An automated teller machine (ATM) is an electronic banking outlet that allows
customers to complete basic transactions without the aid of a branch representative or teller.
Anyone with a credit card or debit card can access cash at most ATMs.
Basic Cell structure of ATM:
An ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload. The payload size of 48 bytes was
chosen as described above. ATM defines two different cell formats: user–network interface (UNI)
and network–network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell format.
ATM protocol architecture.
The asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) protocol architecture is designed to support the transfer
of data with a range of guarantees for quality of service. The user data is divided into small, fixed-
length packets, called cells, and transported over virtual connections. ATM operates over high
data rate physical circuits, and the simple structure of ATM cells allows switching to be performed
in hardware, which improves the speed and efficiency of ATM switches.
Figure 24 shows the reference model for ATM. The first thing to notice is that, as well as layers,
the model has planes. The functions for transferring user data are located in the user plane; the
functions associated with the control of connections are located in the control plane; and the co-
ordination functions associated with the layers and planes are located in the management planes.
22) Define Standard. [2011]

Solution:
Standard are the protocols that have gone through a standardization process. They are
documented by some agency or organization so that a large number of vendors can get those
documents and design systems based on the same protocols. This takes care of the
interoperability issue and helps both vendors and users. Examples of standardization agencies
are; the Internet Society, International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and International Telecommunications
Union (ITU).
23) Define different type of noise? [2018]

Solution:
Noise: It’s important to understand the distinction between noise and sound. Noise is a type of
sound and is defined as unwanted, annoying, unpleasant or loud.
Our ears are excellent at telling us what noise is. Most commonly, noise is an annoying tone that
causes mild to major discomfort or irritation. These tones pierce through the background noise
that accompanies our lives. When it comes to measuring the different types of noise, we want to
replicate the how the human ear interprets noise in order to get an accurate representation of its
impact.
The Four types of noise:
1. Continuous noise: Continuous noise is exactly what it says on the tin: it’s noise that is
produced continuously, for example, by machinery that keeps running without interruption. This
could come from factory equipment, engine noise, or heating and ventilation systems.
2. Intermittent noise: Intermittent noise is a noise level that increases and decreases rapidly.
This might be caused by a train passing by, factory equipment that operates in cycles, or aircraft
flying above your house.
3. Impulsive noise: Impulsive noise is most commonly associated with the construction and
demolition industry. These sudden bursts of noise can startle you by their fast and surprising
nature. Impulsive noises are commonly created by explosions or construction equipment, such
as pile drivers, or your next door neighbor doing some DIY on a Sunday morning.
4. Low-frequency noise: Low-frequency noise makes up part of the fabric of our daily sounds
cape. Whether it’s the low background hum of a nearby power station or the roaring of large
diesel engines, we’re exposed to low-frequency noise constantly. It also happens to be the hardest
type of noise to reduce at source, so it can easily spread for miles around.
24) What do you understand by QoS of ATM? Brief about ATM service categories. [2021]
Quality of Service (QoS) is a type of Networking Technology that can guarantee a specific level
of output for a specific connection, path, or type of traffic. QoS mechanisms provide control on
both quality and availability of bandwidth whereas another network provides only a best-effort
delivery.
QoS feature is used when there is traffic congestion in-network, it gives priority to certain real-
time media. A high level of QoS is used while transmitting real-time multimedia to eliminate
latency and dropouts. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a networking technology that uses
a certain level of QoS in data transmission.
The Quality of Service in ATM is based on following: Classes, User-related attributes, and
Network-related attributes.
These are explained as following below.
1. Classes :
The ATM Forum defines four service classes that are explained below –
1. Constant Bit Rate (CBR) –
CBR is mainly for users who want real-time audio or video services. The service
provided by a dedicated line. For example, T line is similar to CBR class service.
2. Variable Bit Rate (VBR) –
VBR class is divided into two sub classes –
(i) Real-time (VBR-RT) :
The users who need real-time transmission services like audio and video and they also use
compression techniques to create a variable bit rate, they use VBR-RT service class.
(ii) Non-real Time (VBR-NRT) :
The users who do not need real-time transmission services but they use compression
techniques to create a variable bit rate, then they use VBR-NRT service class.
3. Available Bit Rate (ABR) –
ABR is used to deliver cells at a specific minimum rate and if more network capacity is
available, then minimum rate can be exceeded. ABR is very much suitable for applications
that have high traffic.
4. Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR) –
UBR class and it is a best-effort delivery service that does not guarantee anything.
2. User Related Attributes :

ATM defines two sets of attributes and User-related attribute is one of them. They are those
type attributes that define at what speed user wants to transmit data. These are negotiated
during time of contract between a network and a customer.
The following are some user-related attributes –
1. Sustained Cell Rate (SCR) –
SCR is average cell rate over a long time interval. The original cell rate can be less or greater
than value of SCR, but average must be equal to or less than value of SCR.
2. Peak Cell Rate (PCR) –
PCR is defined as maximum cell rate of sender. As long as SCR is maintained, cell rate of user
can reach this peak value.
3. Minimum Cell Rate (MCR) –
MCR defines minimum cell rate acceptable to sender. For example, if MCR is 50,000, network
must guarantee that sender can send at least 50,000 cells per second.
4. Cell Variation Delay Tolerance (CVDT) –
CVDT is a measure of the variation in cell transmission times. Let’s take an example if value
of CVDT is 8 ns, this signifies that difference between minimum and maximum delays in
delivering the cells should not be greater than 8 ns.
3. Network-Related Attributes
The attributes that are used to define different characteristics of network are known as
Network-related attributes.
The following are some network-related attributes –
1. Cell Loss Ratio (CLR) –
CLR defines the fraction of cells lost (or delivered so late that they are considered lost)
during transmission. For example, if sender sends 100 cells and one of them is lost, CLR is
CLR = 1/100
2. Cell Transfer Delay (CTD) –
The average time taken by a cell for traveling from source to destination is known as Cell
transfer delay. The maximum CTD and minimum CTD are also considered attributes.
3. Cell Delay Variation (CDV) –
CDV is difference between CTD maximum and CTD minimum.
4. Cell Error Ratio (CER) –
CER defines fraction of cells delivered in error.
CHAPTER 2
DATA TRANSMISSION
1) Define analog and digital signal. (2021,2017)
Solution: Analog Signal
An analog signal is a continuous wave denoted by a sine wave (pictured below) and may vary in
signal strength (amplitude) or frequency (time). The sine wave's amplitude value can be seen as
the higher and lower points of the wave, while the frequency (time) value is measured in the sine
wave's physical length from left to right.
There are many examples of analog signals around us. The sound from a human voice is analog,
because sound waves are continuous, as is our own vision, because we see various shapes and
colors in a continuous manner due to light waves. Even a typical kitchen clock having its hands
moving continuously can be represented as an analog signal.
Analog signal represented as a sine wave

Digital Signal
A digital signal - a must for computer processing - is described as using binary (0s and 1s), and
therefore, cannot take on any fractional values. As illustrated in the graphic below, digital signals
retain a uniform structure, providing a constant and consistent signal. Because of the inherent
reliability of the digital signal, technology using it is rapidly replacing a large percentage of analog
applications and devices. For example, the wristwatch, showing the time of day, with its minute,
hour, and sweeping second hands, is being replaced by the digital watch, which offers the time of
day and other information using a numerical display. A typical digital signal is represented below.
Note the equally dispersed 1s and 0s.
Digital signal with binary

2) What are transmission impairments? Explain the types of transmission impairments.
(2017, 2015)
In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal. This imperfection causes signal impairment. This means
that received signal is not same as the signal that was send.
Causes of impairment –
Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance
which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated
signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back.
Image Source – aviation chief

Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one
signal at two different point.
Attenuation (dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
P1 is power at sending end and P2 is power at receiving end.
Distortion – It means change in the shape of signal. This is generally seen in composite signals
with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium. Every component arrive at different time which leads to delay distortion.
Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse
noise which may corrupt the signal.
Noise may be divided into four categories:
• Thermal noise
• Intermediation noise
• Crosstalk
• Impulse noise
3) Briefly explain Nyquist bandwidth and Shannon capacity formula. (2021,2017)

A very important consideration in data communications how fast we can send data in bits per
second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors –
(i) The band width available
(ii) The level of the signals we use
(iii) The quality of the channel (the level noise).
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate- one by Nyquist for a
no1seless channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
Nyquist Bit Rate – For a noiseless channel, the

Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate
r = 2 × B × log2 L
In this formula, B is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used to
represent data, and r is the bit rate in bits per second.
According to the formula, we might think that, given a specific bandwidth, we can have any bit
rate we want by increasing the number of signal levels.
Although the idea is theoretically correct, practically there is a limit. When we increase the
number of signal levels, we impose a burden on the receiver. If the number of levels in a signal is
just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If the level of a signal is 64, the
receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different levels. In other words,
increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.
Shannon Capacity – In reality, we cannot have a

Noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. In 1944, Cloude-shannon
Introduced a formula called the Shannon capac1fy, to determine the theoretical
Highest data rate for a noisy Channel.
C = B × Iog2(1 + SNR)
In this formula B is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to noise ratio, and C is the
capacity of the channel in bits per second. Note that the Shannon formula there is no indication of
the signal level, which means that no matter how many levels we have. We cannot achieve a data
rate higher than the capacity of the channel. In other words, the formula defines a characteristic of
the channel, not the method of transmission.
In conclusion, we can say for channel capacity that the Shannon capacity gives us the’ upper limit
while the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.
4) What is the channel capacity for a teleprinter channel with a 300 Hz bandwidth and a
signal-to-noise ratio of 3DB? (2017)
Shannon capacity(channel capacity)
C = B Log2(1+ s/n)
C= channel capacity
B = bandwidth
S/N = signal to noise ratio in power units
As the S/n is in db, first we have to convert it.
3db= 10^3/10 = 10^0.3= 1.9926
Now putting in the formula
C = 300log2(1+ 1.9926)
C = 474.81 bps
5) A digital signaling system is required to operate at 9600 bps. If a signal element

encodes a 4 bit word, what is the minimum required bandwidth of the channel?
(2016)
Noise free NyquistC = 2B log2 L
Number of bits=log2 L > 4 = log2 L = L = 16
C = 9600 bps
C
B= = 9600/2 * 4 = 1200 Hz
2 log2 L
6) Given a channel with an intended capacity of 20 Mbps. The bandwidth of the channel
is3MHz. What signal-to-noise ratio is required in order to achieve this capacity?
Page 2 of 10
Mukesh N. Tekwani (mukeshtekwani@hotmail.com)
Solution:
According to Shannon’s Capacity formula the maximum channel capacity(in bps) is given by the
equation:
7) Define transmission media. (2017)
The transmission media is nothing but the physical media over which communication takes place
in computer networks.
There are two types of transmission media:
 Guided
 Unguided
8) What is unguided transmission media? What are the drawback of this? (2013)
Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 Signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless
phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Further Categorized as: (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.
(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height
of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.
(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is
used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Disadvantages:
 Very costly.
 Radio waves travel through lowest portion of atmosphere
 Radio wave communication is an insecure communication.
 Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rain,thunder and storm etc.
9) Explain with figure of a fiber optic cable with its characteristics. (2017)
Or, what is optical fiber communication? Explain the characteristics of this
communication system? (2013)
Fiber Optic Cable
A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. For better
understanding we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light. Light travels in a
straight line as long as it is mobbing through a single uniform substance. If ray of light travelling
through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a different density), the ray changes
direction. The below figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a more
dense to a less dense substance.
Bending of a light ray

As the figure shows:
 If the angle of incidence I(the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to the interface
between the two substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer
to the surface.
 If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects(makes a turn) and
travels again in the denser substance.
 If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves parallel to the
surface as shown.
Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded
by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be
such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being
refracted into it.
Internal view of an Optical fibre

10) Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission media. (2021,2016)
BASIS FOR GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA
COMPARISON
Basic The signal requires a physical path The signal is broadcasted through
for transmission. air or sometimes water.
Alternative It is called wired communication or It is called wireless
name bounded transmission media. communication or unbounded
transmission media.
Direction It provides direction to signal for It does not provide any direction.
travelling.
Types Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and Radio wave, microwave and
fibre optic cable. infrared.
11) Define the terms frequency, spectrum and bandwidth. [2016]

Solution:
Frequency: describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a given amount of time. So if
the time it takes for a wave to pass is 1/2 second, the frequency is 2 per second. The hertz
measurement, abbreviated Hz, is the number of waves that pass by per second.
Spectrum: Spectrum relates to the radio frequencies allocated to the mobile industry and other
sectors for communication over the airwaves. Additional frequencies, including both coverage and
capacity bands, means mobile operators can connect more people and offer faster speeds.
Bandwidth: The maximum amount of data transmitted over an internet connection in a given
amount of time. Bandwidth is often mistaken for internet speed when it's actually the volume of
information that can be sent over a connection in a measured amount of time – calculated in
megabits per second (Mbps).
12) Describe propagation of light though optical fiber. [2011]

Solution:
Propagation of light though optical fiber: Fibre optic communication is a method of
transmitting information from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical
fibre. The information carrying capacity of a cable or radio channel is directly proportional to its
bandwidth.
 Transducer basically converts information from source into electrical signal.

 Optical source (LASER or LED) converts electrical signal into optical (light) signal.
 Optical channel is optical fibre.
 Optical detector converts optical signal into electrical signal. Avalanche photo-diode is used as
optical detector.
13) How Framing in Data Link Layer. [2016]

In the physical layer, data transmission involves synchronized transmission of bits from the
source to the destination. The data link layer packs these bits into frames.
Data-link layer takes the packets from the Network Layer and encapsulates them into frames. If
the frame size becomes too large, then the packet may be divided into small sized frames. Smaller
sized frames makes flow control and error control more efficient.
Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’s end, data link layer picks up
signals from hardware and assembles them into frames.
Parts of a Frame
A frame has the following parts −
 Frame Header − It contains the source and the destination addresses of the frame.
 Payload field − It contains the message to be delivered.
 Trailer − It contains the error detection and error correction bits.
 Flag − It marks the beginning and end of the frame.
14) Explain Go-Back-N ARQ. [2021,2018]

Solution:
Go-Back-N ARQ is a specific instance of the automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocol, in which the
sending process continues to send a number of frames specified by a window size even without
receiving an acknowledgement (ACK) packet from the receiver. It is a special case of the
general sliding window protocol with the transmit window size of N and receive window size of 1.
It can transmit N frames to the peer before requiring an ACK.
The receiver process keeps track of the sequence number of the next frame it expects to receive,
and sends that number with every ACK it sends. The receiver will discard any frame that does not
have the exact sequence number it expects (either a duplicate frame it already acknowledged, or
an out-of-order frames it expects to receive later) and will resend an ACK for the last correct in-
order frame. Once the sender has sent all of the frames in its window, it will detect that all of the
frames since the first lost frame are outstanding, and will go back to the sequence number of the
last ACK it received from the receiver process and fill its window starting with that frame and
continue the process over again.
Go-Back-N ARQ is a more efficient use of a connection than Stop-and-wait ARQ, since unlike
waiting for an acknowledgement for each packet, the connection is still being utilized as packets
are being sent. In other words, during the time that would otherwise be spent waiting, more
packets are being sent. However, this method also results in sending frames multiple times – if
any frame was lost or damaged, or the ACK acknowledging them was lost or damaged, then that
frame and all following frames in the send window (even if they were received without error) will
be re-sent. To avoid this, Selective Repeat ARQ can be
15) Explain flow

control?Solution:
In networking, Flow Control is the mechanism by which a modem controls the rate at which it
receives data from another modem. You can also use flow control to describe data rate control
mechanisms between other devices, such as computers and attached printers, or
between CSU/DSUs (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Units) and routers.
Fig: Flow Control

Flow control is sometimes equated with handshaking, but the term “handshaking” specifically
refers to flow control negotiations that take place at the beginning of a communication session,
while the term “flow control” also can apply to data transmission management during an active
communication session.
Hardware flow control: Also known as RTS/CTS (Request To Send/ Clear To Send) control, this
method uses special dedicated pinning on cables to leave flow control to the modem itself. In
other words, a separate hard-wired signal link (wire) that does not carry data is used to enable
one modem to send stop and start messages to the other modem by raising or lowering voltage
levels on this wire. Hardware flow control is used with high-speed modems that can compress
data and is usually the default setting for Microsoft Windows-based software, such
as HyperTerminal, that uses modems.
Software flow control: Also known as XON/XOFF control, this method uses special data
characters (usually Ctrl+S to stop transmission, and Ctrl+Q to resume) sent within the data stream
itself to enable a local modem to signal a remote modem to stop transmitting data so that the local
modem can catch up. Software flow control is slower and less reliable than hardware flow control
because a user, program, or line noise might inadvertently generate a stop signal for the remote
modem. In addition, software flow control is used only for transmitting ASCII text information, not
for binary data files, because the binary data might contain the Ctrl+S stop character and cause the
remote modem to stop transmitting data.
16. Difference between AM, PM ,FM.

Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same;
only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the information.
Below Figure shows how this concept works. The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the
carrier changes correspondingly.
Phase Modulation (PM)
In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the carrier
changes correspondingly.
In FM, the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal; in PM the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the
derivative of the amplitude of the modulating signal.
17. What are the reason for breaking up large data block into smaller data blocks for
transmission?[2021]
Breaking a large data block into smaller data blocks for transmission is beneficial for several
reasons:
1. Reliability: When transmitting data, there is always a chance of errors or data loss during
transmission. By breaking the data into smaller blocks, the impact of such errors is limited to
individual blocks rather than the entire data set. If an error occurs in one block, only that
block needs to be retransmitted, reducing the overall data loss and improving the reliability of
the transmission.
2. Efficiency: Large data blocks can be more challenging to handle and transmit efficiently.
Smaller blocks allow for better utilization of available network resources. They can be
transmitted more quickly, reducing the time required for transmission and improving overall
efficiency.
3. Error detection and correction: Breaking data into smaller blocks enables the use of error
detection and correction mechanisms at the block level. For example, checksums or error-
correcting codes can be applied to each block individually. If errors are detected, they can be
corrected within the specific block without affecting the entire data set.
4. Adaptability to network conditions: Network conditions can vary during transmission, and
different blocks may experience different levels of congestion, latency, or packet loss. By
dividing data into smaller blocks, the transmission protocol can adapt more effectively to
varying network conditions. It allows for more flexible routing and retransmission strategies
to optimize data delivery.
5. Parallel processing: Breaking data into smaller blocks enables parallel processing and
transmission. Multiple blocks can be sent simultaneously over different channels, improving
the throughput and reducing the overall transmission time.
6. Compatibility with protocols and devices: Some communication protocols or devices may
have limitations on the maximum data size they can handle. By breaking the data into smaller
blocks, it ensures compatibility with such constraints and facilitates seamless transmission
across different systems.
CHAPTER 3
Digital modulation
1) Briefly explain: ASK, FSK, PSK and QPSK techniques with principal advantages and
disadvantages. (2017,2014,2013,2012,2010)
Solution: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents
the binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.
Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when ASK modulated, gives
a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.
The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform along with its input.
To find the process of obtaining this ASK modulated wave, let us learn about the working of the
ASK modulator.
ASK Advantages
Following points summarizes ASK advantages:
➨It offers high bandwidth efficiency.
➨It has simple receiver design.
➨ASK modulation can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
➨ASK modulation and ASK demodulation processes are comparatively inexpensive.
➨Its variant OOK is used at radio frequencies to transmit morse codes.
ASK Disadvantages
Following points summarizes ASK disadvantages:
➨It offers lower power efficiency.
➨ASK modulation is very susceptible to noise interference. This is due to the fact that noise
affects the amplitude. Hence another alternative modulation technique such as BPSK which is less
susceptible to error than ASK is used.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the
carrier signal varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency
modulation.
The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in
frequency for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies.
The following image is the diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform
along with its input.
To find the process of obtaining this FSK modulated wave, let us know about the working of a
FSK modulator.
Benefits or advantages of FSK
Following are the benefits or advantages of FSK:
➨It has lower probability of error (Pe).
➨It provides high SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio).
➨It has higher immunity to noise due to constant envelope. Hence it is robust against variation in
attenuation through channel.
➨FSK transmitter and FSK receiver implementations are simple for low data rate application.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of FSK
Following are the disadvantages of FSK:
➨It uses larger bandwidth compare to other modulation techniques such as ASK and PSK. Hence
it is not bandwidth efficient.
➨The BER (Bit Error Rate) performance in AWGN channel is worse compare to PSK modulation.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier
signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK technique is
widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth
communications.
PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are −
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave
carrier takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.
BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme, for
message being the digital information.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four phase reversals
such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.
If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done by eight or sixteen values also,
depending upon the requirement.
Benefits or advantages of PSK
Following are the benefits or advantages of PSK:
➨It carries data over RF signal more efficiently compare to other modulation types. Hence it is
more power efficient modulation technique compare to ASK and FSK.
➨It is less susceptible to errors compare to ASK modulation and occupies same bandwidth as
ASK.
➨Higher data rate of transmission can be achieved using high level of PSK modulations such as
QPSK (represents 2 bits per constellation), 16-QAM (represents 4 bits per constellation) etc.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of PSK
Following are the disadvantages of PSK:
➨It has lower bandwidth efficiency.
➨The binary data is decoded by estimation of phase states of the signal. These detection and
recovery algorithms are very complex.
➨Multi-level PSK modulation schemes (QPSK, 16QAM etc.) are more sensitive to phase
variations.
➨It is also one form of FSK and hence it also offers lower bandwidth efficiency compare to ASK
modulation type.
The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a Double Side
Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme, which sends two bits of digital
information at a time, called as bigits.
Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream, it converts them into bit
pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half, which allows space for the other users.
QPSK Modulator
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator, a 2-bit serial to
parallel converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the block diagram for the same.
At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2nd bit, 4th bit, 6th bit, etc.) and odd
bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are separated by the bits splitter and are multiplied with the
same carrier to generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK (called as PSKQ).
The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being modulated.
The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the modulated result for
different instances of binary inputs.
Benefits or advantages of QPSK

Following are the benefits or advantages of QPSK:
➨In QPSK modulation, two bit are carried by one single analog carrier. Hence bandwidth is twice
efficient in comparison to BPSK modulation. Here symbol rate is half of the raw bit rate.
➨BPSK is bandwidth efficient modulation technique as two bits are carried by single carrier.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of QPSK
Following are the disadvantages of QPSK:
➨In QPSK modulation technique, one complex symbol represents two binary bits. Due to this,
QPSK receiver is more complex compare to BPSK receiver due to four states needed to recover
binary data information.
➨Due to above reason, QPSK is not power efficient modulation technique compare to other
modulation types as more power is required to transmit two bits.
2) What is constellation diagram? Show the constellation diagram of QPSK. (2010)

Solution:
A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated by a digital modulation scheme
such as modulation or phase-shift keying. It displays the signal as a two-dimensional xy-plane
scatter diagram in the complex plane at symbol sampling instants.
The angle of a point, measured counterclockwise from the horizontal axis, represents the phase
shift of the carrier wave from a reference phase. The distance of a point from the origin represents
a measure of the amplitude or power of the signal.
A 8-PSK. The diagram shows information is transmitted as one of 8 "symbols", each representing
3 bits of data. Each symbol is encoded as a different phase shift of the carrier sine wave: 0°, 45°,
90°, 135°, 180°, 225°, 270°, 315°
3) Define data rate and signal rate. (2015)

Solution: data rate the speed at which data is transferred within the computer or between a
peripheral device and the computer, measured in bytes per second. See transfer
rate and space/time.
Signal rate The term signaling rate (or baud rate) is used to describe the number of signaling
elements (bauds) that can be transmitted in one second.
4) Describe data encoding & modulation techniques with figures. (2015,2009)

Solution: Figure 5.1 is another depiction that emphasizes the process involved. For digital
signaling, a data source g(t), which may be either digital or analog, is encoded into a digital signal
x(t).The actual form of x(t) depends on the encoding technique and is chosen to optimize use of
the transmission medium. For example, the encoding may be chosen to conserve bandwidth or to
minimize errors.
The basis for analog signaling is a continuous constant-frequency signal known as the carrier
signal. The frequency of the carrier signal is chosen to be compatible with the transmission
medium being used. Data may be transmitted using a carrier signal by modulation. Modulation is
the process of encoding
Figure: Encoding and Modulation Techniques

Source data onto a carrier signal with frequency fc .All modulation techniques involve operation
on one or more of the three fundamental frequency domain parameters: amplitude, frequency,
and phase. The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital and is called the modulating signal or
baseband signal. The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the modulated signal s(t). As
Figure b indicates, s(t) is a band limited (bandpass) signal. The location of the bandwidth on the
spectrum is related to fc and is often centered on fc.Again, the actual form of the encoding is
chosen to optimize some characteristic of the transmission.
5) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitations.

(2017, 2014, 2013, 2009)
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is based on the sampling theorem:
Figure 5.15 Digitizing Analog Data
Figure: PCM Block Diagram

Sampling
Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants,
converts the continuous signal into a discrete signal. For example, conversion of a sound wave to a
sequence of samples. The Sample is a value or set of values at a point in time or it can be spaced.
Sampler extract samples of a continuous signal, it is a subsystem ideal sampler produces samples
which are equivalent to the instantaneous value of the continuous signal at the specified various
points. The Sampling process generates flat- top Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal.
Analog and Sampled Signal

Quantization
In quantization, an analog sample with an amplitude that converted into a digital sample with an
amplitude that takes one of a specific defined set of quantization values. Quantization is done by
dividing the range of possible values of the analog samples into some different levels, and
assigning the center value of each level to any sample in quantization interval. Quantization
approximates the analog sample values with the nearest quantization values. So almost all the
quantized samples will differ from the original samples by a small amount. That amount is called
as quantization error. The result of this quantization error is we will hear hissing noise when play
a random signal. Converting analog samples into binary numbers that is 0 and 1.
Uniformly Quantized Signal

Encoding
The encoder encodes the quantized samples. Each quantized sample is encoded into an 8-bit code
word by using A-law in the encoding process.
 Bit 1 is the most significant bit (MSB), it represents the polarity of the sample. “1” represents
positive polarity and “0” represents negative polarity.
 Bit 2,3 and 4 will defines the location of sample value. These three bits together form linear
curve for low level negative or positive samples.
 Bit 5,6,7 and 8 are the least significant bits (LSB) it represents one of the segments quantized
value. Each segment is divided into 16 quantum levels.
PCM is two types Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) and Adaptive Differential Pulse Code
Modulation (ADPCM).
6) What is bit rate and baud rate? (2012,2010)

Solution: Bit Rate
The speed of the data is expressed in bits per second (bits/s or bps). The data rate R is a function
of the duration of the bit or bit time (TB) (Fig. 1, again):
R = 1/TB
Rate is also called channel capacity C. If the bit time is 10 ns, the data rate equals:
R = 1/10 x 10–9 = 100 million bits/s
This is usually expressed as 100 Mbits/s.
Baud Rate
The term “baud” originates from the French engineer Emile Baudot, who invented the 5-bit
teletype code. Baud rate refers to the number of signal or symbol changes that occur per second. A
symbol is one of several voltage, frequency, or phase changes.
NRZ binary has two symbols, one for each bit 0 or 1, that represent voltage levels. In this case, the
baud or symbol rate is the same as the bit rate. However, it’s possible to have more than two
symbols per transmission interval, whereby each symbol represents multiple bits. With more than
two symbols, data is transmitted using modulation techniques.
7) Construct a relation between data rate and bandwidth. (2021,2017,2016)

Answer: In general, information is conveyed by change in values of the signal in time. Since
frequency of a signal is a direct measure of the rate of change in values of the signal, the more the
frequency of a signal, more is the achievable data rate or information transfer rate. This can be
illustrated by taking the example of both an analog and a digital signal.
If we take analog transmission line coding techniques like Binary ASK, Binary FSK or Binary PSK,
information is transferred by altering the property of a high frequency carrier wave. If we
increase the frequency of this carrier wave to a higher value, then this reduces the bit interval T (=
1/f) duration, thereby enabling us to transfer more bits per second.
Similarly, if we take digital transmission techniques like NRZ, Manchester encoding etc., these
signals can be modeled as periodic signals and hence is composed of an infinite number of
sinusoids, consisting of a fundamental frequency (f) and its harmonics. Here too, the bit interval
(T) is equal to the reciprocal of the fundamental frequency (T = 1/f). Hence, if the fundamental
frequency is increased, then this would represent a digital signal with shorter bit interval and
hence this would increase the data rate.
So, whether it is analog or digital transmission, an increase in the bandwidth of the signal, implies
a corresponding increase in the data rate. For e.g. if we double the signal bandwidth, then the data
rate would also double.
In practice however, we cannot keep increasing the signal bandwidth infinitely. The
telecommunication link or the communication channel acts as a police and has limitations on the
maximum bandwidth that it would allow. Apart from this, there are standard transmission
constraints in the form of different channel noise sources that strictly limit the signal bandwidth
to be used. So the achievable data rate is influenced more by the channel’s bandwidth and noise
characteristics than the signal bandwidth.
Nyquist and Shannon have given methods for calculating the channel capacity (C) of bandwidth
limited communication channels.
8) A signal is carrying four bits in each signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the bit rate and baud rate? (2012,2010)
Solution:
9) M What do you mean by line coding and block coding? (2010)

Solution:
Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital data is
found in binary format. It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.
Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For example, in even-
parity, one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way the original
number of bits is increased. It is called Block Coding.
Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB.Means, m-bit block is substituted with n-bit
block where n > m. Block coding involves three steps:
 Division,
 Substitution
 Combination.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.
10) Describe the classification of line code.
Solution: Line code can be classified based on symbol mapping functions (ak) like,
Unipolar: In unipolar signalling, binary symbol 0 is represented by the absence of a pulse called
space and the other binary symbol 1 is represented by the presence of a pulse called mark. It is
also called on-off keying.
Polar:In polar signalling a binary 1 is represented by a pulse p(t) and a binary 0 by the opposite
(or antipodal) pulse –p(t).
Bipolar:Bipolar Signalling is also called ‘Alternate Mark Inversion’ (AMI) which uses three voltage
levels (+V, 0, –V) to represent binary symbols. Zeros, as in unipolar, are represented by the
absence of a pulse and ones (or marks) are representedby alternating voltage levels of +V and –V.
Line code can again be classified based on pulse shapes p(t) like,
NRZ (Nonreturn-to-zero): The pulse occupies the full duration of a symbol.
RZ (Return to Zero):The pulse occupies the half of duration of a symbol.
Manchester (split phase): In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two
halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level during
the second half. Binary logic 1 is +ve in 1st half and -ve in 2nd half. Binary logic 0 is -ve in 1st half
and +ve in 2nd half.
11) Encode a stem using line code technique.

Answer:
Fig. Line coding
Mark Mark space Mark space A space

(hole) (hole) (hole)
A
T
Tb (
Ac 0
-
A 0
A (
1 1 0 -
(
0
Binary Signaling Formats -

(
0
Volts
12) Why scrambling technique is used for digital to digital encoding? Depict and describe
B8ZS or HDB3. (2011)
Answer: In data communication, long sequence of 0 is replaced by combination of other levels to
provide synchronization called Scrambling Technique. It must satisfy:
• It should be recognized by receiver and replace with original
• Same length as original
• Error detection capability
Two commonly used techniques are:
B8ZS (Bipolar with 8 Zeros Substitution),and
HDB3 (High Density Bipolar 3 zeros)
14) Discuss NRZ-L and Manchester encoding. [2013]

Solution:
Encoding Techniques:
NRZ - L: There is a change in the polarity of the signal, only when the incoming signal changes
from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. It is the same as NRZ, however, the first bit of the input signal should
have a change of polarity.
Manchester: In this type of coding, there always occurs a transition in the middle of the bit
interval. If there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 0.
If no transition occurs at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 1.
The following figure illustrates the waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Bi-phase Manchester and
Differential Manchester coding for different digital inputs.
15) Discuss on hamming code.
Solution:
The applications of hamming code are:
o They are extensively used in telecommunication industry.
o They are used in computer memory, modems and embedded processors.
o They are used in Satellites.
The advantages of Hamming Code are:

 They are effectively used to detect and correct errors.
 Single-bit error correction using these Codes is effective on Data Stream Networks.
The disadvantages of Hamming Code are:
 Bandwidth usage is more.
 Extra parity bit added for error correction reduces the bit rate of transmitter.
16) Write down the digital signal encoding format. [2013]

Solution:
Signal Encoding: Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link. The common types of line
encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and Manchester.
Signal Encoding Techniques: The data encoding technique is divided into the following types,
depending upon the type of data conversion.
 Analog data to Analog signals: The modulation techniques such as Amplitude Modulation,
Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of analog signals, fall under this category.
 Analog data to Digital signals: This process can be termed as digitization, which is done by
Pulse Code Modulation PCM. Hence, it is nothing but digital modulation. As we have already
discussed, sampling and quantization are the important factors in this. Delta Modulation gives
a better output than PCM.
 Digital data to Analog signals: This techniques such as Amplitude Shift Keying ASK,
Frequency Shift Keying FSK, Phase Shift Keying PSK, etc., fall under this category. These will
be discussed in subsequent chapters.
 Digital data to Digital signals: These are in this section. There are several ways to map
digital data to digital signals.
17) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitation. [2014]
Solution: Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog.
It is the standard form of digital audio in computers, compact discs, digital telephony and other
digital audio applications. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the analog signal is sampled regularly
at uniform intervals, and each sample is quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital
steps.
A PCM stream has two basic properties that determine the stream's fidelity to the original analog
signal: the sampling rate, which is the number of times per second that samples are taken; and
the bit depth, which determines the number of possible digital values that can be used to
represent each sample.
Disadvantages of PCM:
a. Overload appears when modulating signal changes between samplings, by an amount greater
than the size of the step.
b. Large bandwidth is required for transmission.
c. Noise and crosstalk leaves low but rises attenuation.
d. An IDN (Integrated Digital Network) can only be realized by gradual extension of noise.
e. The difference between original analog signal and translated digital signal is called quantizing
error.
18) An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 band.How many
data elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal elements do we
need? (2021)
Data element per signal elements is given as;
Data Element (N) = i
Signal elements (S) is Calculated as:
S= 2
Where,
N= Data Elements
Calculation:
Given: Bit rate= 8000 bps= 8000 data elements/sec
Baud Rate= 1000 baud = 1000 signal elements/sec
Data Element (N) = 8000

1000
N= 8 bits
S= 2
S= 28 = 256
19) Describe NRZ-I,Bipolar AMI and Manchester for the following data: 01001101011.
(2021)
NRZ-1:
Bipolar AMI:
Manchester:
CHAPTER 4
DATA COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
1. Distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous data transmission. (2017)
Solution:
Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous:
Asynchronous Synchronous
Form of Signal In one form of asynchronous In synchronous transmission, the
required for transmission, there is only one stream of data to be transferred is
Transmission wire/signal carrying the encoded as fluctuating voltages in
transmission. one wire, and a periodic pulse of
voltage is put on another wire
(often called the "clock" or
"strobe").
Transformation of sender provides a synchronization sender and receiver use the same
Message Methods signal to the receiver before clock signal
starting the transfer of each
message
Properties  Does not need clock signal  supports high data transfer rate
between the sender and the  needs clock signal between the
receiver sender and the receiver
 Slower data transfer rate  require master/slave
configuration
Advantages  Simple, doesn't require Lower overhead and thus, greater
synchronization of both throughput
communication sides
 Cheap, because Asynchronous
transmission require less
hardware
 Set-up is faster than other
transmissions, so well suited for
applications where messages are
generated at irregular intervals,
for example data entry from the
keyboard and the speed depends
on different applications
Disadvantages Large relative overhead, a high  Slightly more complex
proportion of the transmitted bits  Hardware is more expensive
are uniquely for control purposes
and thus carry no useful
information
Communication This communication works much This communication works much
Examples like the postal system like a phone call.
2. What do you mean by HDLC? (2021,2016)
Answer: HDLC (High-level Data Link Control) is a group of protocols or rules for
transmitting data between network points (sometimes called nodes). In HDLC, data is organized
into a unit (called a frame) and sent across a network to a destination that verifies its successful
arrival. The HDLC protocol also manages the flow or pacing at which data is sent. HDLC is one of
the most commonly-used protocols in what is layer 2 of the industry communication reference
model called Open Systems Interconnection (OSI). (Layer 1 is the detailed physical level that
involves actually generating and receiving the electronic signals.
3. Describe the basic characteristics of HDLC protocol. (2016)

Answer: A high-level data link control defines rules for transmitting data between network
points. Data in an HDLC is organized into units called frames and is sent across networks to
specified destinations. HDLC also manages the pace at which data is transmitted. HDLC is
commonly used in the open systems interconnection (OSI) model's layer 2.
HDLC frames are transmitted over synchronous links or asynchronous links, which do not mark
the start and end of frames. This is done using a frame delimiter or flag, which contains unique
sequence of bits that are not visible inside a frame.
There are three types of HDLC frames:
1) Information frames/User data (I-frames)
2) Supervisory frames/Control data (S-frames)
3) Unnumbered frames (U-frames)
The common fields within an HDLC frame are:

 Flag
 Address
 Control information
 Frame check sequence
The HDLC protocol is used by a variety of standards implemented in the protocol stacks of X.25,
V.42 and ISDN and many other protocol stacks.
4. Define data rate and attenuation. (2016)

Answer: Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the strength of a signal.
Attenuation occurs with any type of signal, whether digital or analog. Sometimes called loss,
attenuation is a natural consequence of signal transmission over long distances. The extent of
attenuation is usually expressed in units called decibels (dBs)
5. Compare between space-division and time-division switches. (2016)

Answer: In a space-division switch, the path from one device to another is spatially separate from
other paths. The inputs and the outputs are connected using a grid of electronic micro switches. In
a time-division switch, the inputs are divided in time using TDM. A control unit sends the input to
the correct output device.
6. What is Frame Relay? [2010]
Solution: Frame Relay is a packet-switching technology offered as a telecommunications service
by Telco and long-distance carriers, used primarily for WAN links. Frame relay can be used to
encapsulate local area network (LAN) traffic such as Ethernet frames for transmission over digital
data transmission lines for wide area networks (WANs) and can connect multiple LANs to form a
multipoint WAN. Frame relay technology was originally an offshoot of Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) digital communication technology.
7. Explain error detection process. [2013]

Solution:
How to Detect and Correct Errors:
To detect and correct the errors, additional bits are added to the data bits at the time of
transmission.
 The additional bits are called parity bits. They allow detection or correction of the errors.
 The data bits along with the parity bits form a code word.
Parity Checking of Error Detection
It is the simplest technique for detecting and correcting errors. The MSB of an 8-bits word is used
as the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as data or message bits. The parity of 8-bits
transmitted word can be either even parity or odd parity.
Even parity -- Even parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit
should be even (2,4,6, ... ).
Odd parity -- Odd parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit
should be odd (1,3,5, ... ).
Use of Parity Bit
The parity bit can be set to 0 and 1 depending on the type of the parity required.
 For even parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is even.
Shown in fig. (a).
 For odd parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is odd.
Shown in fig. (b).
8. Discuss Fundamentals of Scrambling Techniques. [2011]
Solution: Scrambling is a binary bit-level processing applied to the transmission rate signal in
order to make the resulting binary sequence appear more random. The scrambler performing
this scrambling function can be implemented simply using a few shift registers and exclusive-
OR gates; and the descramblers reconstructing the original bit stream out of the scrambled data
stream has the same structure but with the reversed data flow. For a proper reconstruction of
the original bit stream the shift registers in the descrambler should get synchronized to their
counterparts in the scrambler. Depending on the synchronization method used, scrambling
techniques are classified into three categories, namely the frame-synchronous scrambling (FSS),
the distributed sample scrambling (DSS), and the self-synchronous scrambling (SSS). In the FSS,
the states of the scrambler and the descrambler shift registers get synchronized by being
simultaneously reset to the pre specified states at the start of each frame; in the DSS, samples
taken from the scrambler shift registers are transmitted to the descrambler in a distributed
manner for use in synchronizing the descrambler shift registers; and in the SSS, the states of the
scrambler and descrambler shift registers are automatically synchronized without any
additional synchronization processes.
9. What is guided transmission media? [2014]

Solution: Guided Transmission Media. Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from
one device to another, include Twisted-Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, and Fiber-Optic Cable. A signal
travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.
10. Discus Sliding Window Protocol. [2013]
Solution:
Sliding Window Protocol:
 Sliding window protocol is a flow control protocol.

 It allows the sender to send multiple frames before needing the acknowledgements.
 Sender slides its window on receiving the acknowledgements for the sent frames.
 This allows the sender to send more frames.
 It is called so because it involves sliding of sender’s window.
11. Explain satellite transmission. [2010]

Solution: A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio
telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a
source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. Communications satellites are
used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. There are about 2,000
communications satellites in Earth's orbit, used by both private and government organizations.
Many are in geostationary orbit 22,236 miles (35,785 km) above the equator, so that the satellite
appears stationary at the same point in the sky, so the satellite dish antennas of ground stations
can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track it.
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of sight and so
are obstructed by the curve of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the
signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated
geographical points. Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave
frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which
frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use.
12. Explain the interleaving technique. [2010]
Solution:
Interleaving divides memory into small chunks. It is used as a high-level technique to solve
memory issues for motherboards and chips. By increasing bandwidth so data can access chunks of
memory, the overall performance of the processor and system increases. This is because the
processor can fetch and send more data to and from memory in the same amount of time.
Interleaving is the only technique supported by all kinds of motherboards. High-level processing
management systems are constantly required to implement such techniques. Interleaving
promotes efficient database and communication for servers in large organizations.
There are various types of interleaving:

1. Two-Way Interleaving: Two memory blocks are accessed at same level for reading and
writing operations. The chance for overlapping exists.
2. Four-Way Interleaving: Four memory blocks are accessed at the same time.
3. Error-Correction Interleaving: Errors in communication systems occur in high volumes
rather than in single attacks. Interleaving controls these errors with specific algorithms.
Latency is one disadvantage of interleaving. Interleaving takes time and hides all kinds of error
structures, which are not efficient.
13. Explain the interleaving technique. [2010]

Solution:
This chapter describes the use of certain interleaving for use in a wireless communication set for
better accuracy and constancy of the transmitted data. Different interleave techniques and
methods are explored, including the variation of associated system parameters. The performance
derived is discussed and the most suitable design is ascertained which is essential for better
reliability of a wireless communication system. Bit Error Rate (BER), computational time, mutual
information and correlation are the parameters analyzed, in case of four types of interleaves viz.
general block interleave, matrix interleave, random interleave and convolutional interleave,
considering a fading environment. The hardware implementation using a block interleave is
reported here as a part of this work that shows encouraging results and maybe considered to be a
part of a communication system with appropriate modifications.
14. Explain Frame Synchronization.

Solution:
Frame Synchronization: Frame synchronization can be defined as the process of identifying
valid data from a framed data transmission. When data frames are transmitted to a receiver from
the sender but get interrupted, the receiver must resynchronize. The process used for the
synchronization between the sender and the receiver is known as frame synchronization.
Some of the common frame synchronization schemes are as follows:
 Framing bit
 Cyclic redundancy check-based framing
The following are the four major methods of frame synchronization: Time based -Uses a specific
period of time between frames for the synchronization.
 Character counting -- Uses the count of the remaining characters in the frame header.
 Byte stuffing -- Uses special byte sequences like DLE (data link escape), STX (start of text)
and ETX (end of text).
 Bit stuffing -- Uses special bit patterns to denote the start and the end of a frame.
The system that carries out the frame synchronization process is known as the frame
synchronizer. A frame synchronizer aligns the frames of a pulse code modulation binary stream.
Cross-correlation, self-referential synchronization or any similar methods can be used in the
frame synchronization process.
The media access control sub layer of the data link layer usually takes care of the frame
synchronization process, which determines where one frame of data ends and the next one starts.
In the case of video playback, frame synchronization refers to the process of matching the timing
of an incoming video source to the timing of an existing video system. The frame synchronizer
used in television production matches the time base of each frame in a video to a professional
video system. It also makes use of a common gunlock signal to make sure that all the equipment
works with a common time base. This type of frame synchronizer is used to correct the glitches
that may arise in video playbacks.
15. Explain frame format of HDLC.[2021]

High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) generally uses term “frame” to indicate and represent
an entity of data or a protocol of data unit often transmitted or transferred from one station to
another station. Each and every frame on link should begin and end with Flag Sequence Field
(F). Each of frames in HDLC includes mainly six fields. It begins with a flag field, an address field,
a control field, an information field, an frame check sequence (FCS) field, and an ending flag
field. The ending flag field of one frame can serve as beginning flag field of the next frame in
multiple-frame transmissions.
The basic frame structure of HDLC protocol is shown below :
CHAPTER 5
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION & MULTIPLEXING
1. What is multiplexing? Describe synchronous time division multiplexing with figure.
(2021,2017, 2016)
Answer: Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of
transmission can be simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing divides the high
capacity medium into low capacity logical medium which is then shared by different streams.
Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable), and
light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.
When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides the
physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other end of communication, a De-multiplexer
receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different receivers.
2. Explain how FDM combines multiple signals into one. (2017)

Solution: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) • FDM is possible when the useful bandwidth of
medium exceeds required channel bandwidth • A number of signals can be carried simultaneously
if each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency • Carrier frequencies must be
sufficiently separated so that signals do not overlap • Each modulated signal requires a certain
bandwidth cantered on its carrier frequency, referred to as Channel • To prevent interference, the
channels must be separated by guard bands, which are unused portions of the spectrum • Channel
is allocated even if no data is to be sent
3. Which of the three multiplexing techniques are common for fiber optic links? Explain
with reason. (2017)
Solution:
1) Time division multiplexing
2) Space division multiplexing
3) Wavelength division multiplexing
These are common multiplexing techniques in fibre optics and requirement of such thing is
variation of network speeds that we obtain.
4. Compare between the features of FDM and TDM. (2021,2017)

Solution:
BASIS FOR COMPARISON TDM FDM
Basic Times scale is shared. Frequency is shared.
Used with Digital signals and analog signals Analog signals
Necessary requirement Sync Pulse Guard Band
Interference Low or negligible High
Circuitry Simpler Complex
Utilization Efficiently used Ineffective
5. Define IP address and classification of IPV4.

Answer: IP address and classes
The IP hierarchy contains many classes of the IP addresses. Broadly, the IPv4 addressing system is
divided into five classes of IP address. All the five classes are identified by the first octet of the IP
address.
The classes of IPv4 addresses
The different classes of the IPv4 address are the following:
1) Class A address
2) Class B address
3) Class C address
4) Class D address
5) Class E address
Class A Address
The first bit of the first octet is always set to zero. So that the first octet ranges from 1 – 127. The
class A address only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved
for loop back IP addresses. The default subnet mask for class A IP address is 255.0.0.0. This means
it can have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2). Class A IP address format is thus:
0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.
Class B Address
Here the first two bits in the first two bits is set to zero. Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x
to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has 16384 (214)
Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses. Class B IP address format is:
10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class C Address
The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 110. Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x
to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x. Class C gives 2097152
(221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses. Class C IP address format is:
110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH
Class D Address
The first four bits of the first octet in class D IP address are set to 1110. Class D has IP address
rage from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data
is not intended for a particular host, but multiple ones. That is why there is no need to extract host
address from the class D IP addresses. The Class D does not have any subnet mask.
Class E Address
The class E IP addresses are reserved for experimental purpose only for R&D or study. IP
addresses in the class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. This class too is not equipped
with any subnet mask.
6. What is IP address? (2016)

Find out IPV4 class types and calculating subnet mask as following addresses (2016)
192.16.00/29;
172.17.0.0/23:
10.0.0.0/12
192.16.00/29;
The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 192. Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x
to 223.255.255.x. So , this is class C type.
The default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x.
172.17.0.0/23:
The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 172. Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x
to 191.255.x.x. So , this is class B type.
The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x.
10.0.0.0/12
The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 010. The class A address only include IP
starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loop back IP addresses. So ,
this is class B type.
The default subnet mask for class A IP address is 255.0.0.0.
07) How data exchange over a full duplex data communication? [2010]
Solution: Full-duplex refers to a system which transmits and receives data in two directions at
the same time. The telephone system is full-duplex as one can talk and listen simultaneously. A
walkie-talkie is half duplex because a user can either receive or press the "talk" button to
transmit. Half-duplex means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier,
but not at the same time.
Digit radio modems use a half-duplex radio channel but have full-duplex serial data buffers which
allow the radios to simulate a full-duplex radio channel. The radios transfer data one direction
while buffering data going the other direction. The radio channel will then switch directions to
transfer the data in the reverse direction. This mechanism works best when the data transfer
requirements are much smaller than the throughput available on the Digit radio modems.
Use these parameters to simulate full-duplex communication between two Digit RF Modems.
These settings are only needed if communication may be initiated by two RF Modems
simultaneously.
08) Explain multilevel multiplexing. [2018]

Solution:
Multilevel multiplexing: A synchronous PCM digital transmission system including multilevel
multiplexing wherein the higher order multiplexers interleave two or more tributary signals each
of which comprises a multiplexed plurality of sub tributaries. Multiplexer framing is achieved by
means of an auxiliary frame pattern or byte, FT, which is slid able within the subscriber-defined
frames. Each multiplexer in the system re-frames or slides FT and its associated overhead so that
the FT bytes at each multiplexer are synchronized. The FT bytes can be used to frame or
synchronize scrambling and de-scrambling circuitry. This concept provides multiplexer framing
and yields high-speed multiplexed signals which are all exact multiples of the system clock rate,
using relatively simple circuitry compared to competitive designs.
09) Define WDM. And compare between TDM & WDM. [2018]
Solution:
WDM: Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology or technique modulating
numerous data streams, i.e. optical carrier signals of varying wavelengths (colors) of laser light,
onto a single optical fiber. WDM enables bi-directional communication as well as multiplication of
signal capacity.
Basic difference between TDM and WDM:
Following are the key difference between TDM and WDM systems.
• In TDM, resulting capacity is the aggregate or sum of all the input signals/channels. In WDM,
each signal is transmitted independent of the others and hence each channel will have its own
dedicated bandwidth.
• In WDM, all signals will arrive at the same time while in TDM they will arrive one after the other.
This is because in TDM the signals are broken up and multiplexed time wise before transmission.
This is same as TDMA frame, where in data from various stations are multiplexed and then
transmitted.
10) Describe NRZ, Bipolar AMI and Manchester. [2016]

Solution:
NRZ: In telecommunication, a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line code is a binary code in which ones
are represented by one significant condition, usually a positive voltage, while zero are
represented by some other significant condition, usually a negative voltage, with no other neutral
or rest condition.
Bipolar AMI: In the bipolar alternate mark inversion (Bipolar AMI) encoding scheme, 0 is
represented by no signal and 1 by positive or negative voltage. Binary 1 bits must alternate in
polarity. The advantage of this coding scheme is that if a long string of one’s occurs, there will be
no loss of synchronization. If synchronization is lost, it is easy to resynchronize at the transition.
In the bipolar AMI encoding scheme, 0 is represented by no signal and 1 by either positive or
negative voltage. Binary 1 bits alternate in polarity. Ease of synchronization is the main advantage
of this scheme.
Manchester: In data transmission Manchester encoding is a method of transmitting bits that
allows the receiver to easily synchronize with the sender. Manchester encoding splits each bit
period into two, and ensures that there is always a transition between the signal levels in the
middle of each bit.
11) What do you mean by HDLC? Describe the basic characteristics of HDLC protocol.
[2016]
Solution:
HDLC: High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented code-transparent synchronous data
link layer protocol developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Basic characteristics of HDLC protocol:
1) It also supports serial transmission.
2) Communication mode of HDLC is both synchronous and asynchronous.
3) It uses TWA and TWS directional mode.
4) It also supports both point to point and point to multipoint configuration.
5) It follows sliding window flow control protocol.
6) To content errors it uses CRC method.
7) For framing transparency it follows ZERO stuffing.
12. Describe how does synchronous TDM works?[2021]
In the Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing (STDM), the multiplexer assigns an equal time slot
to every device at all times, whether or not a device has anything to send. Time slot A, for
instance, is authorized to device A alone and cannot be used by any other device.
Each time is assigned a time slot and it shows up. Then, a device has the time to transmit a portion
of its data. If a device cannot send or does not have data to send, its time slot remains null.
The time slots are consolidated into frames, and every frame includes one or more time slots
committed to each sending device. If there are n sending devices, the frame consists of n slots,
where each slot will be allocated to each of the sending devices. This happens if all the sending
devices transmit at the same rate as shown in the figure.
In the diagram given below, there are four inputs to multiplexer A. Each frame is having four slots
corresponding each of the sending devices.
13. ”Thestart and stop bits can be eliminated when character interleaving is used in
synchronous TDM”- Justify your answer. [2021]
CHAPTER 6
HIGH SPEED DIGITAL ACCESS
1) What is packet switching network? Mention the advantages of packet switching over
circuit switching network. (2021,2017)
Packet switching is a method of transferring the data to a network in form of packets. In order to
transfer the file fast and efficient manner over the network and minimize the transmission
latency, the data is broken into small pieces of variable length, called Packet. At the destination, all
these small-parts (packets) has to be reassembled, belonging to the same file. A packet composes
of payload and various control information. No pre-setup or reservation of resources are needed.
The packet switching has two approaches: Virtual Circuit approach and Datagram approach. WAN,
ATM, frame relay and telephone networks use connection oriented virtual circuit approach;
whereas internet relies on connectionless datagram based packet switching.
2) Describe datagram packet switching technique. (2017)

Answer:
Datagram packet switching
Datagram packet-switching is a packet switching technology by which each packet, now called a
datagram, is treated as a separate entity. Each packet is routed independently through the
network. Therefore packets contain a header with the full information about the destination. The
intermediate nodes examine the header of a packet and select an appropriate link to another
node which is nearer to the destination. In this system, the packets do not follow a pre-
established route, and the intermediate nodes do not require prior knowledge of the routes that
will be used.
The individual packets which form a data stream may follow different paths between the source
and the destination. As a result, the packets may arrive at the destination out of order. When this
occurs, the packets will have to be reassembled to form the original message.
Because each packet is switched independently, there is no need for connection setup and no
need to dedicate bandwidth in the form of a circuit.
Datagram packet switches use a variety of techniques to forward traffic; they are differentiated
by how long it takes the packet to pass through the switch and their ability to filter out corrupted
packets.
There are three primary types of datagram packet switches:
 Store and forward: buffers data until the entire packet is received and checked for errors.
This prevents corrupted packets from propagating throughout the network but increases
switching delay.
 Fragment free: filters out most error packets but doesn't necessarily prevent the propagation
of errors throughout the network. It offers faster switching speeds and lower delay than store-
and-forward mode.
 Cut through: does not filter errors; it switches packets at the highest throughput, offering the
least forwarding delay.
A datagram network is a best effort network. Delivery is not guaranteed. Reliable delivery must
be provided by the end systems (i.e. user's computers) using additional protocols.
The most common datagram network is the Internet, which uses the IP network protocol.
Applications which do not require more than a best effort service can be supported by direct use
of packets in a datagram network, using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) transport protocol.
Applications like voice and video communications and notifying messages to alert a user that
she/he has received new email are using UDP. Applications like e-mail, web browsing and file
upload and download need reliable communications, such as guaranteed delivery, error control
and sequence control. This reliability ensures that all the data is received in the correct order
without errors. It is provided by a protocol such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or
the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
3) Given the following information. find the minimum bandwidth required for the path :
(2017,2015)
 FDM Multiplexing
 Five devices, each requiring 4000 Hz
 200 Hz guard band. for each device
Solution:
No. of devices = 5
No. of guard bands required between these is 4.
Hence total bandwidth = (4000 x 5) + (200 x 4)= 20.8 KHz.
4) What is router and routing table? Explain the important characteristics of routing
function. (2021,2017)
Answer: A routing table is a set of rules, often viewed in table format, that is used to determine
where data packets traveling over an Internet Protocol (IP) network will be directed. All IP-
enabled devices, including routers and switches, use routing tables.
A routing table contains the information necessary to forward a packet along the best path toward
its destination. Each packet contains information about its origin and destination. When a packet
is received, a network device examines the packet and matches it to the routing table entry
providing the best match for its destination. The table then provides the device with instructions
for sending the packet to the next hop on its route across the network.
A basic routing table includes the following information:

 Destination: The IP address of the packet's final destination
 Next hop: The IP address to which the packet is forwarded
 Interface: The outgoing network interface the device should use when forwarding the packet
to the next hop or final destination
 Metric: Assigns a cost to each available route so that the most cost-effective path can be
chosen
 Routes: Includes directly-attached subnets, indirect subnets that are not attached to the device
but can be accessed through one or more hops, and default routes to use for certain types of
traffic or when information is lacking.
Routing tables can be maintained manually or dynamically. Tables for static network devices do
not change unless a network administrator manually changes them. In dynamic routing, devices
build and maintain their routing tables automatically by using routing protocols to exchange
information about the surrounding network topology. Dynamic routing tables allow devices to
"listen" to the network and respond to occurrences like device failures and network congestion.
5) What is SONET? Describe the propagation of light through optical fiber. (2021,2016)
Answer: Synchronous optical networking (SONET) is a standardized digital communication
protocol that is used to transmit a large volume of data over relatively long distances using a fiber
optic medium. With SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at the same time over
optical fiber using LEDs and laser beams.
SONET is a product of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Optical fibres are the wires which are used for long distance data transmission. The contain a core
which is covered by a cadding. The refractive index of core is more than cadding. So when light
collides the core-caddinginterface, it shows total internal reflection.
Optical fibre is more advantageous as,the loss of data is less even after travelling long distances
When light passes from a medium with one index of refraction (m1) to another medium with a
lower index of refraction (m2), it bends or refracts away from an imaginary line perpendicular to
the surface (normal line). As the angle of the beam through m1 becomes greater with respect to
the normal line, the refracted light through m2 bends further away from the line.
At one particular angle (critical angle), the refracted light will not go into m2, but instead will
travel along the surface between the two media (sine [critical angle] = n2/n1 where n1 and n2 are
the indices of refraction [n1 is greater than n2]). If the beam through m1 is greater than the
critical angle, then the refracted beam will be reflected entirely back into m1 (total internal
reflection), even though m2 may be transparent!
6) What is switching network? Describe circuit switching network with figure. .

(2016)
Answer: Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading
towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a
port or goes out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and
nodes. At broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous

handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a need
to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on
that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be
turned down immediately.
Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called
circuit switching. There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels and no other
data is permitted. In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so that the
data transfer can take place.
Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have to go
through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of
circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is
established over the network.
Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In message
switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its
entirety.
A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until
there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not having enough
resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.
This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the whole
path is blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet switching. Message
switching has the following drawbacks:
 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are available,
message switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.
Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire message
is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is added in the
header of each packet and transmitted independently.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not take
much resources either on carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.
Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be
multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet switching
enables the user to differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are stored and
forwarded according to their priority to provide quality of service.
7) Explain about X.25 protocol standard. (2021,2016)

Answer: X.25 was developed in the 1970s to carry voice over analog telephone lines—dial-
up networks—and is one of the oldest packet-switched services. Typical applications of X.25
included automatic teller machine networks and credit card verification networks. X.25 also
supported a variety of mainframe terminal and server applications. The 1980s were the heydays
of X.25 technology when it was used by public data networks Compuserve, Tymnet, Telenet, and
others. In the early '90s, many X.25 networks were replaced by Frame Relay in the U.S. Some older
public networks outside the U.S. continued to use X.25 until recently. Most networks that once
required X.25 now use the less complex Internet Protocol. X-25 is still used in some ATMs and
credit card verification networks.
X-25 Structure
Each X.25 packet contained up to 128 bytes of data. The X.25 network handled packet assembly at
the source device, the delivery, and the reassembly at the destination. X.25 packet delivery
technology included not only switching and network-layer routing but also error checking and
retransmission logic should a delivery failure occur. X.25 supported multiple simultaneous
conversations by multiplexing packets and using virtual communication channels.
X-25 offered three basic layers of protocols:
 Physical layer
 Data link layer
https://thestudygenius.com/what-is-switching/
 Packet layer
https://networkencyclopedia.com/x-25/#google_vignette
X-25 predates the OSI Reference Model, but the X-25 layers are analogous to the physical layer,
data link layer and network layer of the standard OSI model.
With the widespread acceptance of Internet Protocol (IP) as a standard for corporate networks,
X.25 applications migrated to cheaper solutions using IP as the network layer protocol and
replacing the lower layers of X.25 with Ethernet or with new ATMhardware.
8) Explain about virtual circuit and datagram approach of packet switching network with
necessary diagram. . (2016)
Answer: Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading
towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a
port or goes out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and
nodes. At broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous
handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a
need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then
forwarded on that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future
use or can be turned down immediately.
Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called
circuit switching. There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels and no
other data is permitted. In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so
that the data transfer can take place.
Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have to go
through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of
circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is
established over the network.
Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In message
switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its
entirety.
A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until
there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not having enough
resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.
This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the whole
path is blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet switching. Message
switching has the following drawbacks:
 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are available,
message switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.
Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire message
is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is added in the
header of each packet and transmitted independently.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not take
much resources either on carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.
Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be
multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet switching
enables the user to differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are stored and
forwarded according to their priority to provide quality of service.
9) Describe the need for switching and define a switch. . (2016)

Answer: Switching provides a practical solution to the problem of connecting multiple devices in
a network. It is more practical than using a bus topology; it is more efficient than using a star
topology and a central hub. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch.
10) A channel has a bit rate of 4kbps and a propagation delay of 20 msec. For what range of
frame sizes does stop-and-wait give an efficiency of at least 50 percent?
(2015)
Solution:
Efficiency will be 50% when the time to transmit the frame equals the round trip propagation
delay. At a transmission rate of 4bits/ms, 160 bits takes 40 ms. For frame sizes above 160bits,
stop-and-wait is reasonably efficient.
11) Compare space-division and time division switches. [2014]
Solution:
Time-division multiplexing: Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and
receiving independent signals over a common signal path by means of synchronized switches at
each end of the transmission line so that each signal appears on the line only a fraction of time in
an alternating pattern.
Space-division switch: Any switching mechanism that is based on the through connection of a
set of input lines selectively to a set of output lines. Space-division switches are implemented
either by electromechanical or electronic means. Prior to the advent of time-division switching, all
telephone and telegraph switching machines were implemented using a variety of space-division
switching techniques, particularly stronger (step-by-step) switches and crossbar switches.
12) Discuss the function of Transport layer and network layer. [2013]
Solution:
Network Layer: Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path
to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address
are placed in the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are:
1) Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2) Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Transport Layer: Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the
End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found
The functions of the transport layer are:
1) Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer,
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segment produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2) Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
13) Describe circuit switching network with figure. [2016]

Solution:
Circuit-Switched Network: A type of network where the communications between end devices
(nodes) must be set up before they can communicate. Once set up, the “circuit” is dedicated to the
two nodes it connects for the duration of that connection. An example of a circuit-switched
network is an analog telephone network.
It contrasts with packet-switched networks, which break the communication into packets and
then send those packets through the network independently of one another. They do not establish
a dedicated communications channel between hosts, rather they offer a “best effort” network that
can be used by a variety of hosts to communicate at the same time. A virtual circuit-switched
network tries to emulate the dedicated connection established by circuit-switching using packet-
switching technology.
14) Define digital switch. [2021,2014]

Solution:
A digital switch is a hardware device for handling digital signals. The main function of these
switches is to manage digital signals generated or passed through a telephone exchange and then
forward it to the telephone company's back-end network. The communication between the
subscribers of a telephone company is established with the help of digital switching. Digital
switches can be of different types based on the number of lines they handle and the included
features. Digital switches are much faster in performance compared to analog switch.
15) Explain Virtual Circuit switching. [2010]

Solution:
Virtual Circuit Switching (VCS):
Unlike datagram switching, virtual circuit switching sets out a data packet path in its own way,
dynamically and on a case-by-case basis. Experts identify advantages of using a virtual circuit
design, including fewer allocated resources, packets delivered in proper order, and reliable
networking outputs. Think of the virtual circuit as a "smart" routing system that does not adhere
to strict path rules. In that sense, the "virtual circuit" is flexible in a way that a traditional circuit
printed on a circuit board is not.
In a practical sense, telecom companies may use virtual circuits to order packet sending.
Generally, the virtual circuit allows each packet to travel the same path, which can help with
effectiveness and also with billing. So the virtual circuit is a "dedicated pathway" for data packets.
It is just not as restrictive as datagram switching.
16) What is crossbar switch? [2010]

Solution:
In electronics, a crossbar switch (cross-point switch, matrix switch) is a collection
of switches arranged in a matrix configuration. A crossbar switch has multiple input and output
lines that form a crossed pattern of interconnecting lines between which a connection may be
established by closing a switch located at each intersection, the elements of the matrix. Originally,
a crossbar switch consisted literally of crossing metal bars that provided the input and output
paths. Later implementations achieved the same switching topology in solid state semiconductor
chips or System on Chips (SOC). The cross-point switch is one of the principal switch
architectures, together with a rotary switch, memory switch, and a crossover switch.
17) Explain simple switching network with figure.2018]

Solution:
Switching techniques: In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver.
The switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission. Switching technique is
used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Circuit Switching:
 Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender
and receiver.
 In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path
will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
 Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
 A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a
request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to
ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated
path transfers the data.
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
 Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
CHAPTER 7
ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION TECHNIQUES
1. How to works Parity Check of Error Detection?
It is the simplest technique for detecting and correcting errors. The MSB of an 8-bits word is used
as the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as data or message bits. The parity of 8-bits
transmitted word can be either even parity or odd parity.
Even parity -- Even parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit
should be even (2,4,6, ... ).
Odd parity -- Odd parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit
should be odd (1,3,5, ... ).
Use of Parity Bit
The parity bit can be set to 0 and 1 depending on the type of the parity required.
 For even parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is even.
Shown in fig. (a).
 For odd parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is odd.
Shown in fig. (b).
2. What is block code?

block code A type of error-correcting or error-detecting code in which a fixed number
(conventionally k) of digits are taken into the encoder at a time and then output in the form of
a codeword consisting of a greater number (conventionally n) of digits. It is often specified as an
(n, k) code, with block length k and codeword length n. The corresponding decoder takes
in n digits, and outputs k digits, at a time. Since the codewords are longer than the input words,
the possible received words are no more numerous. The codewords are only a selection of all
possible words of their length: the selection method gives any code its particular properties. See
also code.
3. Discuss General Algorithm of Hamming code.

General Algorithm of Hamming code –
The Hamming Code is simply the use of extra parity bits to allow the identification of an error.
1) Write the bit positions starting from 1 in binary form (1, 10, 11, 100, etc).
2) All the bit positions that are a power of 2 are marked as parity bits (1, 2, 4, 8, etc).
3) All the other bit positions are marked as data bits.
4) Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined its bit position in
binary form.
a. Parity bit 1 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the least
significant
position (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc).
b. Parity bit 2 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the
second position from
the least significant bit (2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, etc).
c. Parity bit 4 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the third
position from
the least significant bit (4–7, 12–15, 20–23, etc).
d. Parity bit 8 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the
fourth position from
the least significant bit bits (8–15, 24–31, 40–47, etc).
e. In general, each parity bit covers all bits where the bitwise AND of the parity position and the
bit position is
non-zero.
Since we check for even parity set a parity bit to 1 if the total number of ones in the positions it
checks is odd.
1. Set a parity bit to 0 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks is even.
4. Difference between Flow Control and Error Control:

S.NO. Flow control Error control
1. Flow control is meant only for the Error control is meant for the transmission of
transmission of data from sender to error free data from sender to receiver.
receiver.
2. For Flow control there are two To detect error in data, the approaches are
approaches : Feedback-based Flow : Checksum, Cyclic Redundancy
Control and Rate-based Flow Check and Parity Checking.
Control. To correct error in data, the approaches are
: Hamming code, Binary Convolution codes,
Reed-Solomon code, Low-Density Parity Check
codes.
3. It prevents the loss of data and avoid It is used to detect and correct the error
over running of receive buffers. occurred in the code.
4. Example of Flow Control techniques Example of Error Control techniques are
are :Stop&Wait Protocol and Sliding :Stop&Wait ARQ and Sliding Window ARQ.
Window Protocol.
5. Discuss HDLC frame types.
There are three types of commonly used HDLC frame structures. They are as follows:
o Information frames (I-frames), which transmit user data from the computer network layer
and incorporate error control information with the data. I-frames also contain control fields
used to define data functions.
o Supervisory frames (S-frames), which transmit error and flow control data whenever it
becomes impossible to "piggyback" on transmitted data. For this reason, S-frames don't
contain information fields.
o Unnumbered frames (U-frames), which are for all other miscellaneous purposes, including
link management. Some of these contain information fields, and other.
6. Describe CRC technique for error detection. (2015)

Answer: Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
 Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are appended to the
end of data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second,
predetermined binary number.
 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step there
is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted.
 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore must be
rejected.
WRITE SHORT NOTES

1) Satellite; (2021,2017)
A communications satellite is a type of artificial satellite that is placed in Earth’s orbit for the
purpose of sending and receiving communication data between a source and destination. It is
used to provide data communication and relaying services for televisions, radio,
telecommunication, weather and Internet services.
A communications satellite is a wireless communication device in Earth’s orbit that uses a
transponder to send and receive data from Earth. It is primarily used to redirect communication
data from one Earth-based communication station to another station. Typically, a communications
satellite works when it receives data from terrestrial stations in the form of electromagnetic
waves. The data is usually sent via large satellite dishes. Based on the intended destination, the
communications satellite redirects the waves to the corresponding station.
Communications satellites are vital for remote areas that do not have access to traditional
landlines for telephone or Internet services.
2) V.24 interface standard; (2017)

Answer: The RS-232 / V24 serial interface communications standard was widely used for many
years. It is still used in some instances, especially in existing installations, although its use is now
decreasing as Ethernet and other standards take its place.
RS232 / V24 was found in many areas from computers to remote terminals and many more. It
was an effective way of providing serial data connectivity and as such it was widely used.
RS-232 interface basics
The interface is intended to operate over distances of up to 15 metres. This is because any modem
is likely to be near the terminal. Data rates are also limited. The maximum for RS-232C is 19.2 k
baud or bits per second although slower rates are often used. In theory it is possible to use any
baud rate, but therearea number of standard transmission speeds used.
RS-232 connections
The RS-232C specification does not include a description of the connector to be used. However,
the most common type found is the 25 pin D-type connector.
RS232 signal levels
The voltage levels are one of the main items in the specification. For RS232 data signals a voltage
of between -3V and -25V represents a logic 1. The logic 0 is represented by a voltage of between
+3V and +25V. Control signals are in the "ON" state if their voltage is between +3V and +25V and
"OFF" if they are negative, i.e. between -3V and -25V.
The data is sent serially on RS232, each bit is sent one after the next because there is only one data
line in each direction. This mode of data transmission also requires that the receiver knows when
the actual data bits are arriving so that it can synchronise itself to the incoming data. To achieve
this a logic 0 is sent as a start bit for the synchronisation. This is followed by the data itself and
there are normally seven or eight bits. The receiver obviously has to know how many data bits to
expect, and there are often small dual in line switches either on the back of the equipment or
inside it to set this information.
Data on RS232 is normally sent using ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange). However other codes including the Murray Code or EBCDIC (Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code) can be used equally well.
After the data itself a parity bit is sent. Again this requires setting because it is optional and it can
be even or odd parity. This is used to check the correctness of the received data and it can indicate
whether the data has an odd or even number of logic ones. Unlike many systems these days there
is no facility for error correction.
Finally a stop bit is sent. This is normally one bit long and is used to signify the end of a particular
byte. Sometimes two stop bits are required and again this is an option that can often be set on the
equipment.
RS232 data transmission is normally asynchronous. However transmit and receive speeds must
obviously be the same. A certain degree of tolerance is allowed. Once the start bit is sent the
receiver will sample the centre of each bit to see the level. Within each data word the
synchronisation must not differ by more than half a bit length otherwise the incorrect data will be
seen. Fortunately this is very easy to achieve with today's accurate bit or baud rate generators.
Lines and their usage
There are four types of line defined in the RS232 specification. They are Data, Control, Timing and
Ground. Not all of them are required all the time. It is possible to set up a very simple
communication using very few lines. When looking at the lines and their functions it is necessary
to remember that they are defined for a connection between a modem (the data set or
communications equipment) and a terminal or computer (data terminal equipment) in mind. All
the lines have directions, and when used in this way a one to one cable operates correctly.
The most obvious lines are the data lines. There are two of these, one for data travelling in each
direction. Transmit data is carried on pin 2 and the receive data is carried on line three.
The most basic of the control circuits is Data Carrier Detected (DCD). This shows when the modem
has detected a carrier on the telephone line and a connection appears to have been made. It
produces a high, which is maintained until the connection is lost.
3) Virtual circuit; (2021,2017)

Answer: A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram
network. It has some characteristics of both.
1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the data
transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on
demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header.
However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it defines what should be the next
switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried), not end-to-end jurisdiction. The
reader may ask how the intermediate switches know where to send the packet if there is no final
destination address carried by a packet.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the
connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit-
switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the network
layer. But this may change in the future.
The following figure is an example of a virtual-circuit network. The network has switches that
allow traffic from sources to destinations. A source or destination can be a computer, packet
switch, bridge, or any other device that connects other networks.
Addressing:
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and local (virtual-circuit
identifier).
Global Addressing:
Virtual-Circuit Identifier:
The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier (VCI). A
VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch scope. It is used by a frame
between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it has a
different VCI. The following figure show how the VCI in a data frame changes from one switch to
another. Note that a VCI does not need to be a large number since each switch can use its own
unique set of VCIs.
Three Phases:
As in a circuit-switched network, a source and destination need to go through three phases in a
virtual-circuit network: setup, data transfer, and teardown.
Setup phase, the source and destination use their global addresses to help switches make table
entries for the connection.
In the teardown phase, the source and destination inform the switches to delete the
corresponding entry.
Data transfer occurs between these two phases.
Data Transfer Phase
To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to have a table entry for this
virtual circuit. The table, in its simplest form, has four columns. This means that the switch holds
four pieces of information for each virtual circuit that is already set up. We show later how the
switches make their table entries, but for the moment we assume that each switch has a table with
entries for all active virtual circuits.
The following figure shows a frame arriving at port 1 with a VCI of 14. When the frame arrives, the
switch looks in its table to find port 1 and a VCI of 14. When it is found, the switch knows to
change the VCI to 22 and send out the frame from port 3.
Setup Phase:
In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit. For example, suppose source A
needs to create a virtual circuit to B. Two steps are required: the setup request and the
acknowledgment.
Setup Request: A setup request frame is sent from the source to the destination. The following
figure shows the process.
a. Source A sends a setup frame to switch 1.

b. Switch 1 receives the setup request frame. It knows that a frame going from A to B goes out
through port 3. The switch, in the setup phase, acts as a packet switch and it has a routing table
which is different from the switching table. For the moment, assume that it knows the output port.
The switch creates an entry in its table for this virtual circuit, but it is only able to fill three of the
four columns. The switch assigns the incoming port (1) and chooses an available incoming VCI
(14) and the outgoing port (3). It does not yet know the outgoing VCI, which will be found during
the acknowledgment step. The switch then forwards the frame through port 3 to switch 2.
c. Switch 2 receives the setup request frame. The same events happen here as at switch 1 and
three columns of the table are completed: in this case, incoming port (l), incoming VCI (66), and
outgoing port (2).
d. Switch 3 receives the setup request frame. Again, three columns are completed: incoming port
(2), incoming VCI (22), and outgoing port (3).
e. Destination B receives the setup frame, and if it is ready to receive frames from A, it assigns a
VCI to the incoming frames that come from A, in this case 77. This VCI lets the destination know
that the frames come from A, and no other sources.
4) VSAT; (2017,2016)
Answer: VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) is a satellite communications system that serves
home and business users. A VSAT end user needs a box that interfaces between the user's
computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver. The tranceiver receives or sends a signal to a
satellite transponder in the sky. The satellite sends and receives signals from an earth station
computer that acts as a hub for the system. Each end user is interconnected with the hub station
via the satellite in a star topology. For one end user to communicate with another, each
transmission has to first go to the hub station which retransmits it via the satellite to the other
end user's VSAT. VSAT handles data, voice, and video signals.
VSAT is used both by home users who sign up with a large service such as DirecPC and by private
companies that operate or lease their own VSAT systems. VSAT offers a number of advantages
over terrestrial alternatives. For private applications, companies can have total control of their
own communication system without dependence on other companies. Business and home users
also get higher speed reception than if using ordinary telephone service or ISDN.
5) HDLC; (2017)
Answer: High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented code-
transparent synchronous data link layer protocol developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The original ISO standards for HDLC are as follows:
 ISO 3309-1979 – Frame Structure
 ISO 4335-1979 – Elements of Procedure
 ISO 6159-1980 – Unbalanced Classes of Procedure
 ISO 6256-1981 – Balanced Classes of Procedure
The current standard for HDLC is ISO/IEC 13239:2002, which replaces all of those standards.
HDLC provides both connection-oriented and connectionless service.
HDLC can be used for point-to-multipoint connections via the original master-slave modes Normal
Response Mode (NRM) and Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM), but they are now rarely used; is
now used almost exclusively to connect one device to another, using Asynchronous Balanced
Mode (ABM).
HDLC frames can be transmitted over synchronous or communication links.Those links have no
mechanism to mark the beginning or end of a frame, so the beginning and end of each frame has
to be identified. This is done by using a unique sequence of bits as a frame delimiter, or flag, and
encoding the data to ensure that the flag sequence is never seen inside a frame. Each frame begins
and ends with a frame delimiter. A frame delimiter at the end of a frame may also mark the start
of the next frame.
On both synchronous and asynchronous links, the flag sequence is binary "01111110",
or hexadecimal 0x7E, but the details are quite different.
6) OSI model (2016)

Answer:
Solution: The OSI Model :Designated ISO/IEC 7498-1, the OSI model is a standard of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is a general-purpose paradigm for
discussing or describing how computers communicate with one another over a network. Its
seven-layered approach to data transmission divides the many operations up into specific related
groups of actions at each layer
The transmitting computer software gives the data to be transmitted to the applications layer,
where it is processed and passed from layer to layer down the stack with each layer performing
its designated functions. The data is then transmitted over the physical layer of the network until
the destination computer or another device receives it. At this point the data is passed up through
the layers again, each layer performing its assigned operations until the data is used by the
receiving computer’s software.
All of the necessary and desirable operations required are grouped together in a logical sequence
at each of the layers. Each layer is responsible for specific functions:
Layer 7 – application: This layer works with the application software to provide
communications functions as required. It verifies the availability of a communications partner and
the resources to support any data transfer. It also works with end applications such as domain
name service (DNS), file transfer protocol (FTP), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), Internet
message access protocol (IMAP), post office protocol (POP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP),
Telenet, and terminal emulation.
Layer 6 – presentation: This layer checks the data to ensure that it is compatible with the
communications resources. It ensures compatibility between the data formats at the applications
level and the lower levels. It also handles any needed data formatting or code conversion, as well
as data compression and encryption.
Layer 5 – session: Layer 5 software handles authentication and authorization functions. It also
manages the connection between the two communicating devices, establishing a connection,
maintaining the connection, and ultimately terminating it. This layer verifies that the data is
delivered as well.
Layer 4 – transport: This layer provides quality of service (QoS) functions and ensures the
complete delivery of the data. The integrity of the data is guaranteed at this layer via error
correction and similar functions.
Layer 3 – network: The network layer handles packet routing via logical addressing and
switching functions.
Layer 2 – data link: Layer 2 operations package and unpack the data in frames.
Layer 1 – physical: This layer defines the logic levels, data rate, physical media, and data
conversion functions that make up the bit stream of packets from one device to another.
7) Cellular communication (2016)

Answer: Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal
communication systems, wireless networking etc. The technology is developed for mobile radio
telephone to replace high power transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower
power, shorter range and more transmitters for data transmission.
FeaturesofCellularSystems
Wireless Cellular Systems solves the problem of spectral congestion and increases user capacity.
The features of cellular systems are as follows −
 Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
 Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
 Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users by reusing
the channel throughout the coverage region.
 Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly between mobiles).
 Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small geographic
area called a cell.
 Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
 By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel groups may be
reused to cover different cells.
 Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
 Frequency reuse or frequency planning.
 Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.
Cellular network is organized into multiple low power transmitters each 100w or less.
Shape of Cells
The coverage area of cellular networks are divided into cells, each cell having its own antenna for
transmitting the signals. Each cell has its own frequencies. Data communication in cellular
networks is served by its base station transmitter, receiver and its control unit.
The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon −
Square
A square cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at distance Root 2 d
 Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
 Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Hexagon
A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and calculations. It offers the
following advantages −
 Provides equidistant antennas
 Distance from center to vertex equals length of side
Frequency Reuse
Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio frequencies within a given area, that
are separated by considerable distance, with minimal interference, to establish communication.
Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −
 Allows communications within cell on a given frequency
 Limits escaping power to adjacent cells
 Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
 Uses same frequency for multiple conversations
 10 to 50 frequencies per cell
For example, when N cells are using the same number of frequencies and Kbe the total number of
frequencies used in systems. Then each cell frequency is calculated by using the formulae K/N.
In Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) when K = 395 and N = 7, then frequencies per cell on
an average will be 395/7 = 56. Here, cell frequency is 56.
8) AM and FM techniques (2016)

In radio communication, the message signal wave (low frequency) is combined with a carrier
signal (high frequency). In this combination, one or more characteristics of the carrier wave are
varied with respect to message signal. This variation is termed as modulation and it is needed so
that message can be transmitted over long distances and no undesired signal mixing takes place.
Depending on several factors such as range, application and budget, modulation can be casted into
three types: Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation. Out of these
three types, the former two are widely known as they form a major commercially applicative part
of radio communication. In this article, we will discuss common difference between AM and
FM which will enhance our learning in terms of these two technologies.
1. Evolution: Formulated in the 1870s, AM is a relatively older modulation process compared to
FM which was found in the 1930s by Edwin Armstrong.
2. Technology: AM stands for amplitude modulation where the amplitude of the carrier is
modulated as per the message signal. The other aspects of the carrier wave such as frequency
phase etc. remain constant. On the other hand, FM means frequency modulation and in it only
frequency of the carrier wave changes while amplitude, phase etc. remain constant.
3. Frequency range of working: Amplitude modulation works between 540-1650 KHz while FM
works at 88-108MHz.
4. Power Consumption: FM based signal transmission consumes a higher amount of power than
an equivalent AM based signal transmission system.
AM vs FM: Signal Quality: Signal quality is a lot superior in FM than AM as amplitude based
signals are more susceptible to noise than those which use frequency. Moreover, noise signals are
difficult to filter out in AM reception whereas FM receivers easily filter out noise using the capture
effect and pre-emphasis, de-emphasis effects. In capture effect, the receiver locks itself to catch
stronger signal so that signals received are more synced with that at the transmitting end.
In pre-emphasis, de-emphasis process, the signal is further amplified to a higher frequency at
sending end (pre-emphasis) and vice versa at receiver end (de-emphasis). These two processes
reduce down the chances of a signal to get mixed with other signals and make FM more immune
to noise than AM.
6. Fading: Fading refers to power variation during signal transmission. Due to fading, the power
with the signal received can vary significantly and reception wouldn’t be of a good quality. Fading
is more prominent in amplitude modulation as compared to frequency modulation. That is why,
AM radio channels often face the problem where sound intensity varies while FM radio channels
have constant good reception.
7. Wavelength Difference between AM and FM: AM waves work in the range of KHz while in FM
waves work in MHz range. As a result, AM waves have a higher wavelength than the FM ones. A
higher wavelength increases the range of AM signals as compared to FM which have a limited area
of coverage.
8. Bandwidth consumption: AM signals consume 30KHz of bandwidth for each while in FM
80KHz is the bandwidth consumed by each signal. Hence, over a limited range of bandwidth, more
number of signals can be sent in AM than FM.
9. Circuit Complexity: Aforesaid, Amplitude Modulation is an older process and has a very
simple circuitry. On the other hand, frequency modulation requires a complicated circuitry for
transmission and reception of signal. The signals sent in FM are more modulated and emphasized
at the transmitter and they are thoroughly checked and corrected at the receiving end. This is why
circuitry for FM signals is very complicated.
10. Commercial Aspects: Setting up an AM based radio communication system is very economic
as there is no complicated circuitry and processes are easy to understand.
9) FDM (2016)
Answer: Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique of multiplexing which means
combining more than one signal over a shared medium. In FDM, signals of different frequencies
are combined for concurrent transmission.
Concept and Process
In FDM, the total bandwidth is divided to a set of frequency bands that do not overlap. Each of
these bands is a carrier of a different signal that is generated and modulated by one of the sending
devices. The frequency bands are separated from one another by strips of unused frequencies
called the guard bands, to prevent overlapping of signals.
The modulated signals are combined together using a multiplexer (MUX) in the sending end. The
combined signal is transmitted over the communication channel, thus allowing multiple
independent data streams to be transmitted simultaneously. At the receiving end, the individual
signals are extracted from the combined signal by the process of demultiplexing (DEMUX).
Example
The following diagram conceptually represents multiplexing using FDM. It has 4 frequency bands,
each of which can carry signal from 1 sender to 1 receiver. Each of the 4 senders is allocated a
frequency band. The four frequency bands are multiplexed and sent via the communication
channel. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer regenerates the original four signals as outputs.
Here, if the frequency bands are of 150 KHz bandwidth separated by 10KHz guard bands, then the
capacity of the communication channel should be at least 630 KHz (channels : 150 × 4 + guard
bands : 10 × 3).
Uses and Applications
It allows sharing of a single transmission medium like a copper cable or a fiber optic cable, among
multiple independent signals generated by multiple users.
FDM has been popularly used to multiplex calls in telephone networks. It can also be used in
cellular networks, wireless networks and for satellite communications.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDM is a technique where the channel bandwidth is split into many closely packed sub-carriers
or narrowband channels each of which transmits signals independently using techniques like
QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation). Consequently, they do not need any guard bands and
thus have better utilization of available bandwidth.
10)CRC techniques (2021,2016)
Answer: Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This technique
involves binary division of the data bits being sent. The divisor is generated using polynomials.
The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the remainder.
Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of the actual bits. Actual
data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword. The sender transmits data bits as codewords.
At the other end, the receiver performs division operation on codewords using the same CRC
divisor. If the remainder contains all zeros the data bits are accepted, otherwise it is considered
as there some data corruption occurred in transit.
11)CDMA (2021)
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a channel access method used by several
radio communication technologies. It is a digital cellular technology and an example of multiple
access. It is generally used for mobile communication.
Multiple access means that several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a
single communication channel. In this system, different CDMA codes are assigned to different
users, and the user can access the whole bandwidth for the entire duration. It optimizes the use of
available bandwidth as it transmits over the entire frequency range and does not limit the user's
frequency range.
Thus, CDMA allows several users to share a band of frequencies without undue interference
between the users. It is used as an access method in many mobile phone standards.
CDMA technology was developed during World War II. It was developed by English allies to
protect their wireless transmissions from jamming. When the war ended, Qualcomm patented this
technology and made it commercially available. The first CDMA system was launched in
September 1995 in Hong Kong by Hutchison Telephone Co.

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Data and Telecommunications - 147

DATA AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

CHAPTER 2 PAGE NO: 177

CHAPTER 3 PAGE NO: 188

CHAPTER 7 PAGE NO: 228

WRITE SHORT NOTES

2) Explain data communication characteristics. (2017,2015)

3) Describe simplified data communication model with proper diagram.

Figure: Simplified Communications Model

4) Briefly describe major communication tasks that involved in data communication.

5) Describe different types of LAN topologies. (2017)

Features of Bus Topology

Features of Ring Topology

Features of Star Topology

Types of Mesh Topology

Features of Mesh Topology

6) Distinguish between LAN and WAN. (2008)

Transferring It can be implemented using circuit It is implemented using packet

Lost data Feasible Practically, not possible.

10) Discuss the layers of OSI reference model. (2021,2016,2014)

11) Describe the layers of TCP/IP model. (2015)

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

16) What is transmission impairments? Explain it. [2015]

17) What is IP address? Classify its types. [2015]

19) What is ISDN? Describe different types of channel used in ISDN.(2021)

20) What is the fundamental purpose of data communication? [2021,2010]

21) Define ATM. Describe ATM architecture protocol. [2021,2015]

22) Define Standard. [2011]

23) Define different type of noise? [2018]

2. User Related Attributes :

Analog signal represented as a sine wave

Digital signal with binary

Image Source – aviation chief

3) Briefly explain Nyquist bandwidth and Shannon capacity formula. (2021,2017)

Nyquist Bit Rate – For a noiseless channel, the

Shannon Capacity – In reality, we cannot have a

5) A digital signaling system is required to operate at 9600 bps. If a signal element

Bending of a light ray

Internal view of an Optical fibre

11) Define the terms frequency, spectrum and bandwidth. [2016]

12) Describe propagation of light though optical fiber. [2011]

 Transducer basically converts information from source into electrical signal.

13) How Framing in Data Link Layer. [2016]

14) Explain Go-Back-N ARQ. [2021,2018]

15) Explain flow

Fig: Flow Control

16. Difference between AM, PM ,FM.

Benefits or advantages of QPSK

2) What is constellation diagram? Show the constellation diagram of QPSK. (2010)

3) Define data rate and signal rate. (2015)

4) Describe data encoding & modulation techniques with figures. (2015,2009)

Figure: Encoding and Modulation Techniques

5) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitations.

Figure 5.15 Digitizing Analog Data

Figure: PCM Block Diagram

Analog and Sampled Signal

Uniformly Quantized Signal

6) What is bit rate and baud rate? (2012,2010)

7) Construct a relation between data rate and bandwidth. (2021,2017,2016)

9) M What do you mean by line coding and block coding? (2010)

11) Encode a stem using line code technique.