Pathogens and Immunity

Cell Recognition and Immunity
Biology
Ossett Academy and Sixth Form College
Partial notes to be completed as part of the AQA Biology A-Level course.
These notes should complement the AQA Biology A-Level course. They should be brought to lessons and
used in conjunction with the presentations and practical lessons that are delivered. There are spaces for you to
fill in your own notes and understanding. There are also gaps in the information that have been left for you to
fill in with knowledge acquired from the lessons. These notes are designed to be a working document. Do not
rely on them by themselves, rather add to them, annotate them and turn them into your own notes.
1
Cells
Specification introduction:
All life on Earth exists as cells. These have basic features in common. Differences between cells are due to the addition of
extra features. This provides indirect evidence for evolution. All cells arise from other cells, by binary fission in
prokaryotic cells and by mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotic cells. All cells have a cell-surface membrane and, in addition,
eukaryotic cells have internal membranes. The basic structure of these plasma membranes is the same and enables
control of the passage of substances across exchange surfaces by passive or active transport. Cell-surface membranes
contain embedded proteins. Some of these are involved in cell signalling – communication between cells. Others act as
antigens, allowing recognition of ‘self’ and ‘foreign’ cells by the immune system. Interactions between different types of
cell are involved in disease, recovery from disease and prevention of symptoms occurring at a later date if exposed to the
same antigen, or antigen-bearing pathogen.
Contents
Cells 2
Glossary 6
Cell Recognition and the Immune System 7
1 – Defence mechanisms 7
Specification link: 7
Useful video clips: 7
Retrieval questions 8
Defense mechanisms 9
Recognising your own body’s cells 10
Process of recognising cells belonging to our body. 11
Practice questions 12
Homework on Structure of the defence mechanisms 13
2– Phagocytosis 14
2
Start of phagocytosis 16
End of phagocytosis 17
Practice Questions 18
Exam Style Questions 18
Homework on Phagocytosis 21
3 – T-Lymphocytes and Cell Mediated Immunity 22
Antigens and lymphocytes 24
Cell-mediated Immunity 25
T-Cell activation 26
Homework on Cell mediated immunity 28
4 – B Lymphocytes and humoral immunity 29
Humoral Immunity 31
3
B-Cell activation 32
B-Cells 33
Homework on B Lymphocytes and humoral immunity 40
5 – Antibodies 41
Antibodies 44
Monoclonal antibodies 45
Monoclonal antibodies - ethics 46
Homework on Antibodies 54
6 – Vaccinations 55
Types of immunity 57
Vaccination programmes 58
4
Vaccination programmes don’t always work 59
Homework on Vaccination 66
7 – HIV 67
Structure of HIV 70
Developing the symptoms of AIDS 71
The ELISA Test 72
Antibiotics and viral diseases 73
Homework on The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 85
Cell recognition and the immune system checklist 86
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Flash Cards on Cell recognition and the immune system 89
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Glossary
Fill in this glossary as you go along, it will help you keep track of new words and phrases in this topic.
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Cell Recognition and the Immune System
The body needs to recognise its own cells, and distinguish them from foreign and potentially harmful cells, pathogens. The immune
system allows this identification and, hopefully the destruction of, pathogens. It is also able to develop and immunity, so that if future
infections occur, the body is ready to kill the pathogens before they are able to harm the individual.
1 – Defence mechanisms
The structure of the membrane is complex, with a variety of components all with a specific role to play. The membrane itself is vital
for the control and organisation of the cell and its organelles.
Specification link:
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Useful video clips:
Fuse School - Human defence against pathogens
Fuse School - What are white blood cells?
Self and non-self
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Retrieval questions
These questions provide the basic knowledge that is needed to understand, converse and answer higher level questions in A-Level
biology. You need to be able to answer them off by heart. Practice these questions by testing yourself. Read them, cover them and
then try re-writing or saying out loud. Ask friends, or family to test you.
What is a pathogen? A microorganism which causes disease

What is immunity? The body's ability to kill a pathogen before it causes any harm
What are the 2 types of white blood cell? Lymphocyte and phagocyte
What are the two types of lymphocyte? T-Lymphocyte and B-Lymphocyte.
Why must white blood cells be able to This allows the white blood cells to know what is part of your body,
distinguish between cell and non-self? and what is not. So that the body's own tissues aren't destroyed.
What is used to identify cells as self or non-self? The proteins on the cell surface membrane.
Why are proteins used to identify whether cells They have a huge variability and the 3-D (tertiary) structure is very
are self or non-self? specific.
What is the immune system able to identify? 1 - Pathogens (e.g. HIV); 2 - Non-self material (e.g. cells from
another organism); 3 - Toxins; 4 - Abnormal body cells (e.g. cancer)
What is the name given to the protein which An antigen.
causes an immune response?
What issue may arise with the immune system, The immune system may recognise the tissues as non-self, and
due to transplants? therefore attack transplanted organs/tissues.
What are the 2 types of defense? Specific and non-specific.
What are the 2 types of non-specific defense? Physical barrier and phagocytosis.
What are the 2 types of specific defense? Cell mediated response and humoral response.
What type of cells are involved in cell-mediated T Lymphocytes.
response?
What type of cells are involved in humoral B Lymphocytes
response?
When a pathogen enters the body, how is the It already exists in the body, but must be stimulated to replicate.
correct lymphocyte selected?
What do we mean by "correct" lymphocyte for a Just as each pathogen has specific proteins on their surface that
particular pathogen? indicated what they are. The lymphocytes have complementary
proteins which fit those of the pathogen.
Why do lymphocytes not attack our own body? 1 - As a foetus, our lymphocytes were only exposed to our own
cells, those which combined, were destroyed, leaving only those
which fit foreign (non-self) material. 2 - As an adult, lymphocytes
are created in the bone marrow, and again only encounter
self-antigens. If an immune response is triggered, the cell kills itself
(apoptosis). Therefore no anti-self-lymphocytes reach the blood.
Defense mechanisms
Describe the defense systems involved in protecting the body. That are the different types? Start broad and general,
then narrow and precise.
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Key words, phrases Main key areas and of importance in a little more detail
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
Potential exam questions
Recognising your own body’s cells

What do white blood cells need to distinguish between? What molecule is present to enable this? Where is it found?
What are the potentially negative implications involved in cell recognition? What is a common misconception about
lymphocytes and their response to infection?
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and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
Process of recognising cells belonging to our body.

Why is it important that cells belonging to our body are identified? How is this done?
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and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
Practice questions
1. What part of a cell identifies it? What is this made of?
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2. Why is it important that white blood cells can identify self vs non-self?
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3. How does the body stop itself from attacking its own cells?
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Homework on Structure of the defence mechanisms

Answer the summary questions at the end of the section.
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2– Phagocytosis
Phagocytes are one type of white blood cell. Lymphocytes are the other. Phagocytes are the first line of white blood cell defence.
They are non-specific, and work by ingesting and destroying pathogens.
Specification link:
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Useful video clips:
Tailored Tutors - Phagocytosis
Defence mechanisms and phagocytosis
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Retrieval questions
What is the role of a phagocyte? To ingest and destroy pathogens. (phagocytosis)

What is phagocytosis? The ingesting of large particles into vesicles by the cell-surface membrane.
Describe phagocytosis Pathogen releases chemicals. This attracts the phagocyte. The phagocyte
binds to the pathogen. The phagocyte engulfs the pathogen and forms a
phagosome around the pathogen. Lysosomes inside the phagocyte release
digestive enzymes into the phagosome. Pathogen is broken down by
hydrolysis. Phagocyte presents antigens on cell surface membrane
What attracts phagocytes? Chemical products of pathogens, or dead, damaged or abnormal cells.
What allows phagocytes to recognise Receptors on the cell-surface membrane.
and attach to chemicals on the surface
of the pathogen?
When the pathogen is engulfed, what is A phagosome.
the vesicle called?
What fuse with the phagosome? Lysosomes.
What do the lysosomes contain and The lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes called lysozymes. These break
what do they do to the pathogen? down the pathogen, similarly to digestion.
What happens after the pathogen has The soluble products are absorbed into the cytoplasm of the phagocyte.
been digested in the phagosome?
Start of phagocytosis
How is the phagocyte attracted to the pathogen? How is the phagocyte attached to the pathogen?
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and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
End of phagocytosis
When the pathogen and phagocyte are attached, what happens next? How does this occur? What is
created? How if the pathogen broken down? What happens to the component parts? Use diagrams to aid
your description.
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and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
Practice Questions
1. What is phagocytosis? Why is it important?
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2. What is used to digest the pathogen? Describe how they are made from start to finish.
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Exam Style Questions
Q1.
(a) Describe how bacteria are destroyed by phagocytes.
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(b) Give two structures a bacterial cell may have that a white blood cell does not have.
1.
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2.
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(2)
(Total 5 marks)
Q2.
(a) What is a pathogen?
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(b) When a pathogen enters the body it may be destroyed by phagocytosis.
Describe how.
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(4)
(Total 5 marks)
Homework on Phagocytosis
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3 – T-Lymphocytes and Cell Mediated Immunity

T-Lymphocytes are one of two types of lymphocyte to be studied. They start the primary immune response.
Specification link:
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Useful video clips:
Your immune system - Natural born killer - Crash course
T-Cells and cell mediated immunity
Cell Mediated immunity – BioRach (This says OCR, but the process is still Biology)
Retrieval questions
What is cell mediated immunity? The response of T-Lymphocytes to foreign antigens presented on a body cell.
What is an antigen? Part of an organism or substance which is recognised as non-self and
stimulates an immune response.
What form do most antigens take? Proteins on the cell surface membrane.
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Which white blood cell is involved in Lymphocytes
the specific immune response?
Where are the two types of T-Lymphocytes are made in the bone marrow and matured in the Thymus
Lymphocytes made and matured? gland. B-Lymphocytes are made and matured in the Bone marrow.
What role do B-Lyphocytes play in the They are associated with the humoral immunity. (antibodies in the body's
immune system? fluids, or humor, such as plasma.
What role do T-Lyphocytes play in the They are associated with the cell mediated immunity. Immunity involving
immune system? body cells.
What do T-Lymphocytes respond to? The body's own cells which have been infected. Cells from individuals of the
same species (genetically different).
Why can T-Lymphocytes identify Phagocytes present antigens of hydrolised pathogens on their surface
invader cells from normal cells? membrane.
Body cells present viral antigens on their surface during infection.
Transplanted cells have different antigens on their surface.
Cancer cells are different, so present different antigens on their surface
membrane.
What is an antigen presenting cell? A cell which presents antigens which are foreign on their cell surface
membrane.
Which antigens will T-Lymphocytes Foreign antigens presented on a body cell. (cell-mediated immunity).
respond to?
Why are there a vast number of Each T-Cell's receptor correspond to one specific antigen. There needs to be
different T-Cells? many different T-Cells to correspond to the variation in antigens.
What are the stages of T-Cell response 1 - Phagocyte ingests pathogen;
to infection by a pathogen? 2 - Pathogen's antigens are placed onto the phagocyte's surface membrane.
(It becomes an APC)
3 - The receptors of a specific Th cell bind perfectly to the antigen being
presented.
4 - This binding activates the Th cell to divide and produce many clones.
(Clonal expansion)
5 - These cloned cells specialise.
In what way might cloned Th cells 1 - Develop into memory cells
differentiate? 2 - Stimulate phagocytes
3 - Stimulate B-cells to divide and secrete antibodies
4 - Activate Tc cells (Cytotoxic cells.)
What chemical do cytotoxic (Tc Cells) Perforin
produce?
How does perforin kill pathogens? It perforates (Makes little holes) in the membrane. This makes it freely
permeable, so it dies.
What pathogens do Tc cells work best Viruses. Viruses only replicate when in a host cell. If the host cell dies,
against? Why? replication can no longer occur.
Antigens and lymphocytes

Why are antigens important when it comes to the primary immune system? What form do they take? What
are the two main types of lymphocyte? What is the difference between them?
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Main key areas and of importance in a little more detail
Key words, phrases
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
Cell-mediated Immunity
Why is the activation of T-Lymphocytes called cell-mediated? What are the ways by which T-Cells can meet
antigens? What are these cells called?
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Key words, phrases
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
T-Cell activation
Describe the process of T-Cell activation, use diagrams to assist. What are the different T-Cells that could be
created? How could activated T-Cells kill pathogens?
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Key words, phrases
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
Practice Questions
1. What is cell mediated immunity? Why do we need this if we have phagocytocsis?
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2. What are the different ways T-Cells can destroy pathogens and infected cells?
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3. Why are phagocytes so important in Cell mediated immunity?
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4. What are the stages of cell mediated immunity? Describe it from start to finish.
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Homework on Cell mediated immunity

Answer the summary and application questions at the end of the section.
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4 – B Lymphocytes and humoral immunity
B Lymphocytes are second stage of immunity. They are activated by T cells. They create antibodies .
Specification link:
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Useful video clips:
B-Cells and humoral immunity – Miss-Jercha
Humoral immune response – Rethink Biology
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Retrieval questions
What is meant by humoral immunity? The second stage of an immune response, causing B cells to produce
antibodies which dissolve into the blood and tissue fluid (the humor)
Why are the many million types of B Each one creates an antibody to respond to a specific antigen. The variations
cell? in antigens require a large number of different antibodies.
What does a B cell have on it's A specific antibody. This antibody will only fit this antigen and vice versa.
surface to fit the invasive antigen?
What does a B Cell do to the antigen It is taken in by endocytosis and the presented on the surface (It is an APC)
when it has attached to the antibody
on it's surface?
How is a B-Cell stimulated to divide An activated Th cell binds to the processed antigens on the B cell to stimulate
by mitosis? it to divide by mitosis, creating clones. This is clonal selection.
Why are more than 1 type of B-Cell Each pathogen typically has many proteins on it's surface membrane, acting
activated for each pathogen? as antigens. They also produce toxins. All of these can stimulate B-Cells to
make clones.
What are the antibodies created from Monoclonal antibodies.
B-Cell clones described as?
What can the B-Cell clones Plasma cells and memory cells
differentiate into?
What do plasma cells do? Primary immune response. They create a specific antibody. It is secreted into
blood plasma. Antibodies are created at a rate of 2000+ per second. The cells
only last a few days.
What do memory cells do? Secondary immune response. They don't create antibodies. They last a long
time in the body, when they encounter the complimentary antigen to their
antibody, they are stimulated to divide rapidly. This creates lots of memory
and plasma cells quickly, and therefore lots of antibodies are created quickly.
Why is the secondary immune The primary response relies on the activation of both the specific Th-Cell and
response much faster and of a greater B-Cells before antibodies can be released. The secondary immune response
magnitude than the primary immune needs only the B-Memory Cell to be activated, and there would be more of
response? those in the blood.
What are the stages of Humoral 1 - surface antigens of a pathogen are taken in by a specific B-Cell
immunity? 2 - The B-Cell process the antigen to place them on it's cell surface
membrane.
3 - Th-Cell attach to the presented antigens and activate it.
4 - The B-Cell is now activated; it divides by mitosis. The clones differentiate
into plasma or memory cells.
5 - Plasma cells secrete a specific antibody to fit the pathogen's specific
antigen.
6 - The antibody attaches and destroys the pathogen.
The memory cells stay in the blood until activated again by the specific
antigen. Causing the secondary immune response.
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Humoral Immunity
What is the definition of humoral immunity? How is it different to cell-mediated immunity? What cells and
other components does it involve?
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
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B-Cell activation
How are B-cells activated? What do they require for activation to take place? Why is it specific? What are the
different stages involved?
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
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B-Cells
After B-Cells have been activated, what can they develop into? What do the different types do? Why are
they both important?
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
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Practice Questions
1. What is humoral immunity? Why do we need this if we have cell mediated immunity?
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2. What are the stages of cell mediated immunity? Describe it from start to finish.
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3. Why are phagocytes important in the activation of B-Cells?
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Q1.
(a) Describe how phagocytosis of a virus leads to presentation of its antigens.
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(b) Describe how presentation of a virus antigen leads to the secretion of an antibody against this virus antigen.
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(c) Collagen is a protein produced by cells in joints, such as the knee.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an auto-immune disease. In an auto-immune disease, a person’s immune system attacks
their own cells. RA causes pain, swelling and stiffness in the joints.
Scientists have found a virus that produces a protein very similar to human collagen.
Suggest how the immune response to this viral protein can result in the development of RA.
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(Total 8 marks)
Q2.
(a) Describe how B-lymphocytes respond when they are stimulated by antigens.
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(b) The table gives information about some components of a red blood cell.
Component Glycoprotein Phospholipid Haemoglobin
Location in cell on outer surface of plasma within plasma membrane in cytoplasm

membrane
Suggest which component of an intact red blood cell is most likely to act as an antigen during a blood transfusion. Explain
your answer.
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Explanation
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(Total 6 marks)
Q3.
(a) Changes to the protein coat of the influenza virus cause antigenic variability. Explain how antigenic variability has
caused some people to become infected more than once with influenza viruses.
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(b) The drawings show the changes in a B lymphocyte after stimulation by specific antigens.
B lymphocyte before stimulation B lymphocyte after stimulation
(i) Describe the role of macrophages in stimulating B lymphocytes.
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(ii) Explain how the changes shown in the drawings are related to the function of B lymphocytes.
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Homework on B Lymphocytes and humoral immunity
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5 – Antibodies
This section uses the ileum as a sort of case study to look at how transport across membranes varies due to different
situations. We look at the rate of absorption, the different methods, and specifically co-transport.
Specification link:
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Useful video clips:
What are antibodies? - Fuse school
Difference between antigens and antibodies - Biologyexams4U
Antibodies and monoclonal antibodies – Mr Pollock
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Retrieval questions
What is an antibody? A protein created by a B-Cell, it has two identical, specific, binding sites.
What does an antibody do? It binds to a specific antigen, which is complimentary to its specific binding
site.
What are antibodies made of? What is They are made of 4 polypeptide chains. 2 Long (Heavy chains). 2 short (Light
their basic structure? chains.)
Draw and label an antibody
What is the name given to the binding The variable region. This is due to it being specific to a particular antibody, so
site of an antibody? they are all different.
What causes the variable region of an The sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape.
antibody to be different?
What is the part of the antibody that The constant region
isn't the variable region called?
Do antibodies destroy pathogens? Not directly, but they aid in their destruction.
What do antibodies do to pathogens? 1 - Cause agglutination through binding to two pathogens at once. Many
pathogens can be clumped together in this way.
2 - They act as markers to stimulate phagocytosis
How are monoclonal antibodies used Direct monoclonal antibody therapy and indirect monoclonal antibody
to treat diseases (specifically cancer). therapy.
How does direct monoclonal antibody 1 - Monoclonal antibodies are created which will attach to specific antigens
therapy work? on cancer cells
2 - These are given to the patient. They attach only to the cancer cell's
receptors
3 -This blocks the signals required to stimulate uncontrolled mitosis.
How does indirect monoclonal 1 - Monoclonal antibodies are created which will attach to specific antigens
antibody therapy work? on cancer cells
2 - A cytotoxic (cell killing) drug, or radioactive substance is attached to the
monoclonal antibody
3 - These are given to the patient. They attach only to the cancer cell's
receptors
4 -This kills the cell.
What are the benefits of using They produce results very quickly.
monoclonal antibodies in medical
diagnosis?
How are monoclonal antibodies used 1 - Pregnant Women produce HCG Hormone in their Urine.
in pregnancy testing? 2 - Test Strip has 3 parts to it
1st: start contains antibodies complementary to HCG,
2nd: middle contains antibodies complementary to HCG-Antibody complex,
3rd: end contains antibodies complementary to HCG Antibodies).
3 - If woman is pregnant, HCG in the urine binds to antibodies on 1st part
forming a HCG-Antibody complex,
4 - The HCG-Antibody complex then binds to antibodies on the 2nd part
forming a blue line (positive result),
5 - HCG Antibodies also bind to 3rd part as a control.
6 - If woman is not pregnant, no HCG in urine so nothing binds to HCG
Antibodies in 1st part, so nothing binds to antibodies in 2nd part leaving no
blue line (negative result),
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7 - The HCG Antibodies still bind to 3rd part for the control
Why are there ethical issues with Mice are used to create them, this involves giving them cancer.
creating monoclonal antibodies?
What have been the successes and They have been very successful in treating cancer and diabetes. They have
failures of monoclonal antibodies? also been associated with deaths whilst being used to treat multiple sclerosis.
Antibodies
What is an antibody? What is it made from? What are the different parts? What is similar between
antibodies and what is different? How are antibodies used to destroy an antigen?
40
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
Monoclonal antibodies
What is a monoclonal antibody? How are they created? What can they be used for? How does this work?
41
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
42
Monoclonal antibodies - ethics
Monoclonal antibodies have a lot of really useful applications, but there are negatives, ethical issues and
quandaries. What are these?
Key words, phrases
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
43
Practice Questions
1. What is an antibody? How is made? Start from DNA in the nucleus end with exocytosis.
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2. Describe how monoclonal antibodies could be used in the treatment of diseases such as cancer.
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3. Explain why monoclonal antibodies are so important in pregnancy testing
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44
Q1.
Malaria is a disease caused by parasites belonging to the genus Plasmodium. Two species that cause malaria are
Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax.
A test strip that uses monoclonal antibodies can be used to determine whether a person is infected by Plasmodium. It can
also be used to find which species of Plasmodium they are infected by.
• A sample of a person’s blood is mixed with a solution containing an antibody, A, that binds to a protein found in both
species of Plasmodium. This antibody has a coloured dye attached.
• A test strip is then put into the mixture. The mixture moves up the test strip by capillary action to an absorbent pad.
• Three other antibodies, B, C and D are attached to the test strip. The position of these antibodies and what they
bind to is shown in Figure 1.
(a) Explain why antibody A attaches only to the protein found in species of Plasmodium.
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(2)
45
(b) Antibody B is important if this test shows a person is not infected with Plasmodium.
Explain why antibody B is important.
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(2)
(c) One of these test strips was used to test a sample from a person thought to be infected with Plasmodium. Figure 2
shows the result.
What can you conclude from this result?
Explain how you reached your conclusion.
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(4)
(Total 8 marks)
46
Q2.
Read the following passage.
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is a substance found in blood. A high concentration of

LDL in a person’s blood can increase the risk of atheroma formation. Liver cells
have a receptor on their cell-surface membranes that LDL binds to. This leads to
LDL entering the cell. A regulator protein, also found in blood, can bind to the same
receptor as LDL. This prevents LDL entering the liver cell. People who have a high 5
concentration of this regulator protein in their blood will have a high concentration of
LDL in their blood. Scientists have made a monoclonal antibody that prevents this
regulator protein working. They have suggested that these antibodies could be
used to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.
10
A trial was carried out on a small number of healthy volunteers, divided into two
groups. The scientists injected one group with the monoclonal antibody in salt
solution. The other group was a control group. They measured the concentration of
LDL in the blood of each volunteer at the start and after 3 months. They found that
the mean LDL concentration in the volunteers injected with the antibody was 64% 15
lower than in the control group.
Use the information in the passage and your own knowledge to answer the
following questions.
(a) The scientists gave an injection to a mouse to make it produce the monoclonal antibody used in this investigation
(line 7).
What should this injection have contained?
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(1)
(b) LDL enters the liver cells (lines 3−4).
Using your knowledge of the structure of the cell-surface membrane, suggest how LDL enters the cell.
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(2)
47
(c) Explain how the monoclonal antibody would prevent the regulator protein from working (lines 7−8).
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(2)
(d) Describe how the control group should have been treated.
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(2)
(Total 7 marks)
48
Homework on Antibodies
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49
6 – Vaccinations
Your body has an incredible ability to fight of disease-causing pathogens. It does though, sometimes need a helping
hand. Vaccinations can create an immune response that can potentially save your life and with a good enough
vaccination programme, the lives of the weakest and most vulnerable in society.
Specification link:
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Useful video clips:
Vaccines and types of immunity – Snap revise
What are vaccines? - Fuse School
50
Retrieval questions
What are the two main types of Passive and active

immunity?
What are the two types of active Natural and artificial
immunity?
What is passive immunity? Antibodies are given to a person. The body isn't creating them.
What are examples of passive An anti-tetanus injection, breastfeeding.
immunity?
What is active immunity? Where the body responds to antigens. This stimulates the production of
antibodies.
What is natural active immunity? Where a person is infected with a particular disease. Their body responds as
normal and develops immunity.
What is artificial active immunity? Where a person is given a vaccination. This causes an immune response to occur.
Why do we bother with artificial The person being vaccinated can develop immunity without suffering the
immunity? symptoms of the disease. The disease may develop faster than the immune
response, and lead to serious illness or death.
What does a vaccine contain? One or more types of antigen from the disease-causing pathogen.
What is the most important result The creation of memory cells.
of a vaccination?
Why is it important that vaccination This speeds up and intensifies the immune response for future infections.
creates memory cells? Antibodies are rapidly produced before the person gets ill.
What is a vaccination programme? The delivery of a vaccination to the population.
What makes a vaccination Economical to produce large volumes
programme successful? Limited side-effects (to avoid discouraging people for getting vaccinated)
Ability to produce store and transport the vaccine.
Training of staff for delivery of the vaccination
Vaccination of a high proportion of people to create herd immunity.
What is herd immunity? Herd immunity allows those unvaccinated to stay safe from disease as there are
enough vaccinated people, that the pathogen is very unlikely to be passed on.
Why is herd immunity so Certain people, such as very young children/babies or ill/immunocompromised
important? people can't be vaccinated. They need the protection of the other vaccinated
people.
Why might vaccination not The pathogen may mutate so rapidly that vaccines will stop working.
eradicate a disease? Some people won't develop immunity (E.g. immunocompromised)
If the disease is caught soon after vaccination, the immune system hasn't had
chance to develop protection.
There may be multiple variations of the pathogen.
The pathogens may be hidden in the body (inside cells, or areas away from tissue
fluid such as intestines)
Some people do not get vaccinated, typically due to misunderstanding of risks.
Or religious views.
What are the ethical concerns of The use of animals in their production
vaccinations? Side effects
Testing of vaccines and the risk to individuals
51
Should vaccination be compulsory to create herd immunity?
Types of immunity
What does immunity mean? What are the different types of immunity and what are examples of these?
Where does vaccination come in this group?
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
52
Vaccination programmes
What is a vaccination made from? Why? What is a vaccination programme? What are these required? What
makes on successful? What is herd immunity? How does herd immunity link to vaccination programmes?
Why is herd immunity so important?
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
53
54
Vaccination programmes don’t always work
Why might a vaccination programme fail? What may go wrong? Sometimes people don’t support
vaccination programmes, Why might this be? What sort of issues might they raise? Are these valid or not?
Key words, phrases
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
55
Practice Questions
56
57
1. What is the difference between natural and artificial immunity? Give some examples.
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2. Why does herd immunity protect the entire population? Why is it difficult to achieve?
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58
Q1.
Microfold cells are found in the epithelium of the small intestine. Unlike other
epithelial cells in the small intestine, microfold cells do not have adaptations for the
absorption of food.
Microfold cells help to protect against pathogens that enter the intestine. They have 5
receptor proteins on their cell-surface membranes that bind to antigens on the
surface of pathogens. The microfold cells take up the antigens and transport them
to cells of the immune system. Antibodies are then produced which give protection
against the pathogen.
Scientists believe that it may be possible to develop vaccines that make use of 10
microfold cells. These vaccines could be swallowed in tablet form.
Use information from the passage and your own knowledge to answer the following questions.
(a) (i) Microfold cells have receptor proteins on their cell-surface membranes that bind to antigens (line 5). What is an
antigen?
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(1)
(ii) Microfold cells take up the antigens and transport them to cells of the immune system (lines 6-7). Antigens are not
able to pass through the cell-surface membranes of other epithelial cells. Suggest two reasons why.
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(2)
59
(b) Scientists believe that it may be possible to develop vaccines that make use of microfold cells (lines 9-10). Explain
how this sort of vaccine would lead to a person developing immunity to a pathogen.
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(Total 8 marks)
Q2.
(a) When a vaccine is given to a person, it leads to the production of antibodies against a disease-causing organism.
Describe how.
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(b) Describe the difference between active and passive immunity.
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(5)
(Total 10 marks)
60
Homework on Vaccination
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7 – HIV
HIV stands for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. It can lead to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome – AIDS. The
structure of the virus, ow it works and its effects on the immune system need to be understood. As does the effect of
antibiotics and why they will not work on a virus.
Specification link:
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Useful video clips:
HIV Structure - Learn Biology.net
HIV Replication - Learn Bioogy.net
ELISA test - Learn Biology.net
62
ELISA test in real life – Bio Rad
Retrieval questions
What is the full name of HIV? The Human Immunodeficiency Virus
What disease can having HIV lead to? Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
What are the component parts of HIV? Lipid envelope, attachment proteins, protein layer called capsid, RNA,
enzymes.
What group of viruses does HIV belong to? Retroviruses
How does HIV replicate (basic) It uses the host cell's organelles to create the component parts.
What are the stages involved in HIV 1 - HIV enters the blood stream
replication? 2 - HIV attachment proteins bind to receptor proteins. (Named CD4
found most often on T-Cells)
3 - Protein capsid fuses to the cell membrane
4 - HIV enzymes copy the HIV RNA as DNA
5 - The DNA moves into th enucleus where it fuses with the host cell's
DNA
6 - The Cell's enzymes create mRNA from the HIV DNA template. this
leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores.
7 - Protein synthesis creates the HIV components
8 - The HIV components break out of the cell, with the cell surface
membrane forming the lipid envelope.
Why does HIV damage the immune system? The HIV virus' attachment proteins specifically bind to receptors on
T-Helper cells. These therefore can't stimulate B-Cells or cytotoxic T
cells. Memory cells also can't be formed.
How dangerous is HIV alone? HIV itself doesn't cause much harm. It is the effect of a weakened
immune system that is dangerous.
Why is HIV indirectly dangerous? As the virus damages the immune system, the individual can't respond
adequately to new pathogens.
What is the test used to identify the The ELISA test
presence of specific proteins?
What does the ELISA test stand for? Enzyme Linked ImmunoSorbant Assay
What are the stages of the ELISA test? 1 - Sample applied to a slide (attached to it)
2 - Excess removed
3 - Specific antibodies, complimentary to the protein introduced
4 - Excess removed
5 - A second antibody, complimentary to the first introduced. - This
has an enzyme attached.
6 - A colourless substrate of the enzyme added. The enzyme acts on
the substrate changing it's colour.
7 - The intensity of the colour indicates the abundance of the protein
tested for.
63
What can the ELISA test be used for? Identifying the presence of pathogens such as HIV. Also drugs or
allergen tests, where the quantity of substance is more important than
its presence.
What is one way in which antibiotics work? By stopping the production of the cell wall of a bacteria.
Why is the cell wall of a bacteria so It prevents the destruction of the cell by osmotic lysis.
important?
What is the cell wall of a bacterium made Peptidoglycan (Meurin)
from?
How would the inhibition of enzymes If the cell wall isn't as stron, it won't withstand the outward forces
building the cell wall caus the bacterium to caused through the movement of water by osmosis. The influx of
die? water can cause the cell to break apart.
What are the different reasons by which 1 - They do not carry out metabolic processes, so these can not be
antibiotics can not affect viruses? stopped.
2 - the do not have a peptidoglycan (meurin) wall.
3 - They are hidden within the host's cells.
64
Structure of HIV
What are the main parts of HIV? What do they do? How are they involved in its replication?
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
65
Developing the symptoms of AIDS
What does the HIV virus do that means that the body’s immune system is compromised? There are a
number of stages to this. Why do HIV infected individuals not die of AIDS?
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
66
The ELISA Test
What is the ELISA test? What is good about this test in terms of sensitivity? How is it able to do this? How
does the test work? [Note – The textbook says the sample it attached to the surface first. Past exam
questions state that antigens attached first, THEN sample.]
Key words, phrases
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
67
Antibiotics and viral diseases
What is an antibiotic? What do they work on? What is the most common method for antibiotics to destroy
their foes? Why do the processes not work on viruses?
Key words, phrases
and topics
Summary of section
Areas I find tricky
68
Practice Questions
1. How do HIV proteins get created by the human body? Start from HIV outside the cell and go through
each stage step by step.
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2. How is AIDS developed? Include details on phagocytes and lymphocytes in your explanation.
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Q1.
The figure below shows a test that has been developed to find out if a person has antibodies to the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) antigen.
70
(a) This test only detects the presence of HIV antibodies. Give two reasons why it cannot be used to find out
if a person has AIDS.
1.
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2.
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(2)
(b) The solution will remain yellow if a person is not infected with HIV. Explain why.
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(c) A mother who was infected with HIV gave birth to a baby. The baby tested positive using this test. This
does not prove the baby is infected with HIV.
Explain why.
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(d) A control well is set up every time this test is used. This is treated in exactly the same way as the test
wells, except that blood plasma is replaced by a salt solution.
Use information from the figure above to suggest two purposes of the control well.
1.
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2.
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(Total 8 marks)
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Q2.
(a) The table below shows features of a bacterium and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) particle.
Complete the table by putting a tick (✔) where a feature is present.
Feature Bacterium Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) particle
RNA
Cell wall
Enzyme molecules
Capsid
(2)
(b) When HIV infects a human cell, the following events occur.
• A single-stranded length of HIV DNA is made.
• The human cell then makes a complementary strand to the HIV DNA.
The complementary strand is made in the same way as a new complementary strand is made during
semi-conservative replication of human DNA.
Describe how the complementary strand of HIV DNA is made.
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(3)
(c) Contrast the structures of DNA and mRNA molecules to give three differences.
1.
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2.
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3.
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(Total 8 marks)
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Q3.
(a) Describe how HIV is replicated after it has entered a human cell.
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(b) The destruction of T-cells by HIV leads to the death of an infected person.
Explain how.
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(Total 6 marks)
Q4.
An anti-gal antibody is a type of antibody that helps to fight infections caused
by bacteria. If a person has a bacterial infection, for example Salmonella, anti-gal
antibodies bind to antigens on the surface of the Salmonella. Not all the
anti-gal antibodies are used to fight the infection. Even after the infection, anti-gal
antibodies remain in the blood. 5
Scientists have made adaptor molecules to try to use the anti-gal antibodies
against viruses such as HIV. The adaptor molecules are proteins. Each adaptor
molecule had a receptor site to which the HIV binds. This receptor site was
similar to the receptor site on human cells to which the HIV binds. The
adaptor molecule has another site to which an anti-gal antibody will bind. 10
The scientists then investigated whether adding adaptor molecules and anti-gal
antibodies can prevent HIV entering cells. They added adaptor molecules
and anti-gal antibodies to a culture of human cells. They then added HIV
to the culture. Their results showed that 90% of the virus particles failed
to infect cells. 15
The scientists are hoping to develop a different type of adaptor molecule to use against MRSA.
73
(a) (i) What is an antigen? (line 3)
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(ii) Explain why antibodies against Salmonella do not normally bind to HIV.
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(2)
(iii) Explain how the adaptor molecule allows anti-gal antibodies to associate with HIV.
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(2)
(b) Describe how humans produce antibodies against a pathogen such as Salmonella.
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(Extra space)
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(6)
(c) (i) HIV infects some human cells, such as T-cells, but not others. Suggest why.
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(2)
(ii) Antibiotics are not used to treat viral infections, such as HIV. Explain why.
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(2)
(d) (i) When HIV, anti-gal and the adaptor molecule were added to a culture of human cells, 90% of the
virus did not infect human cells. (lines 12-15). Explain why.
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(2)
(ii) Explain why a different type of adaptor molecule will have to be made to use against MRSA. (lines 16-17)
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Homework on The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
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Cell recognition and the immune system checklist
77
78
79
Flash Cards on Cell recognition and the immune system
80

Pathogens and Immunity

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Cell Recognition and Immunity

Partial notes to be completed as part of the AQA Biology A-Level course.

Cell Recognition and the Immune System 7

Useful video clips: 7

Recognising your own body’s cells 10

Process of recognising cells belonging to our body. 11

Homework on Structure of the defence mechanisms 13

Exam Style Questions 18

3 – T-Lymphocytes and Cell Mediated Immunity 22

Useful video clips: 22

Antigens and lymphocytes 24

Homework on Cell mediated immunity 28

4 – B Lymphocytes and humoral immunity 29

Useful video clips: 29

Exam Style Questions 35

Homework on B Lymphocytes and humoral immunity 40

Useful video clips: 41

Monoclonal antibodies - ethics 46

Exam Style Questions 48

Useful video clips: 55

Exam Style Questions 63

Useful video clips: 67

Developing the symptoms of AIDS 71

The ELISA Test 72

Antibiotics and viral diseases 73

Exam Style Questions 75

Homework on The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 85

Cell recognition and the immune system checklist 86

Flash Cards on Cell recognition and the immune system 89

Useful video clips:

Fuse School - Human defence against pathogens

Fuse School - What are white blood cells?

Self and non-self

What is a pathogen? A microorganism which causes disease

Areas I find tricky

Potential exam questions

Recognising your own body’s cells

Areas I find tricky

Potential exam questions

Process of recognising cells belonging to our body.

Areas I find tricky

Potential exam questions

1. What part of a cell identifies it? What is this made of?

Homework on Structure of the defence mechanisms

Useful video clips:

Tailored Tutors - Phagocytosis

Defence mechanisms and phagocytosis

What is the role of a phagocyte? To ingest and destroy pathogens. (phagocytosis)

Areas I find tricky

Potential exam questions

Areas I find tricky

Potential exam questions

1. What is phagocytosis? Why is it important?

Exam Style Questions

(a) Describe how bacteria are destroyed by phagocytes.

(a) What is a pathogen?

3 – T-Lymphocytes and Cell Mediated Immunity

Useful video clips:

Your immune system - Natural born killer - Crash course

T-Cells and cell mediated immunity

Antigens and lymphocytes

Areas I find tricky

Potential exam questions