AQA A Level Biology

Mass Transport in Animals

(3.3.4.1)

Name: ______________________

Lesson My Marks Total Exam Homework Date

Question Checked
Marks
Lesson 1 – Haemoglobin and Oxygen
Transport
Lesson 2 – Circulatory System Structure

Lesson 3 – Tissue Fluid

Lesson 4 – The Cardiac Cycle

Lesson 5 – Cardiovascular Disease

End of Topic Test

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 Specification Section

3.3.4.1 Mass transport in animals

Content Opportunities for skills
development
The haemoglobins are a group of chemically similar molecules found in AT h
many different organisms. Haemoglobin is a protein with a quaternary
Students could design and carry
structure.
out an investigation into the
The role of haemoglobin and red blood cells in the transport of oxygen. effect of a named variable on
The loading, transport and unloading of oxygen in relation to the human pulse rate or on the heart
oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. The cooperative nature of oxygen rate of an invertebrate, such
binding to show that the change in shape of haemoglobin caused by as Daphnia.
binding of the first oxygens makes the binding of further oxygens easier.
MS 2.2
The effects of carbon dioxide concentration on the dissociation of
oxyhaemoglobin (the Bohr effect). Students could be given values of
cardiac output (CO) and one
Many animals are adapted to their environment by possessing different
other measure, requiring them to
types of haemoglobin with different oxygen transport properties.
change the subject of the
The general pattern of blood circulation in a mammal. Names are equation:
required only of the coronary arteries and of the blood vessels entering
and leaving the heart, lungs and kidneys.
The gross structure of the human heart. Pressure and volume changes
and associated valve movements during the cardiac cycle that maintain a
unidirectional flow of blood.
The structure of arteries, arterioles and veins in relation to their function.
The structure of capillaries and the importance of capillary beds as
exchange surfaces. The formation of tissue fluid and its return to the
circulatory system.
Students should be able to:

● analyse and interpret data relating to pressure and volume

changes during the cardiac cycle
● analyse and interpret data associated with specific risk factors and
the incidence of cardiovascular disease
● evaluate conflicting evidence associated with risk factors affecting
cardiovascular disease
● recognise correlations and causal relationships.

Required practical 5: Dissection of animal or plant gas exchange system AT j

or mass transport system or of organ within such a system.

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 GCSE RECAP

State the components of blood

Blood is the liquid that transports important substances around the body. It has some other important roles:

● It helps defend the body against microorganisms which can cause disease
● It helps control the body temperature

Blood contains types of cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets all of which are carried in a fluid called
plasma. Within the plasma dissolved substances like oxygen and glucose (plus other products of digestion), urea and
carbon dioxide will also be transported around the body. The plasma is a yellow colour, blood is only red because of
the haemoglobin in red blood cells.

Red blood cells carry the oxygen from the air in our lungs to our respiring
cells.

White blood cells form part of the immune system. Some white blood cells
(lymphocytes) produce antibodies or antitoxins and others (phagocytes)
engulf and digest invading microorganisms.

Platelets are small fragments of cells without a nucleus. They are involved
in the clotting of blood. The clotting process forms a network of fibres that
traps more platelets and red blood cells to form a scab which protects the
new skin as it grows underneath. Scabs also prevent microorganisms from getting into the cut, so it stops infection.

Explain how the red blood cell is adapted for its function

Red blood cells have certain adaptations that make them efficient at their job:

● Their biconcave disks increases their surface area which

increase diffusion of oxygen across the cell membrane.
● They are packed with haemoglobin which binds to
oxygen. It contains an atom of iron (Fe) which gives the
pigment it’s red colour it is brightest when there is lots
of oxygen bound to the haemoglobin.
● They also have no nucleus which allows more space for more haemoglobin.

People who suffer with sickle cell anaemia have misshapen red blood cells, they have a
smaller volume so they cannot hold as much haemoglobin which means they cannot carry
as much oxygen. The shape also causes diffusion of oxygen to be slower as it has a smaller
surface area. The shape can also cause blood vessels to block blood vessels which can slow blood flow.

Sufferers can get breathless quickly and are often tired. They are also less able to do exercise as their muscles get
tired or fatigued quickly.
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 State the three types of blood vessels in the body

Most animals have a closed circulatory system. In a closed circulatory system, the blood stays inside blood vessels as
it travels around the body. Humans have a double circulation system because blood moves through the heart twice.
The right side of the heart and blood vessels carries blood from your heart to the lungs and back again (pulmonary)
and the left side of the heart pumps blood from to all other organs of your body and back again (systemic). The
double circulation system allows lots of oxygenated blood to be transported quickly.

Explain how the heart muscle functions

Your heart is the organ that pumps (pushes) blood round our body. It is described as a double pump because the
right-side pumps blood to the lungs and the left-side pumps blood to the body, blood flows through the heart twice.

The walls of your heart are made of muscle, the blood vessel that supplies the heart muscle cells with oxygen is
called the coronary artery. The heart beats continuously for your whole life so it requires a constant supply of oxygen
and glucose from the blood.

It is easy to tell which side is left and right because the muscle wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the right
ventricle. This allows the left ventricle to contract with more force so the blood is pushed at the high pressure
needed to pump it round the body.

Describe the path of blood through the heart

1. Blood enters the right atrium through the vena cava

(a vein that brings deoxygenated blood back to the
heart from the body).
2. Blood will then travel from the right atrium into the
right ventricle. The atrioventricular (AV) valve will
then close to prevent backflow.
3. When the right ventricle contracts deoxygenated blood is forced through into the pulmonary artery which
travels to the lungs to pick up oxygen.
4. This newly oxygenated blood is returned to the heart by the pulmonary vein into the left atrium.
5. Blood flows into the left ventricle, the atrioventricular (AV) valve closes to prevent backflow.
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6. The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood around the body via the aorta.

Lesson 1 – Haemoglobin and Oxygen Transport

Key Words

Word Definition
Haemoglobins A group of chemically similar molecules found in a wide variety of organisms. Protein molecules
with a quaternary structure that has evolved to make it efficient at loading oxygen under one set of
conditions but unloading it under a different set of conditions. It has four polypeptide chains which
are linked together – each polypeptide is associated with a haem group which contains a ferrous
(Fe2+) ion which can combine with an oxygen molecule (O2).
Oxygen The process by which haemoglobin binds with oxygen is called loading or associating. In humans
loading this takes place in the lungs.
Oxygen The process by which haemoglobin releases its oxygen is called unloading or dissociating. In
unloading humans this takes place in the tissues.
High affinity Haemoglobins with this for oxygen take up oxygen more easily but release it less easily.
Low affinity Haemoglobins with this for oxygen take up oxygen less easily but release it more easily.
Oxygen The graph of the relationship between the saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen and the partial
dissociation pressure of oxygen. Shows how at low oxygen concentrations little oxygen binds to haemoglobin
curve (shallow gradient initially). After the first oxygen molecule binding the quaternary structure of the
haemoglobin molecule changes, making it easier for the other subunits to bind an oxygen
molecule, therefore it takes a smaller increase in the partial pressure of oxygen to bind the second
molecule and third molecule so the gradient steepens. After the binding of the third molecule, it is
less likely that a single oxygen molecule will find an empty site to bind to so the gradient of the
curve reduces and the graph flattens off.
Positive Binding of the first molecule makes binding of the second easier and so on, so the gradient of the
cooperativity curve steepens.
Partial A measure of the concentration of a gas in a mixture of gases by calculating the pressure it
Pressure contributes to the overall pressure.
Bohr Shift The greater the concentration of carbon dioxide the more readily the haemoglobin releases its
oxygen because the more carbon dioxide there is, the lower the pH, the greater the haemoglobin
shape change, the more readily oxygen is unloaded, the more oxygen is available for respiration.

Notes

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) have a biconcave shape which gives them a large SA:V for diffusion of oxygen. They are
flat and thin which creates a short diffusion pathway for oxygen to reach all the haemoglobin inside.

Haemoglobin is a large globular protein with quaternary structure

(made up of four polypeptide chains). Each chain has a haem group
which contains an iron ion (Fe2+) which gives haemoglobin its red
colour. Each molecule of haemoglobin can bind up to four oxygen (O2)
molecules as the oxygen binds to the haem group.

In the lungs oxygen diffuses from the alveoli, into capillaries and into
red blood cells where it associates (binds) with the haemoglobin to
form oxyhaemoglobin. This a reversible reaction because at respiring
cells the oxygen dissociates (leaves) and it turns back to haemoglobin.
This can also be described as loading and unloading of oxygen.

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Haemoglobin’s Affinity for Oxygen

Haemoglobins affinity for oxygen (how easily it will bind to it) is dependent on some conditions:

● the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2)

● haemoglobin saturation
● the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2)

The partial pressure of a gas is a measure of concentration of that gas in a mixture of gases (e.g air) or in a liquid (e.g
water). It is based on how much pressure that gas contributes to the overall pressure exerted by the mixture of gases.
So, the higher the concentration of oxygen the higher the pO2, and as pO2 increases haemoglobins affinity increases.
This means:

● haemoglobin will have a higher affinity for O2 in oxygen-rich areas (e.g lungs) where there is a high pO2,
promoting oxygen loading.
● haemoglobin will have a lower affinity for O2 in oxygen-starved areas (e.g respiring tissues) where there is a
low pO2, promoting oxygen unloading.

This ensures oxygen is always picked up by red blood cells in the lungs and released in respiring cells where it is
needed.

The saturation of haemoglobin can also affect its affinity for oxygen. This is because as each oxygen molecule binds it
changes the shape of the haemoglobin in a way that makes it easier for further oxygen molecules to bind (this is
known as co-operative binding, see image below).

However, as the saturation of haemoglobin increases it becomes harder for the final oxygen molecules to bind. This
means the saturation of haemoglobin with increasing pO2 is not linear. This is shown in the s-shape of oxygen
dissociation curves.
The curve shows a steep section in the middle where it is easy
for oxygen to bind as pO2 increases and shallow gradients at
low and high pO2 where it is harder for oxygen to bind. When
the curve is steep, small increases in pO2 cause larege changes
in the amount of oxygen being carried by the haemoglobin.

These curves also show that where pO2 is high (e.g the lungs)
haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen so it will have a
higher oxygen saturation. But at low pO2 (e.g in respiring
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tissues during exercise), haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen, so it has a low saturation of oxygen.

On these graphs 100% oxygen saturation means every haemoglobin is carrying four oxygens. 0% oxygen saturation
means no haemoglobin molecules have any oxygen bound.

The partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) affects the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen. When pCO2 is high (e.g
in respiring tissues) oxygen dissociates from haemoglobin more easily, this allows more oxygen to be unloaded to
cells during intense activity. It occurs because an increase in carbon dioxide production leads to a decrease in blood
pH as it reacts with water to form carbonic acid. The low pH causes the tertiary structure of the haemoglobin to be
altered, decreasing its affinity for oxygen so increasing the dissociation of oxygen. This is known as the Bohr effect.

The further left the curve the higher the haemoglobin’s affinity
for oxygen.

It can also be known as the Bohr shift because an increase in

CO2 or a decrease in pH shifts the normal oxygen dissociation
curve to the right.

It stays the same shape, but it shows that for the same pO2 the
saturation of blood with oxygen is lower as more oxygen is
being released from the haemoglobin.

This ensures that where there is the most respiration occurring

(more CO2 produced) more oxygen will be released to help
maintain the level of metabolic activity.

Different types of haemoglobin

Many organisms have a type of haemoglobin in their blood to transport oxygen, but it will have different affinities for
oxygen depending on where the organisms lives and their metabolic activities.

Environment/Organism Haemoglobin affinity Explanation

for oxygen compared
to adult human
Foetus in the womb Higher affinity A different structure gives foetal haemoglobin a
greater affinity to oxygen than adult haemoglobin.
(Dissociation curve is Oxygen binds to foetal haemoglobin more easily
shifted to the left) and is more reluctant to dissociate. This is
important, as foetal haemoglobin needs to “steal”
Low oxygen = Left oxygen away from the mother’s haemoglobin
when they pass in the placenta. If the foetal and
maternal haemoglobin had the same affinity for
oxygen, there would be no incentive for the
oxygen to switch from the maternal blood to
foetal blood.
Animals living in low oxygen Higher affinity Organisms can live at high altitudes where there is
environments lower atmospheric pressure so low pO2. Some
(Dissociation curve is organisms live in sand or on the seabed where
shifted to the left) there is less airflow or mixing of water. This means
there is less oxygen available. Their haemoglobin
Low oxygen = Left has a much higher affinity for oxygen. This is
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 because when there isn’t much oxygen available
the haemoglobin has to be able to load more
oxygen at lower pO2 to make sure enough oxygen
is absorbed.

Small organisms with high SA:V or Lower affinity Small mammals that have a higher SA:V than
organism with high metabolic rate larger mammals will lose heat more quickly so
(Dissociation curve is they have a higher metabolic rate to help maintain
shifted to the right) their body temperature. Other high activity
organisms will also have a higher metabolic rate.
High Respiration =
Right Higher metabolic rate = more respiration = greater
oxygen demand. This means the organisms need
haemoglobin with a lower affinity for oxygen as
they need it to easily unload oxygen to meet their
high oxygen demand and allow a faster respiration
rate.

Recall Questions

1. Explain the adaptations of a red blood cell

2. Describe the simple structure of haemoglobin
3. Why can haemoglobin be described as having quaternary structure?
4. What is formed when haemoglobin and oxygen associate?
5. What is the name for oxyhaemoglobin releasing its oxygen to respiring cells?
6. What is partial pressure?
7. What affect does pO2 have on haemoglobins affinity for oxygen?
8. Where in the body has the highest pO2
9. Where does haemoglobin have high affinity for oxygen?
10. As pCO2 increases what happens to the oxygen affinity of haemoglobin?
11. How does increased respiration affect blood pH?
12. Explain how saturation of haemoglobin affects it’s affinity for oxygen.
13. With reference to protein structure, explain how lowering blood pH levels affects haemoglobin.
14. What is the net result of the Bohr effect?
15. What direction will the dissociation curve shift during the Bohr effect?
16. What is the main difference between foetal haemoglobin and adult haemoglobin?
17. Explain why it is an advantage for foetal haemoglobin to have a higher affinity than adult haemoglobin.
18. Give three examples of environments with low oxygen concentrations
19. Explain why it is an advantage to have haemoglobin with a higher affinity for oxygen if you live in high
altitude environments.
20. Explain why it is an advantage to have haemoglobin with a lower affinity for oxygen if you have a larger SA:V

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Exam Questions

Q1. (a) Explain how the shape of a red blood cell allows it to take up a large amount of oxygen in a
short time.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Samples of blood were mixed with equal volumes of different liquids. A drop of each mixture
was put on a slide and examined with an optical microscope. The table shows the appearance
of each slide.

Slide Liquid added Appearance of slide

A Distilled water No cells seen. Slide appears a
uniform pale red colour

B Sucrose solution Cells are smaller in diameter than

in an untreated sample of blood

C Detergent (dissolves lipids) No cells seen. Slide appears a

uniform pale red colour

(b) (i) What does the appearance of slide B tell you about the plasma membrane
surrounding a red blood cell?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (1)

(ii) Explain the appearance of slide C.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

Q2. (a) Haemoglobin is a protein with a quaternary structure. What is meant by a quaternary
structure?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) Explain how oxygen in a red blood cell is made available for respiration in active tissues.

___________________________________________________________________

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 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(c) Haemoglobin is broken down in the liver. One product of this breakdown is amino acids.
Give one use in the body of these amino acids.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (1)

Q3. The graph shows dissociation curves for haemoglobin in a foetus and in an adult.

(a) (i) What is the difference in percentage saturation between foetal haemoglobin and
adult haemoglobin at a partial pressure of 3 kPa?

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Explain the advantage of the curve for foetal haemoglobin being different from the
curve for adult haemoglobin.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
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 ______________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) The dissociation curve for adult haemoglobin changes during vigorous exercise.

(i) Sketch on the graph the position of the curve during vigorous exercise.
(1)

(ii) Explain the advantage of this change in position.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

Q4. A decrease in the pH of blood plasma reduces the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
(a) (i) Explain how aerobic respiration in cells leads to a change in the pH of blood
plasma.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) What is the advantage to tissue cells of a reduction in the affinity of haemoglobin for
oxygen when the plasma pH decreases?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) Deer mice are small mammals which live in North America. One population lives at high
altitude and another at low altitude. Less oxygen is available at high altitude. The graph
shows the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curves for the two populations of deer mice.

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 (i) Explain the advantage for mice living at high altitude in having a dissociation curve
which is to the left of the curve for mice living at low altitude.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) Suggest why it would be a disadvantage for the curve to be much further to the left.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________(1)

Q5. The graph shows dissociation curves for human oxyhaemoglobin at rest and during exercise.
Table 1 gives information about conditions in the body at rest and during exercise.

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 Rest Exercise

Plasma pH 7.4 7.2

Blood temperature / °C 37.0 39.0

Alveolar partial pressure of oxygen / kPa 13.3 13.3

Tissue partial pressure of oxygen / kPa 5.0 4.0

Table 1

(a) What is meant by the term partial pressure?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) Use Table 1 and the graph to calculate the difference in the percentage saturation of
haemoglobin in the tissues between rest and exercise.

Answer ____________________ % (1)

(c) Explain the differences between the figures shown in Table 1 for rest and exercise.

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 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

(d) Explain the advantage of the difference in position of the dissociation curve during
exercise.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q6. (a) The graph shows a dissociation curve for human haemoglobin at pH 7.4. The position of the
curve is different at pH 7.2.

(i) Sketch a curve on the graph to show the likely position of the dissociation curve at
pH 7.2.
(1)

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 (ii) Explain how a change in pH from 7.4 to 7.2 affects the supply of oxygen by
haemoglobin to the tissues.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) Explain what causes the pH to be reduced from 7.4 to 7.2 in a tissue.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

Q7. The graph shows the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curves for three species of fish.

(a) Species A lives in water containing a low partial pressure of oxygen. Species C lives in
water with a high partial pressure of oxygen. The oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve
for species A is to the left of the curve for species C. Explain the advantage to species A
of having haemoglobin with a curve in this position.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

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 ___________________________________________________________________ (3)

(b) Species A and B live in the same place but B is more active. Suggest an advantage to B
of having an oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve to the right of that for A.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q8.
(a) The table shows some data for a shrew and an elephant.

Shrew Elephant

Body mass 10 g 5000 kg

Volume of oxygen
20 cm3 52.5 dm3
taken up per hour

The rate of oxygen uptake for the shrew is 2 cm3g–1h–1. Calculate the volume of oxygen
taken up per gram of body tissue per hour in the elephant.
Show your working.

Answer ____________________ cm3g–1h–1

(2)

(b) The graph shows the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curves for these mammals.

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 The tissues of the shrew have a higher rate of oxygen consumption per gram of body
tissue than the elephant. There is an advantage to the shrew in having haemoglobin with
a dissociation curve in the position shown. Explain this advantage.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

Homework

1. Complete all exam questions from Lesson 1

2. Read notes and complete recall questions for lesson 2 as pre-learning
3. Complete the tasks below:
Complete the sentences using the words in bold:

affinity average cytoplasm dissociating dissolved evolve first four fourth high
high iron left left low low lungs lungs partial pressure primary respiring
respiring right right second shape small stagnant third ventilate

Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, enabling them to carry far more oxygen than if it was only ____________ in

their ____________. Haemoglobin is a protein consisting of ________ polypeptide chains, each containing a haem

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group which includes an _______ ion; this allows each molecule of haemoglobin to transport four molecules of

oxygen. The concentration of oxygen in the air or dissolved in a solution can be referred to as the ___________

____________ of oxygen (ppO ). The saturation of haemoglobin depends upon the partial pressure of oxygen where
2

oxygen will bond to haemoglobin where there is a ______ ppO surrounding the molecule and will release the oxygen
2

when there is a ______ ppO . This results in oxygen bonding to haemoglobin in blood surrounding the ________
2

(since high oxygen concentration is being brought in through ventilation) and releasing (_____________ with) the

oxygen into actively ___________ tissues (since there is a low oxygen concentration due to oxygen being used in

aerobic respiration).

As each oxygen molecule bonds to haemoglobin the protein changes _________. This means that the haemoglobin

molecule has a different __________ for oxygen depending upon how many have bound previously. It works in this

way: it is difficult for the ________ oxygen molecule to bond, it is very easy for the ________ and ________

molecules to bond, it is difficult for the ________ molecule to bond. Any one molecule of haemoglobin would

therefore produce a dissociation curve with a step-like appearance; however, we normally represent information on

the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin as an __________ for all molecules which produces a smooth s-shaped

curve.

The affinity of haemoglobin is also altered by the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (ppCO ) surrounding the
2

haemoglobin. Where ppCO is _______ haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen so the dissociation curve shifts
2

_______; where ppCO is _______ haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen so the dissociation curve shifts
2

_______. This allows the haemoglobin to better collect oxygen in the ________, where CO concentration is low, and
2

unload it at __________ tissues, where CO concentration is high. This is known as the Bohr effect.
2

The exact affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen will also depend upon the ___________ (and therefore the tertiary)

structure of the molecule. This has allowed different organisms to __________ different haemoglobins depending on

their requirements for oxygen. An organism that lives in an environment with low ppO , such as in ___________
2

water or high altitude, often has haemoglobin with a higher affinity for oxygen (causing the dissociation curve to shift

________) so it can gain all of the oxygen from its environment. An organism that respires rapidly, such as a

_________ mammal or active bird, often has haemoglobin with a lower affinity for oxygen (causing the dissociation

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curve to shift ________) so it can more easily unload oxygen to their tissues, but also meaning is must ____________

the lungs more rapidly.

Complete the diagrams

1. Draw a labelled graph showing three oxygen dissociation curves when pCO is low, medium and high. [5]
2

0. Draw a labelled graph showing the oxygen dissociation graph for a human, an organism the lives in
conditions with low oxygen concentration and an organism with a large surface area:volume ratio that often moves
very quickly. [5]

Answer the questions

1. How many oxygen molecules can bind to haemoglobin?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

0. What metal ion is found in haemoglobin?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

0. What is the alternative name for gas ‘concentration’?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

0. Is haemoglobin more or less likely to have oxygen bound if the surrounding oxygen concentration is low?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

0. What is the name given to the change in affinity of oxygen to haemoglobin when the surrounding carbon
dioxide concentration changes?
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 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

0. What direction does the curve shift if carbon dioxide concentration is high?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

0. What direction does the curve shift in an active mammal?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

0. Does this mean they have a higher or lower affinity for oxygen?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

0. What direction does the curve shift in an organism that lives in an anaerobic bog?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

0. Does this mean they have a higher or lower affinity for oxygen?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Lesson 2 – Circulatory System Structure

Key Words

Word Definition
Closed Circulatory Contains a pump (heart), vessels (arteries, capillaries and arteries) and a medium (blood) to
System transport substances around the body.
Double circulatory Blood is confined to vessels and passes twice through the heart for each complete circuit of
system the body (to the lungs and tissues).
Arteries Carry blood away from the heart and into arterioles. They have a thicker muscular layer,
thicker elastic layer and overall thicker wall than veins.
Arterioles Smaller arteries that control blood flow from arteries to capillaries. Their muscular layer is
relatively thicker than in arteries and elastic layer is relatively thinner than in arteries.
Capillaries Tiny vessels that link arterioles to venules. Their walls consist mostly of the lining layer making
them extremely thin, they are numerous and highly branched, they have a narrow diameter
and narrow lumen and there are spaces between the lining (endothelial) cells.
Veins Carry blood from venules back to the heart. They have a thinner muscular layer, thinner elastic
layer and overall thinner wall than arteries. They contain valves at intervals throughout to
ensure that blood does not flow backwards.
Notes

Multicellular organisms require a transport system as they have

a low SA:V and cannot rely on diffusion to supply all their cells
and tissues with the substances they need or to remove waste
substances such as CO2 and urea because the diffusion distance
is too long. They require a specialised, efficient mass transport
system to carry raw materials from specialised exchange organs
to their body cells and carry waste substances away.

Circulatory systems can either be open, for instance in insects

or closed, like in fish and mammals where the blood is confined
to blood vessels only. (Increases pressure and speed of blood
flow)

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Closed circulatory systems come in two forms, either a single form which consists of a heart with two chambers
meaning the blood passes through the heart once for every circuit of the body or double, where the heart has four
chambers and blood passes through the heart twice for every circuit of the body. This is more efficient as it increases
pressure and therefore speed of delivery of oxygenated blood to tissues.

The circulatory system is made up of the heart which pumps blood through blood vessels to reach different parts of
the body. You need to be aware of the vessels that enter and leave the heart, lungs and kidneys (see Figure 1).

Blood transports gases, products of digestion, metabolic wastes and hormones around the body. The heart has its
own blood supply – the left and right coronary arteries.

Structure and function of blood vessels

Arteries branch into arterioles which are smaller and form a

network throughout the body, they can contract to restrict
blood flow and relax to increase blood flow. This allows
blood to be directed to different areas according to demand.
Arterioles branch into capillaries which form networks in
tissues called capillary beds. Once exchange has occurred
deoxygenated blood (with the exception of the pulmonary
vein) flows from capillaries into venules, these then join to
form veins and blood is transported back to the heart.

● Smooth Muscle layer - contracts to control the flow of blood in arteries, arterioles and veins.
● Elastic Layer – Allows the vessel to stretch and recoil (springing back) in arteries, arterioles and veins.
● Endothelium - thin inner lining which is smooth to reduce friction in all vessels.

● Carry blood away from the heart
● Narrower lumen to help maintain high pressure
● Thick muscular walls and elastic layer allows
stretch and recoil with each ventricular
contraction to maintain high blood pressure.
● Endothelium is folded to allow stretching to
help maintain high pressure
● Carry blood towards the heart
● Wider lumen than arteries as blood is at low pressure
● Thinner layers of muscle and elastic tissue
● Valves to ensure that blood does not flow backwards.
● When skeletal muscles contract they compress veins,
helping to increase pressure and push blood along.

● Smallest blood vessels diameter same as a red blood cell

● Site of substance exchange with cells
● Very close to cells so short diffusion pathway
● Walls are only one cell thick for short diffusion pathway

Page 21 of 71
 ● Gaps called fenestrations between endothelial cells allow substances to diffuse
out between
● Large number of capillaries to increase surface area for gas exchange

Pressure changes

Blood always flows from high to low pressure. The vena cava is the final blood vessel to return to the heart, so it has
the lowest pressure. Blood pressure is highest in the aorta immediately after a ventricular contraction. Blood loses
pressure as it moves along the vessels from the aorta due to it branching into many vessels, the increasing of lumen
size of the vessels and friction.

There are fluctuations in the blood

pressure of arteries and arterioles as
elastic tissue stretches when blood
moves through at high pressure
(when the ventricle
contracts/systole) then recoils
(springs back) as blood pressure
drops (when the ventricle
relaxes/diastole) this helps to even
out the pressure of blood flowing
through the artery. These
fluctuations in pressure can be felt as
your pulse when pushing fingers onto
major blood vessels.

Recall Questions

1. What are the benefits of a

mass transport system?
2. Why can’t complex multi cellular organisms rely on diffusion to transport substances around the body?
3. Define a closed circulatory system
4. Define a double circulatory system
5. Why is a closed circulatory system more efficient?
6. Describe three disadvantages of single circulatory systems, as seen in fish
7. What is the inner tissue lining of a blood vessel called? What is its role?
8. Describe the three structural layers of an artery
9. Describe the stretch and recoil in arteries
10. What is the role of arterioles?
11. Describe how veins are adapted to carry blood back to the heart
12. Describe how blood flows in veins
13. Describe the function of a venule
14. What is the function of the capillaries?
15. Describe the structure of capillaries
16. Describe how capillaries are adapted for exchange
17. Why does blood pressure decrease as you move from arteries to veins?
18. How do arteries even out blood pressure?

Page 22 of 71
Exam Questions

Q1

Q2

Q3. Describe and explain four ways in which the structure of a capillary adapts it for the exchange of
substances between blood and the surrounding tissue.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Page 23 of 71
 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________(4)

Q4. The diagram shows a cross-section of an artery.

(a) Name the layer labelled Y.

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) Layer Z contains a high proportion of elastic tissue.

Describe the advantage of having elastic tissue in the wall of an artery.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) Calculate the cross-sectional area of the lumen of the artery shown in the diagram. Show
your working.

The area of a circle is given by πr2, where r is the radius of a circle (π = 3.14).

Answer ____________________ mm2 (3)

Page 24 of 71
 Q5

.
Page 25 of 71
 Q6. The table shows the relative thickness of layers in the walls of an artery and a vein.

Layer in wall Thickness / µm

Artery Vein

Endothelium 20 20

Smooth muscle 490 240

Elastic tissue 370 240

Connective tissue 120 120

(a) Explain why a vein may be described as an organ.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) (i) Use information from the table to suggest the thickness of a capillary wall.
Give the reason for your answer.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) The diameter of the artery was 4 mm. Calculate the diameter of the lumen of this
artery. Show your working.

Answer ____________________
(2)

(c) Explain how the elastic tissue in the wall helps to even out the pressure of blood flowing
through the artery.

___________________________________________________________________

Page 26 of 71
 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q7

Page 27 of 71
Page 28 of 71
Q8. Arteries and arterioles take blood away from the heart. Explain how the structures of the walls of
arteries and arterioles are related to their functions.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ (6)

Homework
1. Complete all exam questions from Lesson 2
2. Read notes and complete recall questions for lesson 3 as pre-learning
3. Complete the following:

Page 29 of 71
 Lesson 3 – Tissue Fluid

Key Words

Word Definition
Plasma Yellow liquid inside blood vessels, which carries red blood cells, platelets, white blood cells and
also dissolved substances such as proteins, water, glucose, amino acids and hormones.
Composition is controlled by various homeostatic systems.
Tissue fluid A watery liquid that contains glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, ions in solution and oxygen. It
supplies all of these substances to the tissues and receives carbon dioxide and other waste
materials from tissues. It is the means by which materials are exchanged between blood and cells
and bathes the cells of the body. It is formed from blood plasma.
Ultrafiltration Filtration under pressure at the arterial end, assisted by blood pressure (a hydrostatic pressure)
which causes small molecules to be forced out of the capillaries, leaving all cells and proteins in the
blood because they are too large to cross the membranes.
Lymphatic A system of tubes that returns excess tissue fluid to the blood system. The larger vessels drain their
system contents back into the bloodstream via two ducts that join the vena cava close to the heart. It is
how the remainder of tissue fluid (which cannot return to the capillaries) is carried back.

Notes

Tissue fluid is formed by blood plasma (carrying dissolved substances)

leaking from the capillaries. It surrounds the cells in the tissue and
provides them with oxygen and nutrients.

The movement is by mass flow (the movement of fluids down a

pressure gradient). There is a net outflow of plasma from the arterial

Page 30 of 71
end of capillaries due to higher blood pressure which creates high hydrostatic pressure.

Some tissue fluid is eventually reabsorbed. Waste products from cell metabolism (e.g CO2 and urea) returned to the
capillaries with the tissue fluid.

Not all fluid passes back into the capillaries. The excess is drained into vessels of the lymphatic system - this fluid is
now known as lymph. Lymph is a colourless/pale yellow fluid like tissue fluid but containing more lipids. Lymph
passes through the lymphatic system and drains back into the blood via the vena cava.

Lymph contains lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) which are part of the immune system and help to filter out
foreign material from the lymph.

Tissue fluid formation

1. At the arteriole end of the capillary bed, the hydrostatic (liquid) pressure inside the capillaries is greater than
in the tissue fluid. The hydrostatic pressure is also greater than the osmotic pressure.

2. This difference in hydrostatic pressure forces fluid containing small molecules (nutrients and oxygen) out of
the blood through tiny gaps between the cells in the capillary walls. This forms tissue fluid.

3. Red blood cells, platelets and plasma proteins remain in the blood as they are too large to be pushed out
through the capillary walls.

4. Exchange then occurs between tissue fluid and cells by diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport.
Oxygen and nutrients enter the cells and carbon dioxide and other wastes (e.g urea) leave the cell and
enter the tissue fluid.

Page 31 of 71
 5. As fluid leaves the capillaries at the arteriole end it reduces the hydrostatic pressure. This means the blood
pressure at the venous end of the capillaries is much lower.

6. As water leaves the capillary but the plasma proteins can’t leave this lowers the water potential of the
blood. Therefore, the water potential in the capillaries is lower than in the tissue fluid at the venule end So
at the venule end the osmotic pressure becomes greater than the hydrostatic pressure so the water moves
by osmosis into the capillaries carrying carbon dioxide and other waste substances.

7. Any excess tissue fluid that is not reabsorbed is returned is collected into the lymphatic system which returns
it to the circulatory system.

Summary: High hydrostatic pressure of blood at the arteriole end forces fluid out but plasma proteins remain as they
are too large to pass through capillary walls. This loss of water lowers the water potential and hydrostatic pressure of
the blood. Hydrostatic pressure and water potential in tissue fluid is then higher at the venule end so water returns
to capillaries by osmosis. Any excess tissue fluid returns to the blood via the lymphatic system.

Recall Questions

1. What is tissue fluid?

2. How is hydrostatic pressure of the blood created?
3. State the cell types that are most likely to be found in blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph
4. Why can proteins known as plasma proteins not leave the blood plasma?
5. Describe the role of the lymphatic system
6. How does exchange of substances from tissue fluid to body cells occur?
7. Where is hydrostatic pressure the highest?
8. Explain the movement of tissue fluid at the arteriole end of a capillary
9. What substances move out of the capillary due to pressure filtration?
10. Why does hydrostatic pressure decrease along the capillary?
11. Why does osmotic pressure increase along the capillary?
12. Explain the movement of tissue fluid at the venule end of a capillary
13. What substances return to the capillary at the venule end?
14. How does excess tissue fluid get returned to the blood?

Exam Questions

Q1.
(a) Tissue fluid is formed from blood plasma. Complete the table to show substances present
in tissue fluid and blood plasma. Use a tick if the substance is present and a cross if it is
absent.

Page 32 of 71
 Substance

Glucose Sodium ions Haemoglobin

Tissue fluid

Blood plasma

(2)

(b) The hydrostatic pressure of the blood at the arteriole end of the capillary helps to form
tissue fluid. Explain how.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q2. The diagram shows part of a capillary and some of the cells surrounding it.

(a) Name

(i) fluid X,

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) fluid Y

Page 33 of 71
 ______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) Describe and explain one way in which the composition of fluid Y differs from that of
fluid X.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) Explain how fluid leaves the capillary at the arterial end.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q3. The diagram shows tissue fluid and cells surrounding a capillary.

(a) Name fluid F.

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) Give one way in which fluid F is different from tissue fluid.

Page 34 of 71
 ___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) (i) The blood pressure is high at the start of the capillary. Explain how the left ventricle
causes the blood to be at high pressure.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________ (1)

(ii) The blood pressure decreases along the length of the capillary. What causes this
decrease in pressure?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(d) In children, some diets may result in a low concentration of protein in fluid F. This can
cause the accumulation of tissue fluid. Explain the link between a low concentration of
protein in fluid F and the accumulation of tissue fluid.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

Q4. The figure below represents a capillary surrounded by tissue fluid.

The values of the hydrostatic pressure are shown.

Arteriole Venule
end direction of blood flow end

Hydrostatic pressure = 4.3 kPa Hydrostatic pressure = 1.6 kPa

Tissue fluid
Hydrostatic pressure = 1.1 kPa

(a) Use the information in the figure above to explain how tissue fluid is formed.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
Page 35 of 71
 (b) The hydrostatic pressure falls from the arteriole end of the capillary to the venule end of
the capillary. Explain why.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) High blood pressure leads to an accumulation of tissue fluid. Explain how.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(d) The water potential of the blood plasma is more negative at the venule end of the capillary
than at the arteriole end of the capillary. Explain why.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

Q5. Lugworms live in mud where the partial pressure of oxygen is low. The graph shows oxygen
dissociation curves for a lugworm and for a human.

Page 36 of 71
 (a) Explain the advantage to the lugworm of having haemoglobin with a dissociation curve in
the position shown.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) In humans, substances move out of the capillaries to form tissue fluid. Describe how this
tissue fluid is returned to the circulatory system.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

Q6. Explain how tissue fluid is formed and how it may be returned to the circulatory system.
Page 37 of 71
 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(6)

Q7. Some people produce a much higher ventricular blood pressure than normal. This can cause tissue
fluid to build up outside the blood capillaries of these people.

Explain why.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(d) Some drugs used to reduce high ventricular blood pressure cause widening of blood
vessels.

Suggest how widening of blood vessels can reduce ventricular blood pressure.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
Homework
Page 38 of 71
1. Complete all exam questions from Lesson 3
2. Read notes and complete recall questions for lesson 4 as pre-learning
3. Complete the tasks below:

Complete the sentences using the words in bold:

aerobic arteriole away blood capillaries contract control deoxygenated diffusion

diffusion distance distance double endothelium exchange heart high high high
hormones lumen lymphatic mass muscle muscles osmosis oxygen oxygen pressure
squeeze stretch surface area surface area thick thicker thin thinner tissue fluid
ultrafiltration valves water potential white blood cells

The circulatory system

Large organisms need ________ transport systems because they are too big to rely on diffusion. As the size of an

organism increases its ____________ ______ to volume ratio decreases. This means that the ____________ for

diffusion increases so the rate of _______________ decreases. Active organisms are also more in need of a

circulatory system, since their tissues need a greater supply of oxygen to carry out __________ respiration to release

energy for rapidly contracting __________.

Mammals have a _____________ circulation. This means that the blood does two loops for every complete circuit of

the blood vessels. The advantages are:

● Oxygenated and _______________ blood do not mix

● Blood can be pumped to the body under _________ pressure and blood can be pumped to the lungs under

__________ pressure.

Blood vessels

Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood ________ from the heart. As the blood inside them is under _______

pressure the walls of arteries are __________ than veins. The space inside the arteries where the blood flows is

called the _________. There is a layer of cells that is in contact with the blood called the ____________. The arteries

also contain _______ elastic and muscle tissue: the muscle tissue can __________ to further help maintain a high

pressure and control the flow of blood, the elastic tissue allows the arteries to _________ and recoil as high pressure

blood passes through.

Page 39 of 71
Arterioles carry blood from arteries to ____________. The blood is under lower pressure than in arteries so there is a

smaller proportion of elastic tissue. However, arterioles have a relatively thick ________ layer since contraction of

this narrows the lumen and allows _________ of the flow of blood into different capillary beds.

Capillaries are the site of __________ between the blood and tissues, such as water, glucose, oxygen, carbon dioxide

and ___________; capillaries are the smallest of the blood vessels but, since there are many millions of them,

collectively they make up are the largest _________ _______. Capillaries are made up of a single layer of endothelial

cells, providing a short __________ for diffusion of substances. The lumen of the capillary is also very small so red

blood cells have to _________ up against them, further reducing the distance for ________ diffusion. There are

spaces between the endothelial cells of the capillary that allows for the movement of ________ ________ _______

and water between the blood plans and tissue fluid.

Venules carry blood from capillaries to veins; veins carry blood towards the heart. The walls of the vein are much

__________ than the walls of the arteries: there are only ______ muscle and elastic layers since the blood is under

much lower pressure than arteries. The movement of blood through the veins is mostly caused by the contraction of

skeletal muscles compressing the vessels and forcing the blood to move; __________ in the veins prevent the

backflow of _________ so it can only move in the direction of the _________.

Formation of tissue fluid

All body cells are surrounded by ___________ ________, allowing the movement of substances in and out of the

cells and in and out of capillaries. Tissue fluid is formed from blood plasma through the following process:

1. Blood enters the ___________ end of capillaries at high pressure and is forced out through the gaps

between endothelial cells (known as ________________). Small dissolved substances (such as __________

and glucose) move with the water. Blood cells and large proteins remain in the capillary.

2. As water leaves the ___________ is reduced so that at the venule end it is equal to the tissue fluid pressure,

but since water has been lost from the capillary there is a reduction in _________ ______________ in the

blood plasma.

Page 40 of 71
 3. Some water re-enters the capillary by __________, and some dissolved carbon dioxide (and other waste

substances) by ___________. Any excess water is drained into the ____________ system and re-enters the

blood at the superior vena cava.

Answer the questions

1. Is the surface area:volume ratio small or large in a large organism?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. How many complete loops are there in the circulatory system of a mammal?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Can we summarise that arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Can we summarise that blood pressure is higher in arteries than veins?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Is the relative size of the lumen larger in an artery or vein?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Is the muscle and elastic layer thicker in an artery or a vein?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Which blood vessels contain valves?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Name the tissue that capillaries are mode from.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Which layer is particularly thick (relative to their size) in arterioles?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

Page 41 of 71
0. What is the name given to pressure in a liquid?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Is this pressure higher at the arteriole or venule end of a capillary?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Name three things that are not ultrafiltrated from a capillary.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Name two substances that might be exchanged between tissue fluid and body cells.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Through what process does water re-enter the capillary from the tissue fluid.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

0. Through what system does excess tissue fluid drain away?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

Lesson 4 – The Cardiac Cycle

Key Words

Word Definition
Atria The upper chambers of the heart which are thin-walled and elastic and stretches as it collects
blood.
Ventricles The lower chambers of the heart which have a much thicker muscular wall as it has to contract
strongly to pump blood some distance, the left side to the rest of the body (and therefore has a
thicker muscular wall) and the right side to the lungs.
Atrioventricula The valves found between the atrium and ventricle which prevent the backflow of blood into
r Valves the atria when the ventricles contract and the ventricular pressure exceeds atrial pressure. The
left is also known as the bicuspid and the right is also known as the tricuspid.
Semilunar The valves found in the aorta and pulmonary artery which prevent the backflow of blood into
valves the ventricles when the pressure in these vessels exceeds that in the ventricles.
Coronary The blood vessels which branch off the aorta and supply the heart muscle with oxygenated
Artery blood.
Diastole = ‘relaxation’. Stage of the cardiac cycle when the atria and ventricles are relaxed.
Atrial systole = ‘atrial contraction’. A stage of the cardiac cycle when the atrial walls contract, forcing the
remaining blood into the ventricles from the atria.
Ventricular = ‘ventricular contraction’. A stage of the cardiac cycle when the ventricle walls contract
systole simultaneously (after a short delay to allow the ventricles to fill with blood).
Page 42 of 71
 Heart rate The rate at which the heart beats in beats per minute.
Stroke volume The volume of blood pumped out at each beat measured in dm3.
Cardiac output The volume of blood pumped by one ventricle of the heart in one minute. It is usually
measured in dm3min-1.
Notes
Things to remember:
● Right and left are reversed on the
page because it is as if you are
looking at someone’s heart! Left
side = thicker ventricle wall.
● The right-side pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs
the left-side pumps oxygenated
blood to the whole body.
● The heart muscle receives
oxygenated blood through the
coronary arteries which branch
off the aorta.
● The pulmonary vein is the only
vein to carry oxygenated blood
and the pulmonary artery is the
only artery to carry deoxygenated
blood in the body.

Structures and functions

Cardiac Muscle The heart muscle is a unique type of muscle. It is made up of cardiomyocytes, specialised cells
which are myogenic. This means they can contract without a nervous impulse to stimulate it. It
will continue to contract for the whole life of the organism.
Vena Cava A vein connected to the right atrium and brings deoxygenated blood back from the tissues of
the body (except the lungs).
Pulmonary A vein which is connected to the left atrium and brings oxygenated blood back from the lungs.
Vein
Atrium From the Latin atrium meaning " first main room of an ancient Roman house”. It is where the
(Atria pl) blood first enters the heart from veins on each side. Thin muscular walls so they can contract
to force blood into the ventricles (short distance).
Atrioventricula The valves found between the atrium and
r Valves ventricle.
They only open one way so prevent the
backflow of blood into the atria when the
ventricles contract.
They allow pressure to build in the ventricles as
they shut when ventricular pressure exceeds
atrial pressure.
Ventricles Thicker muscular walls than the atria so they can create enough force when they contract to
push blood out of the heart through the arteries. The left ventricle has a thicker more
muscular wall than the right ventricles as it allows it to contract with more force and push
Page 43 of 71
 blood at a higher pressure out through the aorta so it can travel to the whole body. The right
ventricle only needs blood to travel to the lungs which is a short distance.
Semilunar The valves found in the aorta and pulmonary artery which prevent the backflow of blood into
valves the ventricles when the pressure in these vessels exceeds that in the ventricles e.g just after
the ventricles contract.
Pulmonary An artery connected to the right ventricle which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Artery where its oxygen is replenished, and its carbon dioxide is removed.
Aorta An artery which is connected to the left ventricle and carries oxygenated blood to all parts of
the body except the lungs.

The Cardiac Cycle

1. Atrial systole – ventricles are relaxed and atria

contract, this decreases their volume so increases
the pressure which forces AV valves to open fully,
and blood is pushed into the ventricles. Ventricular
pressure increases slightly as they fill with blood.
2. Ventricular systole – The atria relax, the ventricles
contract which decreases the volume and increases
the pressure forcing the AV valves close. When
pressure increases enough the SL valves are forced
open and blood is pumped out through the arteries.
3. Diastole – Both atria and ventricles relax. The
pressure in the arteries is now higher than the
ventricles so the SL valves shut. Blood starts to enter
the atria from the veins. This starts to increase the
pressure of the atria eventually the pressure
exceeds the ventricle pressure, and the AV valves
open slightly, and blood begins to passively flow into
the ventricles.
Then the cycle restarts.
Another way of viewing the cardiac cycle is by
measuring the pressure changes in the aorta, atria
and ventricles during one heartbeat.

1 – The AV valve has closed because the pressure

in the ventricle has become higher than the atrial
pressure because it is contracting (decreasing vol).
Causes the first “lub” heartbeat sound.

2 – The SL valve has opened because the pressure

in the ventricles has become higher than the
pressure in the arteries because they are
contracting (decreasing vol).

3 – The SL valves close because pressure in

ventricles drops as they are relaxing (increasing
vol) and pressure in the aorta is now higher. Causes
the second “dub” heartbeat sound.

4 – The AV valve opens as pressure in the atria is

increasing as blood flows in and is higher than
ventricular pressure as it is relaxed (decreasing vol)
Page 44 of 71
Cardiac cycle diagrams like this can also be used to calculate heart rate in beats per minute. The time it takes for one
cardiac cycle to complete = one heartbeat (usually in seconds) so this can then be used to see how many of these
would happen in 60 seconds. E.g this cycle above takes 0.6 seconds. 60/0.6 = 100bpm

Once you have heart rate you can use it to measure cardiac output – the volume of blood in cm3 pumped by the
heart per minute. You do not need to learn this formula by heart but you may need to rearrange it!

Cardiac output (cm3 min-1) = stroke volume (cm3/beat) x heart rate (bpm)

Recall Questions

1. State the four chambers of the heart

2. State the four vessels entering/exiting the heart
3. How is the left side of the heart identified?
4. What is present inside the heart to prevent backflow?
5. Why are the ventricle walls thicker than atria walls?
6. What is the purpose of semilunar valves?
7. State what happens to the heart during ventricular diastole and atrial systole
8. Why are there so many mitochondria in cardiac muscle?
9. What is meant by the term myogenic?
10. Briefly outline the events of atrial systole
11. Briefly outline the events of ventricular systole
12. Briefly outline the events of diastole
13. What causes the “lub dub” heartbeat sound?

Exam Questions

Q1. The diagram shows a section through the heart. The main blood vessels are labelled A, B, C and D.

(a) Write a letter, A, B, C or D, in the box to represent the correct blood vessel.

Page 45 of 71
 (i) Which blood vessel carries oxygenated blood away from the heart?

(1)

(ii) Which blood vessel carries deoxygenated blood to the heart?

(1)

(b) Explain how the highest blood pressure is produced in the left ventricle.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) Some babies are born with a hole between the right and the left ventricles.

These babies are unable to get enough oxygen to their tissues.

Suggest why.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________(2)

Q2. This diagram shows a human heart seen from the front.

Page 46 of 71
 (a) (i) Which one or more of vessels A to D contains oxygenated blood?

______________________________________________________________(1)

(ii) During a cardiac cycle, the pressure of the blood in vessel C is higher than the
pressure of the blood in vessel B. Explain what causes this difference in pressure.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________(1)

(b) What does the diagram suggest about the pressure in the atria compared to the pressure
in the ventricles at the stage in the cardiac cycle represented in the diagram? Explain your
answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________(2)

Q3. Explain how the heart muscle and the heart valves maintain a one-way flow of blood from the left
atrium to the aorta.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________(5)

Q4. The diagram shows a human heart as seen from the front. The main blood vessels are labelled D to
G. The arrows show the pathways taken by the electrical activity involved in coordinating the heartbeat in
the cardiac cycle.

Page 47 of 71
 (a) Which of the blood vessels, D to G
(i) carries oxygenated blood to the heart

(1)
(ii) carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs?

(1)
(b) Explain, in terms of pressure, why the semilunar valves open.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

Q5.
(a) (i) The human heart has four chambers.
In which one of the four chambers of the human heart does pressure reach the
highest value?

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Explain how the structure of this chamber causes this high pressure.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________(1)

The table shows the volume of blood in a man's right ventricle at different times during one
cardiac cycle.
Page 48 of 71
 Time / s Volume of blood / cm3

0.0 125

0.1 148

0.2 103

0.3 70

0.4 56

0.5 55

0.6 98

0.7 125

(b) (i) Use the data in the table to calculate the man’s heart rate.

Heart rate = ____________________ beats per minute

(ii) Use the data in the table and your answer to part (b) (i) to calculate the man’s
cardiac output. Show your working.

Cardiac output = ____________________ cm3 per minute

(3)

(c) Use information from the table to complete the table below to show whether the valves
are open or closed at each of the times shown. Write open or closed in the appropriate
boxes.

Time / s Valve between right Valve between right

atrium and right ventricle and pulmonary
ventricle artery

0.2

0.6

(2)

Q6. The table shows pressure changes in the left side of the heart during one cardiac cycle.
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 Blood pressure / k Pa

Time / s Left atrium Left ventricle

0.0 0.7 0.3

0.1 1.0 2.0

0.2 0.2 12.5

0.3 0.2 15.3

0.4 1.0 4.5

0.5 0.5 1.0

0.6 0.6 0.3

0.7 0.7 0.3

(a) Between which times is the valve between the atrium and the ventricle closed?

Explain your answer.

Times ____________________ s and ____________________ s

Explanation _________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) The maximum pressure in the ventricle is much higher than that in the atrium.

Explain what causes this.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) Use the information in the table to calculate the heart rate in beats per minute.

Answer ____________________ beats per minute (1)

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 Q7. The graph shows changes in pressure in different parts of the heart during a period of one second.

(a) (i) At what time do the semilunar valves close?

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Use the graph to calculate the heart rate in beats per minute.

Show your working.

Answer ____________________ beats per minute

(1)

(iii) Use the graph to calculate the total time that blood flows out of the left side of the
heart during one minute when beating at this rate. Show your working.

Answer ____________________ seconds

(1)

(b) What does curve X represent? Explain your answer.

X = _______________________________________________________________

Explanation _________________________________________________________
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 ___________________________________________________________________ (2)

(c) The volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle during one cardiac cycle is called the
stroke volume.

The volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle in one minute is called the cardiac
output. It is calculated using the equation

Cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate

After several months of training, an athlete had the same cardiac output but a lower
resting heart rate than before. Explain this change.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Q8. The graph shows changes in pressure in the aorta, left ventricle and left atrium during one heart
beat.

(a) The maximum pressure in the left atrium is lower than the maximum pressure in the left
ventricle. What causes this difference in maximum pressure?

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 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) A stethoscope can be used to listen to the sounds made by the heart.

(i) What is the evidence from the graph that the first heart sound is caused by the
atrioventricular valve closing?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) What causes the second heart sound? Give the reason for your answer.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

Q9. When a stethoscope is placed on the chest wall, sounds are heard as the heart beats. These heart
sounds are caused by valves shutting. The diagram shows the heart sounds from a resting person.

(a) (i) The sounds labelled A on the diagram are made by the closing of the valves at the
entrance to the arteries. What makes the sounds labelled B?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Explain what causes the valve to shut when sound A is heard.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) In this person, the stroke volume is 70 cm3. Calculate the cardiac output. Show your

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 working.

Cardiac output ____________________ cm3 per minute (3)

Q10. The graph shows the changes in pressure which take place in the aorta of a mouse during several
heartbeats.

(a) Which chamber of the heart produces the increase in pressure recorded in the aorta?

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) The pressure of blood in the aorta decreases during each heartbeat but does not fall
below 10 kPa. Explain what causes the pressure of blood to

(i) decrease during each heartbeat;

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) stay above 10 kPa.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

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 (c) The heart rate of a mouse is much higher than the heart rate of a human. Use the graph
to calculate the heart rate of the mouse. Show your working.

Heart rate = ____________________ beats per minute (2)

(d) The cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by a heart in one minute. The stroke
volume is the volume of blood pumped by a heart in a single heartbeat.

cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate

The cardiac output for a mouse with a heart rate of 550 beats per minute is 16.6 cm3 per
minute. Calculate the stroke volume for this mouse. Show your working.

Stroke volume = ____________________ cm3

(2)

Homework

1. Complete all exam questions from Lesson 4

2. Read notes and complete recall questions for lesson 5 as pre-learning
3. Complete the following tasks:

Complete the sentences using the words in bold:

aorta arteries arteries atria atria atria atrioventricular atrioventricular node
atrioventricular valves backflow backflow base body carbon dioxide cardiac output
chambers chords closing contract coronary arteries cycle delay deoxygenated
depolarisation diastole flow heart rate higher left myogenic pacemaker pressure
pressure right right same semi-lunar semi-lunar valves sinoatrial node stroke
volume surface systole thinner valves veins vena cava ventricles ventricles
ventricles walls wave

Structure of the heart

The heart has four ___________: two on the right hand side and two on the left. The top chambers are called the

___________, the chambers on the bottom are called the ______________. The ________ receive blood as it enters

the heart and pumps it into the ventricles. The ventricles pump blood out of the heart through __________. The right

side of the heart pumps _______________ blood to the lungs in the pulmonary artery to pick up oxygen and release

________ __________. The oxygenated blood then returns to the ________ side of the heart in the pulmonary vein.

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From there the blood is pumped to the body in the __________, eventually returning to the ________ side of the

heart in the inferior and superior _______ ______ to start the cycle again.

Since the right side pumps to the lungs which are situated close to the heart, the walls are much __________ than

the left side (which has to pump blood out of the heart to the ______) and therefore has to generate less

___________. It is also for this reason that the ________ of the atria are much thinner than the walls of the

ventricles.

Between the atria and ventricles are the ______________ ________; between the arteries that leave the heart and

the ventricles are the ______-________ __________. These only open one way (as a result of the pressure being

higher on one side than the other), which ensures that there is no _____________ of blood. The valves are held

open or closed by __________, which are attached at the other end to the papillary muscles in the ventricle walls.

The volume of blood leaving the heart in one minute is known as the ___________ ____________ (CO). This is

affected by two things:

● The ___________ ______________ i.e. the volume of blood leaving the heart per contraction of the

ventricles

● The ___________ _________ i.e. the number of contractions (beats) per minute

cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate

The cardiac cycle

Part of the tissue that makes up the heart is said to be _____________ i.e. it does not need electrical impulses from a

nerve to make it contract. If the cardiac muscle is supplied with oxygen and nutrients (a task carried out by the

__________ __________ which you can see running over the ___________ of the heart) it will continue to contract

at a steady rate. One cardiac ____________ consists of the atria and then the ____________ contracting, and then

both relaxing, so that the blood that has entered the heart is pumped out. The periods of contraction are called

__________. The periods of relaxation are called ___________.

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During diastole: blood is at a __________ pressure in the _________ and flows into the atria. This increases the

_____________ inside the empty atria as they fill. Some of the blood trickles through the open _______________

valves into the relaxed ventricles below.

During atrial systole: the walls of the atria __________, increasing the pressure, so blood is pushed through the

atrioventricular valves into the ______________. Blood cannot _______ back into the veins because the pressure of

the blood pushes on the __________ in the veins to shut them.

During ventricular systole: after a short delay the ventricles contract from the apex (base) upwards. As the pressure

increases to a higher level than the pressure in the atria, blood pushes against the atrioventricular valves,

__________ them and preventing __________. The ______-_______ valves open under the pressure and blood

leaves the heart.

Complete the diagrams

1. Label the diagram of the heart.

0. Identify what valves open and close at points A, B, C and D.

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 A = …………………………………………………………………………..

B = …………………………………………………………………………..

C = …………………………………………………………………………..

D = …………………………………………………………………………..

Answer the questions

1. Name the major vessels associated with the heart, and the chambers of the heart, that contain deoxygenated
blood.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

0. Name the major vessels associated with the heart, and the chambers of the heart, that contain oxygenated
blood.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

0. Name the chamber of the heart with the thickest muscle.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

0. What causes the atrioventricular valves to open?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

0. What causes the atrioventricular valves to close?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

0. What causes the semi-lunar valves to open?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

0. What causes the semi-lunar valves to close?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Challenge:

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Hole in the Heart

Congenital (at birth) – hole can be between atria or ventricles. Allows mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
as blood passes from RA to LA. Some blood does not enter ventricles and pulmonary artery, this reduces systolic
pressure and means that some blood bypasses the lungs. Can be dangerous if not treated.

Learn more here: bit.ly/3oX6XEg

Answer the exam question:

Lesson 5 – Cardiovascular Disease

Key Words

Word Definition
Myocardial Blockage of these coronary arteries (for example by a blood clot) leads to this. Also known
infarction as a heart attack.
Coronary The blood vessels which branch off the aorta and supply the heart muscle with oxygenated
Artery blood.
Risk Factor Something that increases a persons chance of developing a disease

Notes

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a general term used to describe any disease associated with the heart or blood
vessels. Most are caused by atheroma formation in blood vessels. Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a type of
cardiovascular disease when the coronary arteries contain many atheromas which restrict blood flow to the heart
muscle. This can lead to a myocardial infarction (heart attack).

Atheroma Formation

Atheromas are fibrous plaques made of fatty material which narrow the
lumen of arteries. They occur when the lining of the artery (endothelium)
is damaged usually by high blood pressure. White blood cells and platelets
arrive to try and repair the damage. They clump together with lipids from
the blood to form fatty streaks under the lining. Over time more and more
build up and harden to form a fibrous plaque – an atheroma.

The atheroma partially blocks the lumen of the artery and restricts blood
flow, this increases the blood pressure which in turn can cause more
atheromas to form.
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Cardiovascular diseases caused by atheromas:

Aneurysm

Blood can build up behind a blockage causing the artery wall to bulge and
weaken. This increases the chances of the wall splitting and internal bleeding
occurring. Aneurysms are often fatal.

Thrombosis

Formation of a blood clot due to an atheroma bursting through the endothelium

and causing a rough surface. Platelets accumulate at the site of the damage and
cause a blood clot. Can completely block arteries, veins or it can break off and
cause a blockage elsewhere.

Angina

Plaques can build up in the coronary arteries and reduce blood flow to areas of
the heart muscle. When a person exercises, the coronary artery can’t deliver
enough blood to the heart muscle, so it respires anaerobically. This causes pain
in the chest and arms, and makes people feel breathless.

Stroke

Caused by an interruption to the blood supply in the brain. May be a bleed from a
damaged vessel, or a blockage cutting off the blood supply. Blockages in main
vessels can cause serious strokes, in smaller arterioles the effects are less severe.

Myocardial Infarction
Heart attacks can be caused by blood
clots caused by atherosclerosis. The
walls around a plaque are stiffened
making them prone to cracks. Platelets
detect this damage and trigger the clotting mechanism. The clot can
then block the whole blood vessel, if this occurs in a coronary artery it
causes a heart attack. The heart muscle is starved of oxygen and
nutrients so stops contracting.

Interpreting Data on CVD Steps:

1. Describe any data – state patterns using data from graphs or tables e.g “x increases up until …. then
decreases to …..” or “there is an increase in y up until …. then it remains constant”
2. Draw conclusions – This means talking about correlation (but not causation!) e.g the graph shows a positive
correlation between x and y because as x increases y increases.
3. Check any conclusions are valid (evaluate) – What is the evidence to support the statement and what don’t
we know or what can we not be sure of/conclude given the information we have e.g:
a. Did the study use a large enough sample? If the sample is small then any conclusions may not be
representative of the population

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 b. Was the study done on a wide range of participants? e.g just men, just women, a certain age range
or patients with the disease? This means any conclusions will only apply to these groups
c. Were other factors that could affect the results ruled out? E.g could the results/trends be caused by
something else that wasn’t measured/recorded? If not then you can say they could affect data!
d. Were control groups used as a comparison? There should always be a group where the same
treatment is given but with no active ingredient to make sure that results can be compared and show
that the active ingredient is what is having the effect seen and nothing else in the treatment.
e. Was a placebo used? This removes the chance of bias in the study and that human behaviour would
not affect results if the knew they were taking a drug that would work they may report feeling better
f. Was self-report used? If people are asked to fill out questionnaires, they may not always be honest
or accurate when reporting information.

Lifestyle risk factors for cardiovascular disease which can be controlled:

Hypertension (high blood High blood cholesterol Smoking

pressure)
Increased risk of damage to
artery walls as increased friction,
which increases risk of atheroma
formation.
High blood pressure risk factors:
being overweight/obese, not
exercising enough and excessive
alcohol consumption.
Increased blood cholesterol Both CO and nicotine from cigarette smoke
concentration increases risk of increase the risk of CVD and myocardial
atheromas as it is one of the infarction. CO combines with haemoglobin
main constituents of the fatty and reduces the amount of oxygen that can
deposits that causes them. be transported in the blood. Smoking also
decreases the amount of antioxidants in the
High cholesterol risk factors: A blood which help to protect cells from
diet high in saturated fat and damage. This means damage to artery walls
salt. is more likely. Nicotine also narrows the
arteries causing increased blood pressure

Ways to reduce risk: Reduce
alcohol consumption, eat a diet
with lower saturated fat, get
regular exercise, maintain a
healthy weight.
Ways to reduce risk: Eat a diet Ways to reduce risk: Not smoke
with lower saturated fat and
salt, get regular exercise,
maintain a healthy weight.

Other risk factors which cannot be controlled:

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 ● Genetics (genetic predisposition to high blood pressure or CVD)
● Age (arteries become less elastic with age) increased risk the older you are
● Gender (oestrogen makes arteries more elastic) men are more likely to suffer with CVD
● Ethnicity (south Asian and African Caribbean background have a greater risk of certain forms of CVD)
● Other illnesses – e.g diabetes can increase blood pressure.

Recall Questions

1. What is an atheroma?
2. How is an atheroma formed?
3. Give two effects an atheroma can have on the artery it's in.
4. Explain how high blood pressure leads to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
5. Give three things that can cause an increase in blood pressure.
6. Give two examples of risk factors for cardiovascular disease that can be controlled.
7. Give an example of a risk factor for cardiovascular disease that can't be controlled.

Exam Questions

Q1. What is the function of the coronary arteries?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
Q2.

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Page 63 of 71
Q3.

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Q4.

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Page 66 of 71
Q5. The glycaemic load (GL) of a diet is a measure of how much digestible carbohydrate it contains. The
higher the GL of a diet the more quickly it raises the blood glucose concentration after a meal. A diet with a
high GL also increases the concentration of harmful lipids in the blood.

Scientists investigated the relationship between diets with different glycaemic loads and the risk
of developing coronary heart disease (CHD) in women.

The scientists determined the glycaemic loads of the diets of a large number of women. They
then divided the women into 5 groups. Group 1 had diets with the lowest glycaemic load and
group 5 had diets with the highest glycaemic load. The scientists determined the risk of
developing CHD in each group. The graph shows their results.

Diet group

(c) The scientists excluded women who smoked from the study. Explain why.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(d) (i) What do these data show about the effect that glycaemic load of the diet has on the
risk of developing CHD?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Use the information provided to explain the effect that glycaemic load of the diet has
on the risk of developing CHD.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

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 ______________________________________________________________ (2)

Q6.
(a) The graph shows the heart rates of two men with hypertension. They were watching
television. One of the men had taken a beta blocker and the other had taken a placebo
(dummy pill).

(i) Use the graph to describe the effects of the beta blocker on heart rate.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) In this investigation, it was important that neither man knew which type of pill he had
taken. Suggest why.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) The table shows the results of an investigation into the effects of prescribing beta blockers
to patients who had suffered a myocardial infarction.

Patient age at time of myocardial Under 60 60 – 69

infarction / years

Percentage reduction in mortality 19 33

within the next 2 years compared
with groups who had taken a
placebo

(i) Give one conclusion which may be drawn from these data.

______________________________________________________________

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 ______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Explain how the percentage reduction in mortality would have been calculated.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

Q7. Read the following passage.

Some foods contain substances called flavenoids. Flavenoids lower blood
cholesterol concentration and reduce the risk of developing coronary
heart disease.

Some types of dark chocolate have a high concentration of flavenoids. One

5 group of scientists investigated the effect of eating dark chocolate on the risk
of developing coronary heart disease.

The scientists randomly divided healthy volunteers into two groups. Every day
one group was given dark chocolate containing flavenoids to eat. The other
group acted as a control.

10 The scientists measured the diameter of the lumen of the main artery in the
arms of the volunteers every week. At the end of a month, the diameter of
the lumen of the main artery in the arm of the volunteers who had eaten
dark chocolate containing flavenoids had increased.

Use information from the passage and your own knowledge to answer the questions.

(a) (i) The scientists used healthy volunteers in this investigation (line 7). Why was it
important that the volunteers were healthy?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) The scientists randomly divided the volunteers into two groups (line 7). Explain why
they divided them randomly.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) (i) Describe how the control group should have been treated.

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 ______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________(2)

(ii) Why was it important to have a control group in this investigation?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

Q8. (a) Omega-3 fatty acids are unsaturated. What is an unsaturated fatty acid?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) Scientists investigated the relationship between the amount of omega-3 fatty acids eaten
per day and the risk of coronary heart disease. The graph shows their results.

Do the data show that eating omega-3 fatty acids prevents coronary heart disease?
Explain your answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
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 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________(3)

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