Tropical Animal Health and Production (2019) 51:1295–1305

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-019-01922-1

REVIEWS

Tropical milk production systems and milk quality: a review

E. J. Ramírez-Rivera 1 & J. Rodríguez-Miranda 2 & I. R. Huerta-Mora 3 & A. Cárdenas-Cágal 3 & J. M. Juárez-Barrientos 4

Received: 31 January 2019 / Accepted: 8 May 2019 / Published online: 27 May 2019
# Springer Nature B.V. 2019

Abstract
We reviewed information on dairy cattle production systems in the tropics, the factors involved, and their influence on milk
composition. Genetic factors had greater influence on milk production; specialized breeds produced more milk, and there was an
inverse relation between the content of fat, protein, total solids, and the amount of milk produced. Season was related to the
availability of forage, and the type of grazing system. Greater pasture area increased individual production, while a greater supply
of feed concentrate did not increase milk production. The number of calvings positively affected milk production through the fifth
calving, with subsequent declines in production. Milk production increased to a maximum and then declined as lactation
progressed. Specialized systems had higher production and better hygienic milk quality; milking and container equipment are
critical for maintaining milk sanitary quality. Factor interaction is highly complex, preventing the generation of specific recom-
mendations and general principles applicable to the specific conditions for each system.

Keywords Feeding . Genetic factors . Milk production and composition . Physiological factors . Zootechnical factors

Introduction in tropical countries, is converted into milk, considered the

Ruminant livestock is the main component of agricultural
production systems in tropical countries. The objectives of
production systems (PS) determine the way in which pro-
ducers organize the productive process, which depends on
herd size, available resources, and producer socioeconomic
conditions (Vilaboa et al. 2009a). Milk production in tropical
climates is a biologically efficient option because large
amounts of cellulose fiber, which is the most abundant feed
* J. M. Juárez-Barrientos
juarez_jose13@hotmail.com
1
Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico Superior de
Zongolica, Km 4 Carretera a la Compañía S/N, Tepetitlanapa,
Zongolica, C.P. 95005 Veracruz, Mexico
2
Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Tuxtepec,
Av. Dr. Víctor Bravo Ahuja S/N., Col. 5 de mayo, Tuxtepec, C.P.
68350 Oaxaca, Mexico
3
Tecnológico Nacional de México, Depto. Posgrado e Investigación,
Ingeniería de Procesos Biotecnológicos y Alimentarios, Instituto
Tecnológico Superior de Tierra Blanca, Av. Veracruz Esq. Héroes de
Puebla, Col Pemex, Tierra Blanca, Veracruz, Mexico
4 cochemical and nutritional properties of milk; however, this
Universidad del Papaloapan Campus Loma Bonita, DES Ciencias
Agropecuarias, Av. Ferrocarril S/N, Cd. Universitaria, Loma Bonita,
C.P. 68400 Oaxaca, Mexico
most nutritious food known to man. Milk production systems
(MPS) are described a group of cows managed in ways that
exploit plant communities using arrays of decisions and ac-
tions in the selection, breeding, feeding, hygiene, and health of
the animals. The systems operate in a physical-biotic and so-
cial environment controlled by the producer using techniques
and tools with the aim of producing milk for human consump-
tion (Dufumier 1985; Vilaboa et al. 2009a). Tropical MPS are
characterized by having high complexity and environmental
influence (Navarro 2001), with relevant production manage-
ment and other social and cultural aspects contributing to the
adoption of new technologies in pursuit of improving produc-
tion efficiency (Bedotti et al. 2005; Stup et al. 2006; Moore
and Payne 2007). Milk production takes place under hetero-
geneous technological and socioeconomic conditions (Peralta
and Lastra 1999), where the management characteristics in
each region are influenced by agroecological conditions, idi-
osyncrasies, traditions, and customs of the producers
(SAGARPA 2004). Due to the heterogeneity among MPS,
the amount and composition of milk varies significantly due
to genetics, physiology, animal management practices, and the
environment (Alaís 2001). There is diverse information relat-
ed to the practices and characteristics of MPS and the physi-
information is scattered. Therefore, the objective of this re-
view was to synthesize the scientific evidence that would lead
1296
to the identification of consistent patterns between the specific
MPS factors considered in different studies.
Milk production systems classification
The MPS are part of the different production systems that
make up the livestock production system. The tropical live-
stock production systems participate with about 1300 million
units of production, of which 75% are located in developing
countries that provide 26% of milk supply. In contrast, 25% of
the remaining production units are located in tropical devel-
oped countries and contribute 74% of the total milk produced
worldwide (Otte and Chilonda 2003). These data showed that
even within tropical MPS, the technological, agroecological,
and socioeconomic conditions are heterogeneous, for this rea-
son and to improve their living conditions and increase their
quality of life, producers may be interested in using the same
techniques or adopt other (Dufumier 1990). Because of this,
the technologically advanced systems and specialized MPS
can coexist with numerous family production units (usually
subsistence), causing a high level of technological unevenness
(SAGARPA 2010). There is no single universal classification
for tropical MPS, since the authors consider several factors
such as land, livestock, climatic zones, and population
density. In this regard, Leeuw et al. (1999) described seven
milk production systems in the tropics. Two systems in Sub-
Saharan Africa (arid/semi-arid and subhimid/humid), three in
Asia (pasture-based, rainfed, and irrigated crop livestock), and
two for Central and South America (pasture-based and crop
livestock). On the other hand, Ruiz (1997) proposed a classi-
fication of four groups, considering the link between the en-
vironment and animal production. The first group is that of
pastures of humid and subhumid tropical and subtropical re-
gions with exclusively cattle activity. In this system, there is a
high dependence between the availability of pasture and the
milk production level, besides a high incidence of parasitic
diseases of the cattle and little access to the market. The sec-
ond system is the agricultural-livestock mix of rainfed in high
altitude tropical areas, which presents a vulnerable environ-
ment with contaminated water presence and there is little
knowledge regarding the use of crops and agricultural by-
products. The third system is the mixed agricultural-
livestock of rainfed in humid and subhumid tropical areas, in
which the level of milk production is seasonal as it depends
heavily on the time of year, which determines the availability
of food, in addition to existing competition for capital and
labor between livestock and crops. The fourth system is the
mixed agricultural-livestock of rainfed in arid and semi-arid
tropical areas. This is susceptible to deforestation and presents
few opportunities to intensify production because there is no
well-defined productive purpose, so it has little knowledge
about the use of trees and shrubs. Other authors (Espinosa
Trop Anim Health Prod (2019) 51:1295–1305
et al. 2000; Lara et al. 2003; Pérez et al. 2003; Trueta 2003)
use a classification based on the levels of production and spe-
cialization highlighting the specialized and dual-purpose sys-
tems, which are described below.
Specialized milk production systems
These systems are differentiated based on the husbandry prac-
tice and distribution of pasture that varies with the rainfall,
season, or cultivated crop (Madut et al. 2009). Its operations
focus primarily on the use of specialized dairy breeds such as
the Holstein and crosses with local breeds (Sraïri et al. 2009)
and American-Swiss-Brown and Jersey (Cervantes et al.
2008). The operations are carried out with capital-intensive
with an expensive infrastructure (Villegas 2003) and making
use of advanced technology and development strategies on
genetics, infrastructure, and feeding aspects focused exclu-
sively on milk production (Funes-Monzote et al. 2009). It
has a high degree of integration from balanced food supply
to commercial marketing, because they are supply branches
for large commercial dairy businesses. Milk production under
this system requires a lot energy inputs to ensure the quantity
and quality of milk and maintain the physical condition of the
cows (Cervantes et al. 2001). The major components contrib-
uting to the energy inputs are fertilizers and pesticides, molas-
ses, and by-products from the agricultural industry, concen-
trate, fuel, and human labor (Funes-Monzote et al. 2009).
Such energy inputs guarantee that production levels remain
relatively constant throughout the year, that in conjunction
with the use of technology such as milking machines, process-
ing equipment and agricultural machinery minimize the influ-
ence from climatic factors, reducing seasonal production
peaks (Cervantes et al. 2001).
Dual-purpose system
This system is characterized by small to medium-sized
units of land distributed among natural grasslands, culti-
vated pastures, and agricultural crops (Vilaboa et al.
2009a). Zebu breeds are used (Villegas 2003) as are their
crosses with Holstein, American Brown Swiss, and
Simmental (Cervantes et al. 2008) Bos taurus × Bos
indicus (Magaña et al. 2006), although recent studies in
the Mexican tropics have documented that the most com-
mon cross is American Brown Swiss × Zebu (Vilaboa
et al. 2009a, b; Noyola et al. 2011). This system focuses
on the milk production and calves at weaning and animal
waste for obtaining meat; actions taken to reduce stocking
rates especially during the dry season (Carrillo et al. 2002;
Briñez et al. 2003; Magaña et al. 2006) but the producer
decides to direct his production towards milk or meat
according to market conditions (Juárez-Barrientos et al.
2015). Seasonally milking only a proportion of the cows
Trop Anim Health Prod (2019) 51:1295–1305
having recently given birth has shown a higher milking
ability (Cervantes et al. 2001), generally keeping the
young with the mother until weaning (Cortés et al.
2003). Small producers that manage the bovine compo-
nent associated with other farming systems as a strategy
to minimize risks mainly characterize this system (Ruiz
1997). Family labor and the use of natural resources is a
key component in managing this system with low produc-
tion costs (Albarrán-Portillo et al. 2015). The diet of dairy
cattle is based on extensive grazing of native grasses
(Ruiz et al. 2004), and it is the supplementation in dry
season that represents the largest expense for milk produc-
tion (Albarrán-Portillo et al. 2015). There are large pro-
duction peaks during the rainy season (Peralta and Lastra
1999), but in some lowland areas production declines due
to the difficulties in managing and milking of cattle in
grazing areas prone to flooding (SAGARPA 2004). Even
with low productivity, this system has a high number of
cows (Villegas 2003); most cattle farms in Latin America
can be categorized as being of this type (Holmann et al.
2001).
This classification describes the specialization of the
system; however, these can vary in terms of the intensity
of the management, which can be extensive, semi-inten-
sive, or intensive. In systems with extensive management,
livestock are maintained in transhumance for the use of
natural pastures and trees after grazing, complementing
their feeding with fodder sorghum and soy straw only in
dry seasons. In intensive management systems, livestock
remain in confinement, using in addition to natural grass
and sorghum, protein concentrates, which implies higher
production costs (Albarrán-Portillo et al. 2015). The inten-
sification in the MPS results in a higher level of produc-
tion, but cannot be adopted by most small producers. It is
also necessary to take into account that its management
must be scrupulous since it is related to the appearance
and spread of animal diseases, including zoonotic patho-
gens, in addition to the use of specialized breeds contrib-
utes to the loss of genetic diversity of livestock (Robinson
et al. 2011). Undoubtedly, the intensity level management
is a critical factor affecting the overall productivity of MPS
(Mezgebe et al. 2018); however, the producer decides what
level of intensity to adopt, seeking to increase their profits,
and within the limitations of available resources on the
farm. This decision is directly related to sociological as-
pects of the producer, the information it has, and the level
of technology that is able to adopt (Solano et al. 2000).
Regardless of the production system and management,
MPS are an efficient alternative to take advantage of available
biomass and transform it into available protein for human
consumption (Derner et al. 2017); however, it is necessary to
analyze the main factors involved in the MPS to maintain a
balance between yield and quality of milk obtained.
1297
Milk yield, quality, and factors that affect
them
Milk yield is the amount of milk produced in a given period,
while milk quality considers two components, the chemical
component and hygienic component. The chemical quality of
raw milk is defined primarily based on the fat and protein
content, which are key to determining the potential use of milk
in the industry. The hygienic quality is based on pollution
levels and distribution of specific microorganisms, which di-
rectly affects the shelf life of the product and consumer accep-
tance (Sraïri et al. 2009). Milk yield and milk quality on MPS
covers factors diverse and their interactions in a complex
system and dynamic that is important to analyze because the
quality of milk determines its price. Magariños (2000) classi-
fied these factors as genetic, environmental, and
physiological. Alaís (2001) consider factors such as food
and climate to be different and include various zootechnical
factors such as milking and handling. In this review, we ana-
lyzed genetic, nutritional and environmental, physiological,
and diverse zootechnical factors.
Genetic factors
The selection between breeds or crossbreeding is a specific
procedure in which the breed or the cross between breeds for a
proposed objective is chosen. The selection within a breed in
the MPS focuses on selecting the high yielding breeds
(Thornton 2010) which has resulted in the domination of pure
Holstein cows, but the superiority in yield might be
questioned when reproductive indices are considered (El-
Tarabany et al. 2018). On the other hand, dairy breeds are
typical of temperate climates, so that in tropical MPS it is more
viable the crossbreeding between dairy breeds with local
cows, which results in animals adapted to the resources and
environmental conditions of the tropics, since it exploits the
complementarity of breeds (Thornton 2010; Sengar et al.
2018). Besides, the crossbreeding may mitigate the fertility
and longevity problems that can occur because of selection
practice in dairy breeds (El-Tarabany et al. 2018).
The Holstein breed provided a higher total yield (up to
9000 kg in 305 days and 31.6 kg per day) when compared
with other pure breeds such as Jersey (5317 kg of total yield)
and Brown Swiss (7700 kg in 305 days and 25.1 kg per day)
(White et al. 2002; Echeverri et al. 2011; El-Tarabany et al.
2018). This high yield generally is accompanied by an inverse
pattern of variation between production and the content of fat,
protein, and total solids (Washburn et al. 2002; White et al.
2002; Delaby et al. 2009; Ponce 2009; Echeverri et al. 2011;
Hernández et al. 2011; El-Tarabany et al. 2018). Some authors
explain this behavior as a dilution effect of the solids by in-
creasing production (Briñez et al. 2003; Briñez et al. 2008;
1298
Sraïri et al. 2009). Table 1 presents the percentages of fat,
protein, and total solids for the Holstein, American Brown
Swiss, and Jersey breeds.
The content of fat, protein, and total solids in milk from
Holstein cows is usually less than to milk from American
Brown Swiss and Jersey cows. In addition, Holstein breed in
tropical conditions has a high susceptibility to abnormal milk
secretion, which is reflected in high somatic cell counts (great-
er than 100,000 cells/mL), which leads to an increase in bo-
vine serum albumin (BSA) that goes from blood to milk
(Litwińczuk et al. 2011). Milk from Holstein cows has a low
fat content which can be increased by crossing with the Jersey
breed (Sánchez et al. 1996) to obtain a significantly higher
milk fat content (Holstein-Jersey F1: 3.3, pure Holstein:
2.9%). The American Brown Swiss breed is intermediate for
milk production, with a higher content of fat, protein, and total
solids than Holstein. However, El-Tarabany et al. (2018) re-
ported that there were no significant differences in fat
(Holstein-Brown Swiss F1 3.59%, pure Holstein 3.44%), pro-
tein (Holstein-Brown Swiss F1 3.63%, pure Holstein 3.66%),
and total solids (Holstein-Brown Swiss F1 12.9%, pure
Holstein 12.8%) content. The Jersey breed is characterized
by its superior fertility, calving ease, and longevity (Bailey
et al. 2005; VanRaden et al. 2007; Heins et al. 2008;
Echeverri et al. 2011); however, it has a lower calf survival
rate and increased susceptibility to mastitis (Caraviello et al.
2005; Echeverri et al. 2011).
These Bos taurus breeds comprise the tropical MPS, but
they have problems adapting to conditions associated with
tropical climates, primarily the low dry matter intake, low
quality of forage, and reduced consumption due to heat stress
(Aguilar et al. 2000; Holmann et al. 2003; Pérez and Gómez
2005; Campos et al. 2007). Bos indicus, generally exploited in
tropical Latin America, have low milk production, but are
better adapted to agroecological conditions, since it shows a
genetic adaptation that allows it to have good respiration rates
and rectal temperature lower than B. taurus when exposed to
similar thermal stress conditions (Kumar et al. 2016). Thus, a
viable alternative for genetic improvement has been to cross
the breeds (Aguilar et al. 2000; Vite et al. 2007; Echeverri
et al. 2011; dos Santos et al. 2018). Genetic improvement in
the tropics takes place by crossing high-productive animals
from temperate environments with animals adapted to tropical
conditions (Córdova et al. 2005; Camargo et al. 2007).
According to Sengar et al. (2018), the adaptation of the
B. taurus × B. indicus crosses manifests as a defense system
(antioxidant enzyme activity) in terms of preventing cell pro-
liferation and maintenance of cellular homeostasis and is ge-
netically expressed by the MicroRNA bta miRNA-103-2.
Similarly, Kumar et al. (2016) detected a point mutation in
g.1209A > G locus associated with the physiological parame-
ters that give B. indicus greater thermos-tolerance. The
B. taurus × B. indicus breeds are the most popular for dairy
Trop Anim Health Prod (2019) 51:1295–1305
cattle in the tropic, and there is a consensus on the potential for
obtaining varying levels of milk production efficiently and
stably from an economic perspective (López and Vaccaro
2002; Briñez et al. 2008; Salamanca and Bentez 2012).
Most often, Holstein crossbred cows have a higher production
than Zebu cows when mated with Jersey or American Brown
Swiss (Aranguren et al. 1994; Isea 1994; Acosta et al. 1998;
Ponce 2009; Echeverri et al. 2011). Other studies have indi-
cated higher production in American Brown Swiss compared
to Holstein (Chirinos et al. 1995; Briñez et al. 2003; Briñez
et al. 2008), which is attributed to the difficulty of Holstein
cows adapting to tropical conditions (Aguilar et al. 2000;
Holmann et al. 2003; Pérez and Gómez 2005; Campos et al.
2007). The differences in the results are genetic since the
productive performance of each breed or cross (phenotype)
is the result of the combination and interaction between genet-
ic capacity (genotype) and environmental opportunity, the
genotype-environment interaction (Ochoa 1991). However,
the trend over the years is to continue the advances in the
genetic field, perfecting techniques such as artificial insemi-
nation to raise livestock with superior genetic traits, crossing
to achieve heterosis, and currently using DNA technology and
RNA for the selection of desirable genetic characteristics
(Derner et al. 2017).
Nutritional and environmental factors
Livestock nutrition in tropical MPS is one of the main chal-
lenges faced by the producer (Edson et al. 2018) due to the
dependence on pasture consumption, whose performance is
directly related to environmental factors such as temperature
and rainfall. These two factors determine the main problems
facing tropical MPS. The dry season which extends up to
6 months causes a decrease in pastures in terms of quantity
and quality, since they usually have a low content of crude
protein (< 80 g ∙ Kg−1), low apparent and high digestibility
coefficient neutral fiber detergent content (Reyes et al. 2006).
This causes nutritional stress in cattle due to an energy and
protein deficit (Madzimure et al. 2011; Mwendia et al. 2018);
therefore, some animal body reserve proteins must be mobi-
lized to support the synthesis of milk components (Reyes et al.
2006). This causes a decrease in milk production that limits
the productive potential and avoids the total exploitation of the
capacity of livestock even of improved breeds (Mwendia et al.
2018).
This seasonal nutritional deficit is usually mitigated by
supplementation with commercial protein concentrates
(Cervantes et al. 2001; García et al. 2001; Reyes et al.
2006). This practice increases production costs, and is not
profitable primarily for small producers (Mendieta-Araica
et al. 2011; Edson et al. 2018); however, some studies have
shown their efficiency to prevent seasonal variation in milk
Trop Anim Health Prod (2019) 51:1295–1305
Table 1 Percentage composition
of milk specialized breeds Fat Protein
H SB J H
3.70 N/I 5.9 3.20
3.60 4.00 4.7 3.10
3.40 4.00 5.3 3.30
3.40 4.00 5.4 3.30
3.44 4.01 N/I 3.66
H Holstein, SB Swiss Brown, J Jersey, N/I no information regarding the classification
production since they provide sufficient additional nutrients to
avoid nutritional stress (Vite et al. 2007) thereby increasing
production in dairy cows grazing tropical systems up to
1.4 kg·day−1 (Sheen and Riesco 2002). In this regard, it is
important to determine the amount of concentrate that is sup-
plied, in order to maintain a positive balance in production
costs, since it has been established that the use of concentrates
at high levels does not always reflect increased potential for
milk production because of the effect of heat stress on dry
matter intake (Aguilar et al. 2000).
Due to the high productive costs represented by the use of
commercial concentrates, several investigations have been
carried out focused on the development of alternative feeding
strategies for dairy cattle, taking advantage of the crops of the
tropics to sustain the milk yield without affecting the compo-
sition of milk in times of scarcity of fodder. Table 2 summa-
rizes the results of some studies carried out between 2006 and
2018. Reyes et al. (2006) proposed supplementing the feeding
of dairy cows based on the grazing of Brachiaria brizantha
with the use of fodder trees such as Moringa oleifera as an
alternative to increase the amount and quality of food in the
dry season. Complementing grazing with M. oleifera signifi-
cantly increased milk yield by up to 63% (without significant
differences when supplemented with 2 or 3 kg daily) com-
pared to cows fed only on grazing, without significantly af-
fecting the milk composition. Mendieta-Araica et al. (2011)
replaced Pennisetum purpureum-based feed and commercial
protein concentrate with the use of fresh and ensiled
M. oleifera in Brown Swiss cows in their second or third
lactation in their fourth week of lactation. Dairy yield was
similar for cows fed P. purpureum grass and cows fed fresh
or ensiled M. oleifera. Although M. oleifera has a higher
protein content than grasses, this did not translate into a
higher milk production or a higher protein content, since the
excess nitrogen is excreted in the urine and the protein content
of the feeding does not correlate with the protein content of
milk. Edson et al. (2018) evaluated the effect of feeding Zea
mays and silage of Z. mays mixed with forage legumes on
milk production and its quality in hybrid Holstein-Friesian
and Jersey cows in the second trimester of pregnancy. The
results showed that Z. mays silage are rich in energy, but with
1299
Total solids Reference
SB J H SB J
N/I 3.5 12.4 N/I 14.1 Johan 1990
3.5 3.7 N/I N/I N/I Van Tassell 1999
3.6 3.9 12.2 12.4 14.9 Magariños 2000
3.6 4.0 12.2 12.4 15.0 De los Reyes et al. 2010
3.79 N/I 12.8 13.7 N/I El-Tarabany et al. 2018
low crude protein content, which is complemented by the high
protein content of legumes. The combined use of Z. mays
silage with legumes resulted in a higher milk yield as well as
a higher content of proteins and non-fat solids in the milk.
Reiber et al. (2013) established that the use of silage has been
adopted by some producers as a strategy that increases milk
production and improves the body condition and fertility of
livestock; however, costs represent up to 66% of income over
feed costs. dos Santos et al. (2018) evaluated the effect of a
high-energy diet and a low-energy diet on milk yield and
composition. In this study, it was established that a high-
energy diet leads to a higher milk production, attributed in this
case to the high-energy diet that provided a higher content of
ruminal propionate, derived from a high concentration of non-
fibrous carbohydrates in the diet. However, the increase in
milk production was reflected in a dilution of milk solids, such
as fat, protein, and non-fat solids. Mwendia et al. (2018) re-
placed the use of grass P. purpureum and maize stovers for
forages of Avena sativa and Vicia villosa in cows fed with 3 h
of free grazing and supplemented with dairy meal and min-
erals. Through the intervention carried out, they increased the
milk production by 20% with a tendency in the increase of the
solids content in the milk.
During the rainy season, there is an increase in the quantity
of forage available for cattle and a decrease in fat content,
despite the more abundant forage, which has high moisture
and low fiber content (Sánchez et al. 1996). Besides the abun-
dance of forage, temperatures near 18 °C and moderate winds
during the rainy season improve metabolism, body growth,
and milk production, which generally increase the values of
cryoscopy (Vite et al. 2007; Briñez et al. 2008). Milk quality
can be affected negatively during this season, since the mud
produced by rain dirties the udder during milking, worsening
conditions and causing further acidification from the microbi-
al fermentation of lactose, and thus a decline in pH (Sánchez
et al. 1996; Briñez et al. 2008). However, during the dry sea-
son, high temperatures facilitate bacterial growth, a decline in
pH, and an increase in titratable acidity (Álvarez et al. 2012).
The above are just some examples of feeding strategies,
since each strategy must be adapted to the particular condi-
tions of each system and according to the resources and raw
1300 Trop Anim Health Prod (2019) 51:1295–1305

Table 2 Different feeding

strategies for dairy cows and their Feeding strategy Yield (kg∙day−1) Fat % Protein % SNF %
effect on milk yield and
composition Pennisetum purpureum, dairy meal supplement, and 6.90 2.30 1.89 5.56
minerals. Free grazing 3 h per daya
Avena sativa, Vicia villosa, dairy meal supplement, 8.30 2.72 2.20 6.48
and minerals. Free grazing 3 h per daya
Zea mays silageb 11.3 3.20 2.90 8.03
Zea mays-Vigna unguiculata silage (70:30)b 20.7 3.45 3.20 8.43
Zea mays-Lablab purpureus silage (70:30)b 18.6 3.50 3.03 8.36
Zea mays-Mucuna pruriens silage (70:30)b 19.43 3.49 3.20 8.30
Zea mays and dairy meal with 16% of crude proteinb 24.3 3.45 3.26 8.57
High energy diet (HED)c 19.5 4.25 3.09 4.65
Low energy diet (LED)c 21.2 3.80 2.83 4.53
Pennisetum purpureum and protein concentrated 13.9 3.49 3.45 8.71
Fresh Moringa oleiferad 13.6 3.53 3.46 8.77
Moringa oleifera silaged 13.7 3.51 3.42 8.79
Brachiaria brizantha haye 3.10 4.18 3.38 9.03
Brachiaria brizantha + 2 Kg of Moringa oleiferae 4.91 3.98 3.35 9.14
Brachiaria brizantha + 3 Kg of Moringa oleiferae 5.07 3.87 3.46 9.19

SNF solids not fat; HED based on Zea mays silage, Glycine max meal, ground Zea mays, and urea with net
energy = 8.1 MJ/Kg; LED based on Zea mays silage, Glycine max meal, ground Zea mays, and urea with net
energy = 7.1 MJ/Kg
a
Mwendia et al. (2018)
b
Edson et al. (2018)
c
dos Santos et al. (2018)
d
Mendieta-Araica et al. (2011)
e
Reyes et al. (2006)

materials available to be used as livestock feed and in this
sense it is important to take into account some considerations.
The protein content in the food does not determine the protein
content in the milk (dos Santos et al. 2018) even, the excess of
nitrogen must be excreted by the animal through urine, which
translates into an energy cost (Mendieta-Araica et al. 2011). A
high concentration of non-fibrous carbohydrates in the food
promotes a greater production of ruminal propionate, which
can be reflected in a higher milk production (dos Santos et al.
2018). It is necessary to take into account the content of tan-
nins and fat of the raw material selected to feed livestock. The
presence of tannins reduces the degradation of cellulose caus-
ing a low concentration of volatile fatty acids, which are es-
sential for the synthesis of milk. Likewise, they reduce the
digestibility of the cell wall since they inactivate cellulases
and prevent the adhesion of rumen bacteria to cellulose fibers.
On the other hand, a high-fat content in the diet causes a toxic
effect in the rumen, especially affecting the cellulolytic bacte-
ria, which causes a deficiency in the fermentation of the fiber
and leads to an imbalance in the acetate/propionate ratio, re-
ducing the fat content in milk (Madzimure et al. 2011).
It is necessary to consider that, despite the fact that
food has immediate results on the production and quality
of milk (Mwendia et al. 2018) the nutritional needs of
cows are changing and depend on some physiological
factors. For example, at calving and early lactation, cows
cannot compensate for the increasing demands of energy
through food, resulting in a negative energy imbalance,
which can begin even before birth and reach their maxi-
mum of 2 weeks after delivery, which leads to the mobi-
lization of animal body fat as a reserve of energy for the
synthesis of milk. That is why a diet high in energy is
more efficient for cows in the early postpartum period
since it facilitates a positive energy balance (dos Santos
et al. 2018).
Physiological factors
The production phase for dairy cows begins at lactation (first
calving) and lasts until the animals are removed due to illness
or poor performance (Cedeño and Vargas 2004). Effects from
physiological factors are discussed below such as number of
calving, lactation stage, and diseases that affect the productive
life of cows and influence milk composition.
Trop Anim Health Prod (2019) 51:1295–1305
Calving number and lactation stage
First calving and early calving in cows produce less milk
because they have not reached adult size, have poor develop-
ment of the udder and organs in general, and spend part of
their diet on the completion of growth. This trend is accentu-
ated when feeding is poor at the time of calving (Acosta et al.
1998; Pérez and Gómez 2005; García et al. 2007; Vite et al.
2007). In addition, early calving cows in the tropics have
problems with anoestrus and subsequent lengthening of
breastfeeding which is normalized birth to birth (Acosta
et al. 1998). Milk production volume increases as cow calving
experience increases because they are reaching physiological
maturity (Acosta et al. 1998; Briñez et al. 2003, 2008; Pérez
and Gómez 2005; García et al. 2007; Vite et al. 2007), as well
as substantially increasing the parenchymal cells of the udder
tissue between the first and second calving (Pollot 2000;
García et al. 2007). Milk production peaks between the second
(Briñez et al. 2003; Briñez et al. 2008), third, and fourth calv-
ing, decreasing gradually between the fifth and seventh calv-
ing (Acosta et al. 1998; Pérez and Gómez 2005; García et al.
2007; Vite et al. 2007; Salamanca and Bentez 2012). This
trend depends on factors such as calving season and initiation
of lactation which is related to food availability (Tadesse and
Dessie 2003; García et al. 2007), and breed or degree of cross-
ing, which directly affect the lactation curve (Ponce 2009).
Milk from early calving cows has a higher content of protein
and total solids and lower cryoscopic values, coinciding with
lower milk production. The content of protein and total solids
then decreases, coinciding with the increase in production.
The fat and lactose content increases gradually as cows initiate
new lactations (Briñez et al. 2003, Briñez et al. 2008).
The most general trend regarding stage of lactation is that
milk production increases to a peak between 30 and 85 days,
and then decreases during the course of lactation until cows no
longer lactate; in practice, however, the results do not always
conform to this pattern (typical lactation curve). Table 3 shows
the variation in a lactation curve in terms of production (kg·
day−1) for Holstein and Zebu breeds as well as 5/8 H × 3/8 Z.
Milk fat content increases gradually during lactation, and the
content of protein, total solids, and lactose significantly increase
at the end of lactation, coinciding with a decrease in milk pro-
duction. This concentrates milk components and cryoscopy
consequently declines. Acidity declines and pH increases due
Table 3 Behavior of production
and milk components at the Indicator Holstein
beginning, middle, and end of
lactation Milk Peak, 21–84 days.
(kg/day) It depends on body
condition and food
at home
Source: Ponce 2009
1301
to higher protein content, predominantly globulins (immuno-
globulins and microglobulins), and strongly increases basic
cations, which could have a buffering effect on milk (Briñez
et al. 2003, 2008; Ponce 2009; De los Reyes et al. 2010).
Diseases (mastitis)
Mastitis alters milk composition and increases the concentra-
tion of somatic cells, but this increase may also be due to breed
(Cerón et al. 2007). Mastitis causes a decline between 3 and
50% in milk production, depending on the degree of udder
inflammation (De los Reyes et al. 2010; Ramírez et al. 2011).
As well, sodium and chloride content increase, while lactose
decreases, providing a slight salty taste. The absolute values
for protein do not change significantly, as the reduction suf-
fered by synthesized protein in the udder is supplemented by
increases in serum protein content, such as serum albumins
and immunoglobulins, which get into the milk because of
increased capillary permeability (Blowe and Edmondson
1995; Brito 1995; De los Reyes et al. 2010). Mastitis treatment
can affect milk quality since it is possible to observe antibiotic
residues caused by intra-mammary administration (Allison
1995; Noa et al. 2009).
Diverse zootechnical factors
Production systems and specialization level
Intensive production systems produce more milk with better
hygienic quality and efficiency due to the use of specialized
breeds and concentrated feeding. Extensive systems have
lower milk production due to the use of dual-purpose breeds
that consume more fibrous and less energetically dense
grasses, have poor udder health (Pérez 2011) and are eco-
nomically limited (Sánchez et al. 2008). The milk produced
from cows in extensive systems is higher in fat and protein
(Pérez 2011) that can be attributed to low production
(Briñez et al. 2003; Briñez et al. 2008). Producers, for which
dairy is a primary source of income, tend to be more spe-
cialized and produce milk with relatively higher values in
total solids (Bernal et al. 2007).
Zebu 5/8 Holstein × 3/8 Zebu
No shows peak milk or Peak between 14
ight between 7 and 21 and 60 days
days, steady decline
1302
Milking and conservation of quality
Milking is the period of greatest vulnerability to contam-
ination by soil, microorganisms, and chemicals. The poor
hygiene and sanitation practiced by milkers and of
milking equipment are the main factors responsible for
increases in the microbial load of milk. Whereas the sur-
face of the nipple is a source of contamination, their
cleaning and disinfection before milking helps to control
bacterial abundance (Magariños 2001; De los Reyes et al.
2010). Cold temperatures are essential in preventing the
multiplication of microorganisms that affect milk quality;
thus, it is recommended to chill milk to 4 °C within the
first 2 h after milking. This conditioning has a significant
effect on the microbiological population of raw milk
(Diario Oficial de la Federación 1994; SEDESOL 2007;
De los Reyes et al. 2010; Álvarez et al. 2012), while
maintaining acidity values within defined norms
(COVENIN 1997). On farms where milk is cooled after
milking, high levels of non-fat solids and fat have been
reported. However, high cryoscopic values also were re-
ported, and thus special care is recommended for the total
removal of water from milking equipment after cleanup
(Páez et al. 2002).
Conclusions
In Mexico, milk production is conducted using four basic
systems: intensive, semi-intensive, dual purpose, and fam-
ily, which provide 50.3, 21.3, 18.3, and 10% of national
production, respectively. However, the actual importance
is relative, considering the problems observed in the main
productive zones, such as the lack of water and pressures
for land use, for which future tropical production systems
will need to increase in importance, since neither have
this structural limitations. Factors such as breed, cross-
breeding, and feed determine the quantity and quality of
milk produced. Physiological factors have less involve-
ment, but should be considered. Milking hygiene and cold
storage are important factors for ensuring the sanitary
safety of milk, especially in tropical climates.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Ethical review This review does not involve any human or animal
testing.
Trop Anim Health Prod (2019) 51:1295–1305
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