Resistors The position of the wiper (moving contact)

determines the output voltage between the wiper

Electrical components that “resist” the flow of and one of the other terminals.
electricity

In electronics, resistors are used to reduce current

flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias Rheostat
active elements, and terminate transmission lines,
two-terminal variable resistor that is used to control
etc.
current
Measured in ohms (Ω)
has a sliding contact that moves along a resistive
Fixed-value resistor element

Have fixed resistance

Can be read using the color bands in the resistors

Thermistor

“thermal” and “resistor”

resistance changes significantly with temperature

Varistor

voltage-dependent resistor or VDR

surge protecting electronic component with an

Variable resistors electrical resistance that varies with the applied
voltage
Can be adjusted to change their resistance value

Used in applications such as volume controls and

light dimmers

Photoresistor

resistor whose resistance decreases when it is

exposed to light
Potentiometer
Used as light sensors
Has three terminals

Commonly used as volume knobs

Capacitors Inductors

A capacitor is a passive electronic component that a passive two-terminal electrical component

stores electrical energy in an electric field. It is
made up of two conductors (usually metal plates)
separated by an insulating material (called the
dielectric). When a voltage is applied to the
conductors, an electric charge builds up on each
plate, with the opposite charge on each plate. The
amount of charge that can be stored depends on
the capacitance of the capacitor, which is measured
in farads.
stores energy in a magnetic field when electric
current flows through it
typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a
coil
energy stored in the magnetic field is proportional
to the square of the current flowing through the
inductor, and to the inductance of the inductor

Non-polarized capacitors inductance of an inductor is measured in units of

Henrys (H).
A non-polarized capacitor is a type of capacitor that
does not have a positive or negative terminal. This Uses of inductors
means that it can be connected in either direction in
Filters (block certain frequencies of electrical
a circuit without damaging the capacitor. Non-
signals)
polarized capacitors are typically made with ceramic
or film dielectric materials. Tuning circuits (selects a specific frequency of
electrical signal)
Polarized capacitors
Chokes (suppress noise and interference)
A polarized capacitor is a type of capacitor that has
a positive and negative terminal. This means that it Transformers (increase or decrease voltage)
must be connected in the correct polarity in a
circuit, or it will be damaged. Polarized capacitors Motors (as rotating magnetic field)
are typically made with electrolytic dielectric
Generators (convert mechanical to electrical
materials.
energy)
Variable capacitor
Parts of inductor
A variable capacitor is a capacitor whose
capacitance can be intentionally and repeatedly
changed mechanically or electronically. Variable
capacitors are often used in L/C circuits to set the
resonance frequency, e.g. to tune a radio (therefore
it is sometimes called a tuning capacitor or tuning
condenser), or as a variable reactance, e.g. for
Fixed-value inductor
impedance matching in antenna tuners.
Has a fixed inductance

Core can be made with air, iron, or ferrite

Variable inductor
inductance can be changed by moving a core
material in and out of the coil.
Used in tuning circuits, oscillators, matching
networks, attenuators, baluns.
Tunnel Diode
Tapped inductor
Has multiple taps
Each taps has a different inductance
Schottky diode
Diodes
Passive electrical components that only allow flow
of electron in one direction.
Has low resistance in one direction and high
resistance in the other.
Varactor diode
The symbol is a triangle with a line across one end
Made up of an anode (positive end, triangle base)
and cathode (negative end, line)
Diac
Junction diode
Also known as p-n junction diode
Widely used in electronics; particularly in rectifiers,
amplifiers, ocillators, and voltage regulators
Zener diode
It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a
stable reference voltage. These are operated in
reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a
certain voltage. If current passing through the
resistor is limited, a stable voltage is generated.
Zener diodes are widely used in power supplies to
provide a reference voltage.
A tunnel diode is a type of semiconductor diode
that exhibits negative resistance, meaning the
current decreases with an increase in voltage. This
is due to the quantum mechanical effect of
tunneling, in which electrons can pass through a
potential barrier even if they do not have enough
energy to overcome the barrier classically.
It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN
junction diodes. The drop will be seen where there
is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges
between 0.15 and 0.4 volts. These are constructed
differently in order to obtain that performance.
Schottky diodes are highly used in rectifier
applications.
A varactor diode, also known as a varicap diode, is a
type of diode whose capacitance varies with the
applied voltage. This property makes it useful in a
variety of applications, such as tuning circuits,
frequency multipliers, and phase shifters.
A diac is a type of diode that has two stable states:
off and on. It is made from a semiconductor
material that has a high breakdown voltage. When
the voltage applied to the diac is below the
breakdown voltage, the diac is off and does not
conduct current. When the voltage applied to the
diac is above the breakdown voltage, the diac is on
and conducts a large current.
Triac

A triac is a three-terminal semiconductor device

that can conduct current in either direction. It is a
type of thyristor, which is a general term for four-
terminal semiconductor devices with three
terminals being used for controlling current flow.

SCR
Types of transformers
A silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is a four-terminal
semiconductor device that can conduct current in • Step-up transformer
only one direction. It is a type of thyristor, which is a
general term for four-terminal semiconductor • Step-down transformer
devices with three terminals being used for
Conductors used in electronics
controlling current flow.
Electrical conductors are materials that allow
LED
electricity to flow through them easily.
When an electric current between the electrodes
Conductors have a lot of free electrons, which are
passes through this diode, light is produced. In
electrons that are not bound to any one atom.
other words, light is generated when a sufficient
amount of forwarding current passes through it. In When a voltage is applied to a conductor, the free
many diodes, this light generated is not visible as electrons are forced to move, creating a current.
there are frequency levels that do not allow
visibility. LEDs are available in different colours. Conductors are used in a wide variety of
There are tricolour LEDs that can emit three colours applications, including electrical wiring, batteries,
at a time. Light colour depends on the energy gap of and electronic devices.
the semiconductor used.
Examples of conductors:
Photodiode
Metals (copper, silver, gold, aluminum, etc.)
A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of
Humans
current flow resulting from the light. These are very
helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse Water (except distilled water)
bias diode and used in solar cells and photometers.
They are even used to generate electricity. Soil

Transformers Plasma (superheated matter)

A transformer is a passive electrical device that Copper

transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
Has a conductivity of 58 MS/m (mega Siemens per
another circuit, or multiple circuits.
meter)

Relatively cheaper than silver, so it is more widely

used in electronics.

Easy to form into wires

Silver Insulators

The most conductive element (63 MS/m)
Used in applications where high conductivity and
corrosion resistance are critical
Gold
The third highest conductivity metal (41 MS/m)
Insulators are materials that do not allow electricity
to flow through them easily. They have a few free
electrons, which means that there aren't many
electrons that can move around and carry a current.
Insulators are used in a variety of applications, such
as electrical wiring, electrical components, and
thermal insulation

often used in electrical applications where its Do not conduct electricity

corrosion resistance and high ductility are
important Mostly non-metals

Used in electrical contacts Examples of insulators:

Graphene Rubber

Theoretically the best conductor (~100MS/m) Plastic

Still under development, but has many potentials in Paper

electronics
Mineral oil
Used in mainly batteries (not yet commercialized on
Ceramic
a large scale)
Wood (dry)
Aluminum
Rubber
Has a conductivity of 35 MS/m
High electrical resistivity
Less dense than other common conductor
Flexible
Used in transmission and overhead lines
Used in electrical wire insulation
Characteristics of conductors
Electrical wire connections (electrical tape)
Conductors allow electricity and heat to flow
through them easily. Electrical PPE’s such as rubber gloves and rubber
boots
Conductors have many free electrons that can move
around. Plastic

Conductors are often metals, but can also be other
materials like electrolytes and semiconductors.
Conductors are used in many different things, like
wires, batteries, and electronic devices.
Used in plugs, outlets, and connectors
Used in switches and electrical boxes
Usually made of pvc
Ceramics
High electrical resistivity
Used in high-powered applications such as in power
transmission, spark plugs, ang capacitors
Paper
Paper is a good electrical insulator because it is
made from cellulose fibers, which do not conduct
electricity very well.
Mineral oil
Used in specific applications where cooling is
needed for the electrical components
Used in transformers, capacitors, circuit breakers,
switchgears, etc.
Semiconductors
Materials that have an electrical conductivity value
falling between that of a conductor and an insulator
Resistivity falls as their temperature rises
Conducting properties may be altered in useful
ways by introducing impurities ("doping") into the
crystal structure
When two differently doped regions exist in the
same crystal, a semiconductor junction is created.
Silicon
Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor
material in the world. It is a naturally abundant
element that is relatively easy to extract and purify.
Silicon also has a number of properties that make it
ideal for use in semiconductors, including:
High electrical resistivity in its pure form
Low dielectric constant
Ability to be doped
Uses of silicon:
Transistors
Diodes
Solar cells
Integrated circuits
Germanium
Germanium is a semiconductor material that is
similar to silicon, but it has some different
properties. Germanium has a lower electrical
resistivity than silicon, which means that it is a
better conductor of electricity. Germanium also has
a higher dielectric constant than silicon, which
means that it is more easily polarized under the
influence of an electric field.
Uses of germanium:
Transistors
Diodes
Photodetectors
Forward voltage drop
Property of diodes where the output is slightly
lower that the input voltage
Usually 0.7 volts for silicon, and 0.3 volts in
germanium
V out =V ¿−V drop
Electronic tools and equipment This means applying a small amount of
solder to the tip of the iron. This will
Soldering iron help to protect the tip and improve
Solder heat transfer.

Desoldering pump 4. Clean the surfaces you will be soldering.

Multimeter This will help to ensure a good

connection. You can use a wire brush or
Wire strippers sandpaper to remove any dirt, rust, or
corrosion.
Pliers
5. Apply flux to the surfaces you will be soldering.
Screwdrivers
Flux is a substance that helps to clean
Wire cutters
the surfaces and promote the flow of
Magnifying glass solder.

Breadboard
6. Heat the joint with the soldering iron.
Jumper wires

Power supply Touch the tip of the iron to both

surfaces for a few seconds, until they
Oscilloscope are hot enough for the solder to melt.

Soldering iron
7. Apply solder to the joint.
A soldering iron is a heated tool used to melt solder
to connect electrical components.
Touch the solder to the joint, and let it
How to use soldering iron? flow into the gap between the two
surfaces. Be careful not to overheat the
1. Prepare your workspace. joint, or you could damage the
components.
Make sure you are working in a well-
ventilated area. You should also have a 8. Remove the soldering iron and allow the joint
safe place to set down your hot
soldering iron, such as a heat-resistant
to cool.
stand.

2. Turn on your soldering iron and set it to the Once the joint has cooled, you should
have a strong and reliable connection.
appropriate temperature.
Safety precautions when soldering

A good rule of thumb is to start with a 1. Wear safety glasses if possible.

lower temperature and increase it as This will protect your eyes from flying
needed. solder splatter and sparks.
2. Work in a well-ventilated area.
3. Tin the tip of your soldering iron.
 The fumes from solder can be toxic, so
it is important to work in an area with
good air circulation. Safety precautions when using solder
3. Use a heat-resistant stand for your Keep solder out of reach of children and pets.
soldering iron.
This will prevent you from accidentally Wash your hands thoroughly after soldering.
setting your soldering iron down on a
Do not eat or drink while soldering.
flammable surface.
4. Never touch the tip of your soldering Be careful not to touch your face or mouth
iron. while soldering.
The tip of a soldering iron can reach
temperatures of 400 degrees Celsius or DO NOT put solder in your mouth as it contains
more, and can cause serious burns. lead (Pb), which can cause lead poisoning!
5. Be careful not to overheat the joint
Desoldering pump
you are soldering.
Overheating can damage the A desoldering pump is a tool used to remove
components and create a weak solder solder from electrical connections.
joint.
6. Use the right amount of solder How to use desoldering pump?
Too much solder can make the joint
1. Press on the top of the pump to “load” it.
messy and unreliable, while too little
solder can create a weak connection. 2. Heat the joint you want to desolder.
7. Be aware of fire hazards
Soldering can create sparks and hot 3. Aim the tip of the desoldering pump to the
solder splatter, which could ignite melted solder
flammable materials.
4. Press the button near the top of the pump.
Addition safety precautions:
Multimeter
Wear non-flammable clothing. This includes
A multimeter is a tool used to measure voltage,
long sleeves and pants.
current, and resistance.
Tie back long hair.
How to measure voltage using multimeter?
Remove any jewelry or other loose items that
1. Set the multimeter to measure DC or AC
could get caught in the soldering iron or cords.
voltage.
Keep your workspace clean and free of clutter. 2. Touch the black probe to the negative
terminal of the circuit
Have a fire extinguisher nearby in case of a fire. 3. Touch the red probe to the positive (+)
terminal of the circuit or device you
Solder
want to measure the voltage of.
Solder is a metal alloy that is used to connect 4. Read the voltage on the multimeter.
electrical components. It is melted with a
soldering iron and then cools to form a strong
bond.

Most commonly used is 60/40 tin-lead