LESSON 8

SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISMS

INTRODUCTION (Explore):

This lesson will help you learn to:

• describe the five types of sensory receptors;
• illustrate the three types of eyes in animals;
• explain how vision occurs in humans;
• differentiate the parts of the human ear and describe the functions of each;
• discuss how the senses of smell and taste detect chemicals;
• describe diverse means of animal locomotion;
• differentiate the three types of skeletal systems: hydrostatic, exoskeleton and endoskeleton;
• enumerate the parts of the human skeleton; and
• explain how a muscle contracts.

Activity 8A. Anticipation-Reaction Guide (ARG)

On the Pre-Column, Write A if you agree to the statement and D if you disagree.

PRE STATEMENT POST

1. Receptors are nerves that respond to stimulus.

2. The olfactory nerve is responsible for the sense of taste.

3. The axial endoskeleton makes up the cranium and the spine.

4. Muscles push and pull to react with contractions.

5. The cardiac muscle in involuntary with striations.

INTERACTION (Firm-up & Deepen)

Activity 8B. Reading the Text

The Sensory Mechanisms
1. The five sensory receptors are:
I. Photoreceptors- respond to light
II. Mechanoreceptors- respond to physical stimuli such as sound or touch
III. Chemoreceptors- detect chemicals
IV. Thermoreceptors- respond to temperature
V. Pain receptors- detect possible tissue damage

2. The three types of eyes that have evolved in the animal kingdom are:
I. Eye cups in flatworms and other invertebrates
II. Compound eyes in insects and arthropods
III. Single lens eyes in squid

3. The human eye

The sclera is the outermost layer of the eyeball. It forms the white of the eye and in front, there is a
transparent cornea. The conjunctiva lines the eyelids and the front of the eyeball. It helps keep the
eyes moist. The sclera surrounds the choroid. The iris giving the eye its color, is formed from the
choroid. Vision starts when light passes through the pupil and into a transparent lens that focuses
images on the retina. The retina contains photoreceptor cells which transduce light energy into
action potentials. These nerve impulses travel along the optic nerve to the corresponding visual
areas of the brain. An image is then formed.

4. The photoreceptor cells are rods and cones

I. Rod cells use the pigment called rhodopsin. They are used for night vision and can detect only
shades of gray and not color.
II. Cone cells distinguish various colors and they are sensitive to bright light.

5. The human ear

The outer ear lobes catch sound waves and channel them to the eardrums. From the eardrum, the
middle ear amplifies the sound wave vibrations to three small bones – the hammer, anvil and
stirrup. The sound waves travel to the oval window. The Eustachian tube equalizes air pressure in
the middle ear and outer ear. The hearing organ is in the inner ear, composed of several channels of
fluid wrapped in a spiral cochlea. This is encased in the bones of the skull. Vibrations in the oval
window produce pressure waves. These waves travel through the upper canal to the tip of the
cochlea, enter the lower canal and fade away. Pressure waves of the upper canal push down to the
middle canal and the membrane below this canal vibrates. These vibrations stimulate hair cells attached to
the membrane by moving them against the overlying tissue. The hair cells are able to
develop receptor potentials causing release of neurotransmitters that induce action potentials in
the auditory neurons.
6. Odor and Taste organs

The senses of odor and taste are interrelated. Chemoreceptors in the nose detect molecules,
differentiated into numerous types of odor. In the upper portion of the nasal cavity, there are
olfactory chemoreceptors. Odor molecules enter the nose and bind to specific receptor molecules
on the chemoreceptor cilia. This event triggers receptor potentials.
In the tongue, chemoreceptors in taste buds detect salty, bitter, sweet and sour tastes. Taste
perception is due to similar signal mechanisms as mentioned above for smell. What one “tastes” is
actually “smell” or odor. The common cold (due to a virus) can disrupt our sense of smell, thus, we
lose taste for the food.

The Motor Mechanisms

Animals have to move to find food and sexual partners. To avoid predators and adjust to varying
environmental conditions, animals exhibit different ways of moving.

In order to move, animals are aided by the skeleton and muscles. There are three types of skeleton
namely:
I. Hydrostatic skeleton occurs in a body compartment in which a volume of fluid is held under
pressure. This is common in aquatic and burrowing animals. An example is the Hydra and other
invertebrates with a semi-closed body cavity made of a few layers of cells. There is no solid
“bone” but the animal under aquatic pressure can stay upright and move. Earthworms have smooth
muscles and fluid-filled body compartments.

II. Rigid, armor-like coverings characterize an exoskeleton. Muscles are attached inside. Joints are
thin and flexible. The best examples are found in arthropods (insects, crustaceans). When insects
grow, they shed off their old “armor” and grow a new one. Cite other examples such as those in
clams and snails.

III. An endoskeleton consists of rigid but flexible support made of bones, cartilage surrounded by
masses of muscles. In sponges, cells are supported on spicules. The endoskeleton of echinoderms
is made from calcium plates underneath the skin.

There are two parts of the endoskeleton:

I. Axial skeleton – skull and backbone (spiral cord); rib cage
II. Appendicular skeleton – bones of the appendages (arms, legs, fins) and bones linking the
appendages to the axial skeleton – the pectoral and pelvic girdles

There are three main types of muscular tissue responsible for movement within the human body:

Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle is found attached to the skeleton and is responsible for the voluntary movement of bones
Skeletal muscle fibers run in parallel tracts and are multinucleated and heavily striated

Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle is found in the lining of internal organs (GI tract, uterus, blood vessels, eyes, etc.)
It controls the involuntary constriction of these regions (e.g. peristalsis, vasoconstriction, pupil dilation)
Smooth muscle fibers are not striated, have a spindle shape and each fiber contains a single central
nucleus

Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and is responsible for the rhythmic contraction of the heart (i.e. heart
beat)
Cardiac muscle fibers are branching, intercalated, lightly striated and have a single nucleus per fiber

The process of muscular contraction occurs over a number of key steps, including:
▪ Depolarisation and calcium ion release
▪ Actin and myosin cross-bridge formation
▪ Sliding mechanism of actin and myosin filaments
▪ Sarcomere shortening (muscle contraction)

1. Depolarisation and Calcium Ion Release

▪ An action potential from a motor neuron triggers the release of acetylcholine into the motor end plate
▪ Acetylcholine initiates depolarisation within the sarcolemma, which is spread through the muscle fibre
via T tubules
▪ Depolarisation causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release stores of calcium ions (Ca2+)
▪ Calcium ions play a pivotal role in initiating muscular contractions

Muscle Innervation

2. Actin and Myosin Cross-Bridge Formation

▪ On actin, the binding sites for the myosin heads are covered by a blocking complex (troponin and
tropomyosin)
▪ Calcium ions bind to troponin and reconfigure the complex, exposing the binding sites for the myosin
heads
▪ The myosin heads then form a cross-bridge with the actin filaments
 The Role of Calcium in Cross-Bridge Formation

3. Sliding Mechanism of Actin and Myosin

▪ ATP binds to the myosin head, breaking the cross-bridge between actin and myosin
▪ ATP hydrolysis causes the myosin heads to change position and swivel, moving them towards the next
actin binding site
▪ The myosin heads bind to the new actin sites and return to their original conformation
▪ This reorientation drags the actin along the myosin in a sliding mechanism
▪ The myosin heads move the actin filaments in a similar fashion to the way in which an oar propels a row
boat

Sliding Filaments Mechanism

4. Sarcomere Shortening
▪ The repeated reorientation of the myosin heads drags the actin filaments along the length of the myosin
▪ As actin filaments are anchored to Z lines, the dragging of actin pulls the Z lines closer together,
shortening the sarcomere
▪ As the individual sarcomeres become shorter in length, the muscle fibers as a whole contracts
 Diagrams of Sarcomere Shortening

Summary of Muscle Contractions

• Action potential in a motor neuron triggers the release of Ca2+ ions from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum
• Calcium ions bind to troponin (on actin) and cause tropomyosin to move, exposing binding
sites for the myosin heads
• The actin filaments and myosin heads form a cross-bridge that is broken by ATP
• ATP hydrolysis causes the myosin heads to swivel and change orientation
• Swiveled myosin heads bind to the actin filament before returning to their original
conformation (releasing ADP + Pi)
• The repositioning of the myosin heads moves the actin filaments towards the center of the
sarcomere
• The sliding of actin along myosin therefore shortens the sarcomere, causing muscle
contraction
 INTEGRATION (Transfer)
You can now go back and answer Activity 8A-ARG.

Activity 8A. Anticipation-Reaction Guide (ARG)

On the Post-Column, Write A if you agree to the statement and D if you disagree.

PRE STATEMENT POST

1. Receptors are nerves that respond to stimulus.
2. The olfactory nerve is responsible for the sense of taste.
3. The axial endoskeleton makes up the cranium and the spine.
4. Muscles push and pull to react with contractions.
5. The cardiac muscle in involuntary with striations.

You can check your answers from the answer key provided at the end of the module. How did you fare?
Refer your score to the interpretation guide below:

SCORE 0 1-2 3-4 5

LEVEL OF MASTERY Not Mastered Least Mastered Nearly Mastered Mastered
The topic is The topic is The topic is The topic
new and not familiar but need learned with learned is
INTERPRETATION yet learned. to be learned misconceptions mastered.
more.

If your score is 2 and below, you are advised to review the concept/s that you missed.

You have completed Lesson 8. Congratulations! You can move on to the next lesson.