1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

The Agricultural Production System stated that there are

significant amount of solid waste and agricultural waste produces

worldwide such as crop residues, manure and slurry, and food

processing. This inappropriate agri-waste management can cause

environmental pollution and resulting in financial losses and several

damage (Dhiman et al.,2022).Nguyen et al.(2022) stated that the

estimated agricultural residues produces in Asia are 350 million

tonnes.Thus, one way to reduce the amount of agri-waste is to create

and develop new opportunities for the economic development.

 2

Singh et al. (2021) highlight that the global energy crisis,

exacerbated by a rapid increase in population, necessitates

exploration into renewable solutions. One such avenue is the

development of bio-briquettes from agricultural waste, as emphasized

by Marreiro et al. (2021). According to Hood (2019), briquetting

stands out as a cost-effective, easily producible, and environmentally

friendly process, transforming low-density biomass waste into high-

density biomass fuel. This innovative approach, as noted by Pantil

(2019), replaces non-renewable fuels like coal and fossil fuels without

the use of harmful chemicals, marking a crucial shift in energy

sustainability.

Moreover, agricultural waste from Ceiba Penandra also known

as Kapok husk, is suitable for an alternative energy source since it is

made up of cellulose, lignin, and polysaccharides. According to Lugito

et al. (2021), Kapok is a major Indonesian commodity, constituting

the largest production of Kapok fiber globally. They are the world’s

leading exporter of kapok fiber, generating a significant amount of

waste from kapok known as kapok husk. Blaquerra et al. (2022)

highlighted that Kapok fiber and husk waste are also obtained from

farmers in Los Banos, Philippines, and can be found in areas of

Mindanao, particularly in Malungon, Saranggani. Brosoyi et al. (2021)

 3

added that approximately 70% of kapok husk is usually discarded.

However, recognizing Kapok husk as waste could lead to its utilization

for bio-briquettes. Thus, this study will focus on the Quality

Assessment of non-carbonized Kapok husk briquettes.

Objectives of the Study

1. Determine the significant difference in the physical

characteristics of Kapok husk non-carbonize briquettes in terms

of:

a. Bulk Density

b. Durability

c. Volatile matter

2. Determine the significant difference in the chemical

characteristics of Kapok husk non-carbonize briquettes in terms

of:
 4

a. Ash content

b. Calorific value

c. Burning rate

3. Dtermine the cost per unit production.

Significance of the Study

The study's conclusions could lead to the creation of

affordable, environmentally friendly briquettes from kapok trash,

which would benefit society and industry alike.

The creation of non-carbonized kapok husk briquettes could

have an impact on the lives of farmers and landowners who have

kapok trees since it will enable them to create briquettes on their own
 5

using the findings of this study. They can also increase their daily

profit by selling the briquettes they make.

Future researchers and students would gain from this study

since it will give them knowledge on the questions and solutions they

should be asking in their own research.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study will be limited only in the Quality

Assessment of non-carbonized Kapok husk briquettes in

terms of its physical and chemical characteristics such as

Calorific value, Ash content, Bulk density, Volatile matter,

Combustion rate and Durability. The study will also

determine the cost per unit production of produce Kapok

husk briquettes.
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Definition of Terms

The key terms use in this study are stated here.

Kapok husk - it is refer to Kapok husk fruit’s outer

shell. It is a fibrous and hard

substance that is usually thrown

away. Also, it is the commodity in

making briquettes.

Ash content - play a vital role in combustion process

and represent the amount of

briquette after a material that has

been completely burned.

Calorific value - important characteristics of briquette

that shows how much energy they

contain and represent how much

heat is produced when kilogram of

briquettes burn all the way.

 7

Burning rate - the amount of time needed for the

briquettes to completely burn.

Bulk density - mass of briquettes per unit volume

that represent by apparent density.

The standard unit measurement is

kg/m3.

Volatile matter - important characteristics of briquette

which the gases and vapors released

during the first stages of combustion.

Non-carbonized - these are made from non-carbonized

waste products such as Kapok

husk.

Cost per unit - price incurred for the production of

goods especially in the production of

non-carbonized briquettes.

Biomass briquettes - commonly utilized in under

developed countries. It is an

alternative renewable fossil fuel.

 8

Molassess - a binding agent use in the production of

briquettes.

Durability - is a measurement of a briquette's ability

to endure mechanical manipulation.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Agricultural waste

In 2016, Dungagi et al. emphasized that resolving the issue of

agricultural waste is imperative. This waste comprises both liquid and

solid substances, stemming from cultivation processes like fertilizers,

pesticides, crop residues, and animal waste. Effective agricultural

waste management is integral to maintaining an interdependent

ecological cycle, ensuring optimal utilization of plant wastes and

pollution control. Shehrawat and Sindhu (2015) reported a staggering

global annual generation of 140 billion metric tons of biomass from

agriculture.

Figure 1: Image of Agricultural waste

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Crisis in Energy

Peterson and Ozen (2023) emphasized that the shortage in the

production of energy supply and fossil fuels is attributed to the

COVID-19 Pandemic and the conflict between Russia and Ukraine.

The rising price for fuels is a direct consequence of limited energy

production. Xu et al. (2022) highlighted how the global demand for

energy exacerbates the scarcity, and the rapid population growth

further contributes to the energy shortage. In the present worlds

energy scenario, bioenergy derived from micro-organisms is of great

interest due to its renewability. Fuel cells and batteries powered by

sources like blood, urine, bacteria, viruses, and mitochondria have

been discussed, highlighting the potential of diverse energy avenues

(Pathak et al., 2014). Additionally, according to Aghbashlo et al.

(2021), biomass-derived energy, encompassing bioheat, bioelectricity,

and transport biofuels, has gained global attention for its spatial and

temporal independency, and compatibility with existing infrastructure.

Despite its potential, it's noteworthy that a significant portion of

biomass is currently used in developing countries for domestic

cooking and heating practices. In many developing countries, there is

often a reliance on traditional bioenergy, utilizing fuels like charcoal,

which are typically cheaper and more readily available compared to

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fossil fuels. However, these traditional fuels have significant

environmental impacts and exert pressure on forests. Modern

bioenergy, derived from resources such as agricultural wastes and

residues, as well as the cultivation of energy crops, offers alternative

low-carbon renewable energy opportunities. One example of

successful implementation is the utilization of briquettes produced

from Kenyan biomass to replace both fossil and traditional bioenergy

fuels for household cooking and industrial purposes. The agricultural

sector in Kenya presents substantial opportunities for bioenergy, with

crop residues and animal wastes potentially contributing up to 15.6

and 7.9 million metric tons (odt) by 2050. Moreover, biomass

briquette fuels have the potential to supply up to 8.01 terawatt-hours

of bioenergy for industry by 2050, with a greenhouse gas intensity

lower than the fossil fuels and significantly less than traditional

biomass alternatives (Welfle et al., 2020).

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Kapok Husk

The Silk Cotton Tree, scientifically known as Ceiba pentandra

(L.) Gaertn. and commonly referred to as the kapok tree, belongs to

the Malvaceae family. This tall, thorny tree is prominent in seasonally

dry tropical forests, reaching heights of up to 50 meters or more

(Gómez-Maqueo and Gamboa-DeBuen 2022). According to Nkouam

et al. (2017), a kapok tree can produce 500–4000 seedpods.The

kapok tree serves various purposes, functioning as a fiber crop, a

wood source, and contributing to both food and medicinal

preparations. Its seeds, comprising approximately 89% dry matter,

boast 20–35% protein, 30% oil, and 20–26% crude fiber. Notably,

the seeds contain alkaloids, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins,

saponins, trypsin, and phytate inhibitors. Literature indicates that

kapok seeds contain about 24 to 28% fats, contingent on the

extraction method (Anwar et al. 2014; Salimon and Kadir 2005). In

addition to meal, kapok seed yields oil, recognized for its composition

rich in palmitic acid (22.4%), stearic acid (3.8%), malic acid (9.1%),

oleic acid (23.2%), linoleic acid (33.6%), sterculic acid (2.6%), and

behenic acid (0.5%) (Anwar et al. 2014). Kapok fiber are also utilized

as materials for pillows and other home essential and developed as

source of bioethanol. However, the production of Kapok fiber

 13

produces kapok waste estimated from 1.4-1.7 tons per tons of fiber

( Putrawan et al,.2023).

Figure 2:Image of Kapok husk

Bio-Briquettes

Since the Philippines is considered as an agricultural country

that can produce a significant amount of biomass waste, it has great

potential when appropriately harnessed as a sustainable cooking

energy source. Biomass also declared by the sources of energy that it

is the 3rd biggest energy sources. It is also the most prominent energy

sources that use for cooking and heating for more than three-quarter

of people and 14% are the total energy consumption in the world.

More than 80% of energy are usually consumed comes from domestic

source. For heat and power production, briquettes are one of the
 14

solution that are used domestically and industrially (Kpalo et

al.,2020). According to REN21(2020), many countries tested the

biomass as cooking stoves around 125 million people in the world are

currently using biogas. Bilgili et al(2019) declared that biomass also

an alternative in preventing the environment pollution.

The use of waste from agricultural and forestry are develop into

solid fuels as briquettes. Since it is the major element of global

renewable energy. Briquettes play as an important role in the bio-

energy (Obi etal.,2022). According to Yunusa et al(2023), the

advanced briquettes are mix with the biomass such as animal sludge,

plastics, sludge and food waste. Biosiako and Acheampong(2016)

stated that several studies explore the different aspect of briquettes.

It is examine the physical factors such as size and bulk density.

Figure 3: Image of Bio-briquettes

 15

Non-carbonized Briquettes

Mugabe et al. (2020) assert that carbonized or non-carbonized

briquettes, solid masses of uniform size and shape, result from

compressing non-carbonized residues manually or mechanically. Non-

carbonized briquettes serve as a firewood and raw biomass fuel

alternative, boasting a higher energy content per unit weight.

Particularly suitable for industrial processes, regulated emissions

institutions, and rural homes, they provide a sustainable solution.

Additionally, Nikiema et al. (2022) highlight that non-carbonized

briquettes, derived from dry solid residues, excel in easy ignition

compared to carbonized counterparts, emphasizing their role as a

wood substitute.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-carbonized

Briquettes

Waste that has undergone carbonization—the process of organic

matter turning into carbon in the absence of oxygen—is used to make

carbonated fuel briquettes. These are frequently produced

mechanically and undergo a heat-drying process to eliminate moisture

and strengthen the briquettes so they can burn as effectively as

 16

charcoal. Waste materials that have partially decomposed and

subsequently been dried are used to make uncarbonized briquettes.

The raw material is mixed with water and a binder and dried by hand,

in a press, in an automated mold, or through extrusion. It can be

produced by means of a machine.

According to Nikiema et al.(2022) one of the disadvantages of

non-carbonized briquettes is their soft texture, which shortens their

shelf life. However, non-carbonized also have advantages in which it

ignites easily (Fengetal et al.,2020). Clark(2018) added that the

reduction in production costs linked to non-carbonized briquettes is

attributed to the absence of carbonization. A more streamlined

production process and shorter processing time further enhance cost-

effectiveness, positioning non-carbonized briquettes as a favorable

option for specific applications.

BINDING AGENT

Molasses
 17

Zhang et al(2018) stated that the previous studies shown the

difference component of the briquettes from the waste of biomass

and binders that actually the best to increase the strength and

calorific value. By adding binders such as molasses, starch and tar

into the production of briquettes can enhance the characteristics of it

(Zhong et al.,2017). Combining the agricultural waste as main

component of briquettes and molasses as binder are resulted of a

high quality briquette. Zhong et al (2017) added that molasses help

to enhance the strength of the briquette. It could improve the

combustion characteristics of briquettes ( Obi et al., 2022). The study

of Waluyo et al.(2023) stated that molasses is most suitable for use

as a binder because it has sticky properties and sufficient moisture

content. The ratio of biochar: molasses 70:30 produces briquettes

with the best characteristics. In the drop test with a height of 1 m

and 1.8m, biochar briquettes with molasses binder still have 99% size

stability. Ground macadamia shells were produced using molasses,

which was combined in an 80:20 ratio. For the ground coffee husks

with molasses, the same ratio of mixing was used again (Maingi et

al.,2022). While Jittabut utilized a ratio of 100:50 by mass in

briquetting blends of rice straw and sugar cane leaves with molasses

as the binding agent, Carnaje et al. advised a ratio of 30:70 by

volume in their investigation. Molasses was added to cassava

 18

rhizomes to produce briquettes, as reported by Sen et al. (2022) who

found that this increased briquette density.Obi et al.(2022) stated

that Molasses was also thought to provide additional economic

advantages. Generally speaking, molasses might greatly enhance the

properties of briquette combustion when used as a binder during the

briquette-making process.

Figure 2: Image of Molasses

Physical and Chemical Properties Briquettes

Moisture Content

The physical and chemical characteristics are important major

factor in the quality of briquettes. The quality mention are pressure,

temperature, particle size, bind factor and moisture content (Zhang et

al.,2014).According to Samantha et al.'s study from 2023, agricultural

waste was dried outside in the heat for one to two days with the
 19

range of 15% to 20% for moisture content. Mani et al(2004) stated

that the ideal moisture content of a briquettes are between 5% and

10% and it is supported by of Nurek at al(2019) study that produced

a briquettes with the moisture content of 10% compacted with the

temperature of 22 and 73 degree celcius.

Volatile Matter

According to Sunardi et al (2019) that the volatile has a

composition that ranges between 70% to 86% of the biomass if its dry.

Volatile matter are one of the biggest fraction that consist of more than

50% of raw materials stated by (Silva et al.,2021).

Density

Density is one of the factor that affect the quality of briquettes.

In using different raw material ration in the production of briquette

can affect the strength and density of the briquettes (Navalta et

al.,2016). According to Karunanithy et al(2012) stated that the bulk

density of a briquettes ranged from 285 to 964 kg/m3.

Ash Content
 20

Ash content is a percentage of non-combustible material that

exist in the briquettes. Ash content of a briquettes ranges between

10.44% to 21. 72% (Falemara et al.,2018). According to Mampweli et

al(2011) stated that the inorganic matter have a big impact of its

calorific value.

Calorific Value

Calorific value affect the factors of fuel such as moisture content

and the ash content. Wyszkowska et al(2022) stated that the total

heat that created by the weight of burning process is calorific value.

The heating value of a briquettes are ranges from 4937kcal/kg to

26,667kcal/kg (Falemara et al.,2018).

SIZE OF MESH

Briquette performance and efficacy are greatly influenced by the

mesh size, which affects many factors including strength, burning

efficiency, and smoke emission. Due to improved particle bonding and

enhanced packing efficiency, briquettes with smaller mesh sizes tend

to be denser and stronger (Abdulla et al. 2017). Briquettes with

uniform particle sizes have a tendency to burn more evenly and have

a more regular shape, which helps to promote stable combustion and

less ash production (Amuzu and Onwuka, 2017). The sun-dried

 21

cassava roots were ground in a hammer mill and sieved through a 5

mm mesh screen before being incorporated into the formulation,

according to Wumnokol et al. (2023). Tanner waste is also uniformly

sliced into fewer than 2 mm pieces by putting it through a set of

sieves.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

 The amount of binder  Characteristics of

from molasses in 1000g briquettes
of Kapok husk.  Calorific value
 Ash content
 Bulk density
 Volatile matter
T1= 70g  Burning rate
 Durability

 Cost per unit production

Figure 3. Paradigm showing the Independent and Dependent

Variables in the study “Quality Assessment of non-carbonized

Kapok husk briquettes”.

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Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses will be tested at 5% level of

significance.

• There is no significant difference on the quality assessment of

Kapok husk briquettes in terms:

a. Bulk Density

b. Durability e. Calorific value

c. Volatile matter f. Burning rate

d. Ash content

• There is no significant difference in the cost per unit production

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Research Locale

The researcher will conduct the study of non-carbonized

briquette at Mabini Extension, Digos City, Davao del Sur that focus on

the production of the Quality Assessment of Kapok husk briquettes. In

 24

determine the bulk density, heat duration, calorific value, and burning

rate will also conducted at Mabini Extension, Digos City, Davao del

Sur. However, in the determination of volatile matter will be assessed

at Davao del Sur State College-Research Laboratory Services Center

(DSSC-RLSC) located at Matti, Digos City. The ash content will be

analyzed at the University of Southern Mindanao, Agricultural

Research Center (USMARC), Kabacan, Cotabato.

Figure 4: Showing the local map of Mabini Extension, Digos

City

Research Design

This study will be conducted through experimental research

using Complete Randomized Design (RD) with 1 treatment and 3

replications.
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The treatments of different amount of binder from molasses are

the following:

T1 = 70

T2

Research Materials

Table 1. Materials/equipment used in the study with its uses.

Materials/ Equipment Uses

Kapok husk - are used as the main raw material in the

production of briquettes.

Molasses - will be used as a binding agent of the

noncarbonized biomass briquette.

Basin - will used for mixing the commodity of this

study.

Logbook -used for recording the data.

Blender - will be used for blending the husk.

Briquette molder - will be used as molding the briquettes.

 26

Vernier caliper - will be used in mixing the diameter and length

of the briquettes.

Mechanical oven - will be used to removed the moisture from the

briquette.

Wire mesh (2mm) - will be used in sieving the cut kapok husk

Digital Weighing Scale - will be used to determine the weight of the

briquette before and after oven drying.

Crusher - will be used to crush the commodity.

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Schematic Diagram of the Study

A. Sourcing of Materials

B. Preparation of Materials

B.1. Kapok husk

C.Mixture proporting of materials

D. Oven dry for Moisture content

E.Sun drying for molded briquettes

F.Gathering the Data

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Figure
 Bulk density
G. Analysis of Data H. Interpretation of Data
 Volatile matter
 Ash content Cost per unit production
 Calorific value
 Burning rate
 Durability
4: Schematic Diagram of the study” Quality

Assessment of Kapok husk briquettes”.

A. Sourcing of Materials

The Kapok husk, abundant in Malungon, will be meticulously

gathered by the researcher. Molasses, a key component, will be

specifically purchased from the market. The researcher will personally

supply essential materials like the briquette molder, basin, logbook, 1-

2 can wire mesh, and a precise weighing scale.

B. Preparation of Materials

B.1. Kapok husk Preparation

The following steps will be followed in the preparation of

kapok husk:
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1. The collected Kapok husk will be cut into small pieces and

sun-dried for 2-3 days with moisture content of 20%.

2. The Kapok husk will be sieved at 2mm wire mesh after sun-

drying to obtain uniform size of 2mm.

3. 1The sieved Kapok husk will be put inside the basin for

mixture proportioning.

C. Mixture Proportioning of the Material and Briquette

Production

The proportion of the mixture molasses that will be used in the

production of biomass briquette are 0.50 in terms of weight for T1,

and the mixing proportion for the controlled variable which is the

molasses is 1:0. A total of 1000g of raw material used per treatment

shall be added as kapok husk in the mixture. Table 1 shows the

amount of kapok husk in every treatment that was used in the

production of non-carbonized biomass briquettes.

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Table 1: Amount of the Kapok husk that was used in the Production

of Biomass Briquette.

TREATMENT KAPOK HUSK BINDER

T1

After mixture proportioning, the mixture of each treatment will

be placed inside the briquette molder and will be compressed.

D. Oven Drying for Initial Moisture Content Determination

 31

The weight of the newly molded biomass briquettes was first

determined using the digital weighing scale. Then will be dried for 16

hours in a mechanical oven at 105 degrees Celsius. The briquettes

were weighed after oven drying to establish their final weight. The

initial and final weight of the briquette was used for initial moisture

content determination.

It can be computed using Equation 1:

𝐌𝐂𝑖 = 𝑤1−𝑤2 x 100%

(Equation 1)

𝑤1

where: MCi = Initial Moisture Content of the Briquette, %

W1 = Initial Weight of the Newly Molded Briquette, g

W2 = Final Weight of the Briquette after Oven Drying, g

E. Sun Drying for Molded Briquette

The newly molded briquette was sun-dried until it reaches its desired

moisture of
 32

15%. The final weight of the sun-dried briquette was determined

using Equation 2:

𝑊𝑖(1−𝑀𝐶𝑖)

𝐖𝐟 =

(Equation 2)

(1−𝑀𝐶𝑓)

where: Wf = Final Weight of the Briquette, g

Wi = Initial Weight of the Briquette, g

MCi = Initial Moisture Content of the Briquette, %

MCf = Final Moisture Content of the Briquette

(20%), %

F. Data Gathering Procedure

On determining the data, the following procedures were

followed:

1. Bulk Density
 33

The briquette's density will be calculated by dividing the

briquette's mass by its volume. Kpalo et al., (2020) stated that the

mass will determined using a digital weighing scale, the volume was

computed by measuring the diameter, height, and center entire

diameter at various places using a Vernier caliper. To compute the

briquette's density

Equation 3 will be used:

𝛒𝐛 =

(Equation 3)

where: 𝜌 = Density of the Briquette, g/cm3

m = Mass of Briquette, g

V = Volume of Briquette, cm3

2. Volatile matter

Volatile Matter (VM), affects the burning of briquettes and often

known as a flying material. According to Onokak et al. (2017), the VM

 34

material determines the perfection of combustion and fire strength. To

compute volatile matter (VM) Equation 4 will be used:

𝐏𝐕𝐌 = 𝐴 −𝐵
𝑋 100%

(Equation 4)

where: PVM = Percentage Volatile Matter, %

A= Weight of the Oven-Dried

Briquette, g

B = Weight of the Briquette after

10min in the Furnace at 550 ◦C, g

Note: The Volatile Matter will be analyzed at the Davao del

Sur State College-Research Laboratory Services Center

(DSSC- RLSC), Matti, Digos City.

3.. Ash Content

The Percentage Ash Content (PAC) was calculated by heating

the briquette sample in the close container until it turned to ash, then

weighing the ash content after cooling.

Equation 5 was used to calculate the PAC:

 35

𝐴𝑠ℎ

𝑨𝒔𝒉 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑋 100%

(Equation 5)

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

where: Ac= Percentage Ash Content, %

Ar= Weight of Ash Retained, g

Iw= Initial Weight of the Briquette before Burning, g

Note: In this study, the Percentage Ash Content was analyzed at the

University of Southern

Mindanao, Agricultural Research Center (USMARC), Kabacan,

Cotabato.

5. Calorific Value

Heating value will be calculated using Equation 6 according to Noah et

al., (2019):
 36

HV = 2.3269 (147.6FC + 144VM)

(Equation 6)

where: HV = Heating Value, KJ/kg

FC = Percentage Fixed Carbon, %

VM = Percentage Volatile Matter, %

6. Burning Rate

Briquette's burning rate will be determined using the method

used by Abdulkareem et al., (2018). A stopwatch will be used to keep

track of the time until the briquettes were entirely burned and

transformed to ash during the combustion process. The fuel-burning

rate will be computed using Equation 7:

𝑩𝒓 =𝑊𝑡

𝑇𝑡

(Equation 7)
 37

where: Br = Fuel-Burning Rate, g/min

Wt = Weight of Fuel Burnt, g

Tt = Time taken until the Briquette is Completely Burnt,

min

7. Cost per Unit Production

The cost per unit of production will be calculated by dividing

the variable and fixed costs of briquette production by the number of

units produced. The cost per unit production will be calculated using

Equation 8:

¿ FC ¿ + VC

(Equation 8)

where: CUP = Cost per Unit Production, Php/kg

FC = Fixed Cost, Php

VC = Variable Cost, Php

UP = Total Weight of Briquettes Produced, kg

 38

8. Fixed Cost

Fixed cost is the total cost of the Laboratory Fees. The fixed cost will

be using

Equation 9:

FC = RM

(Equation 9)

where: FC = Total Fixed Cost, Php

9. Variable Cost

Variable cost is derived from the cost of molasses, cost of materials,

and

Transportation Cost. The variable cost was calculated using Equation

10:

VC = CCS + CBPD + CL + CBPD + CBPS +CT

(Equation 10) where: VC = Total Variable

Cost, Php

CCS = Cost of molasses, Php/kg

 39

CBP = Cost of Kapok husk, Php/kg

CL = Cost of Labor, Php

Cm = Cost of Molder, Php

Statistical Tool

The Complete Randomized Design (CRD) One-Way Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) will be used to examine the data at the 5% levels

of significance. To examine the significant difference between

treatment means, the Least Significant Difference (LSD) will be

utilized. The outcomes of the data were also displayed in graphs and

tables.
40
 41

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SUGARCANE BAGASSE

 Sugarcane bagasse mainly consists of cellulose (40-50%),

hemicellulose (25-35%), and lignin (20-25%).
 Cellulose provides structural rigidity, hemicellulose acts as a binder,
and lignin contributes to strength and resistance to degradation.
 Sugarcane bagasse is a fibrous residue, in which the length of
fibers can be taken advantage of in promoting mechanical
interlocking of the particles during briquetting‌

KAPOK HUSK

 It is lightweight, buoyant
 Kapok husk is mainly composed of cellulose (35-45%),
hemicellulose (25-35%), and lignin (20-25%).
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RICE HUSK

 It contains approximately 40% cellulose, 30% lignin group, and

20% silica (Chindaprasirt, Kanchanda, Sathonsaowaphak & Cao,
2007).
 Moisture: Typically, rice husks have 10-15% moisture content
 Lightweight and porous: Their low density (83-125 kg/m³) and air
pockets make them good insulators.

BANANA PEEL

 High Lignocellulose Content:

 Lignocellulose: Banana peels boast a significant lignocellulose

content, ranging from 40-60% (Chandrasekhar et al., 2019). This
complex carbohydrate comprises cellulose, hemicellulose, and
lignin, crucial for briquette formation.

 Cellulose and Hemicellulose: These components break down during

pyrolysis, releasing energy as heat (Moharreri et al., 2015).
Cellulose contributes significantly to the briquettes' calorific value
(Wang et al., 2017).

 Lignin: This natural binder provides structural integrity, holding the

briquettes together during combustion (Saddler & Himmel, 2008).

 High Calorific Value:

 Banana peels exhibit a calorific value of around 18-21 MJ/kg,

comparable to wood chips and sawdust (Abdullah et al., 2017).
This translates to efficient burning and sustained heat generation.

 Good Binding Properties:

 Banana peels contain natural sugars and starches that act as

binders, minimizing the need for additional agents (Kumar et al.,
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2018). These enhance the briquettes' cohesion and durability

during drying and combustion.

COCONUT HUSK

 High Lignin Content: Coconut husk contains around 45-55% lignin,

a natural polymer that provides strength, rigidity, and resistance to
decay.
 Cellulose and Hemicellulose: These other major components (40-
45%) contribute to the husk's structure and potential for biofuel
production.
 Pith: The inner layer of the husk comprises finer, dust-like material
primarily composed of cellulose and hemicellulose.
 Coir Fibers: Coarse, strong fibers extracted from the husk, forming
the basis for various applications.

SAWDUST

Chemical Properties:

 Lignocellulose Content: Sawdust is rich in lignocellulose, a complex

carbohydrate composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. This
makes it a potential resource for biofuel production, animal feed,
and biomaterials.

(Citation: Mussatto, S. I., et al. (2010). Lignocellulosic Biomass: A

Sustainable Biomass for Bioethanol Production. ChemSusChem, 3(10),
1357-1370.)

 Adsorption Properties: Sawdust can adsorb various pollutants and

contaminants due to its surface area and functional groups, making
it useful for wastewater treatment and environmental remediation.

(Citation: Aksoy, U., et al. (2011). Adsorption of Reactive Dyes onto

Modified Sawdust. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 192(1-3), 135-141.)

 Biodegradability: Sawdust is a renewable and biodegradable

material, minimizing its environmental impact compared to non-
biodegradable alternatives.

(Citation: Wong, J.W.C., et al. (2016).‌

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