ST.

JOSEPH’S COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
BANGALORE-27

PSYCHOLOGY LAB RECORD

(B.A EJP-B Semester _1__)

LAB FACULTY INCHARGE:

Ami joshy SHIKHA S ABRAHAM

(Dept. Of Psychology) 21EJPS10

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Shikha s Abraham of _1__ Semester B.A EJP has
satisfactorily completed the course of experiments in practical prescribed
by the Department of Psychology at St. Josephs College (Autonomous) in
the academic year 2021-2022.

Lab Teacher In-charge Signature: HOD Signature:

2
SL. Name of Experiment Page Date of Date of
NO No. Experiment Submission

1 Observation and 4 25/10/2021 22/1/20

suggestion 22

2 Bilateral transfer of 13 13/11/2021 22/1/20

learning 22

3 Effect of meaning on 19 29/11/2021 22/1/20

retention 22

4 Muller Lyer illusion 25 6/12/2021 22/1/20

22

5 Mapping of Retina color 31 3/1/2022 22/1/20

zones 22

6 Retroactive Inhibition 37 10/1/2022 22/1/20

22

7 Span of Attention 42 17/1/2022 22/1/20

22

8 Ishiharas color blindness 50 24/1/22 31/ 1/22

test

INDEX

3
 Experiment 1

Observation and suggestion

Introduction:
Observation is an act which help us to have knowledge of the environment.it is
a careful examination of the phenomenon. Knowledge in fact depends on
observation. Although, the ability to observe is widespread, scientific
observation differs from ordinary observation. Scientific observation is
systematic and goal directed, whereas ordinary observation maybe casual, and a
person may not pay attention to details.

Suggestion is one of the most important basic concepts in the field of social
relations. Postman believes that our system of social rewards and punishments
provides us with strong motivation to comply with current norms, to accept the
standards of the majority and of those in authority even if we had no part in
evolving the standards. Often such conformity becomes almost automatic,
eliminating or severely reducing critical evaluation. When stimulus conditions
are created, which leads to uncritical conformity, we speak of suggestion.
“Suggestibility “is the readiness with which an individual accepts an idea.

English and English {1958} define suggestion as “The process by which one
person, without argument, command or coercion directly induces another to act
in a given way or to accept a given belief, opinion or plan of action. “According
to Boring “we may define suggestion as the acceptance by an individual of a
frame of reference without the intervention of critical thought process “.
Studies indicate that in experiments like the following one, observation is
influenced by suggestion. The accuracy of the report is greater for non-
suggestive questions and least for the suggestive. Suggestive questions reduce
the accuracy of the reports as they mislead the subject to accept what is not

4
there in the picture. The other factors which affect suggestibility are age,
intelligence, past experience, mental set etc.

Review of literature
1 A study was conducted by Wiseman and Greening on the topic “it’s still
bending “; verbal suggestion and alleged psychokinetic ability.” The goal of this
study was to see if it was possible to induce PKMB aftereffects through verbal
exhortation. Participants in the suggestion condition were much more likely
than those in the non – suggestion condition, according to the findings. The
research also looked into the link between paranormal belief and suggestibility.
Participants who had previously stated a belief in the paranormal were no more
or less likely than non-believers, contrary to predictions. As a result, the
research backups the idea that even a modest quantity of verbal suggestion can
induce a significant number of people to reliably report a PKMB after effect.

2. A study was conducted by Augustinova and Ferrand on the topic, “suggestion

does not de- automatize word reading; Evidence from the semantically based
stroop task “. The study revealed that in highly suggestible people, the
suggestion to interpret words as meaningless symbols like characters from a
foreign language diminishes the typical stroop effect significantly. Most
crucially, the critical conditions result [i.e.] the semantically based stroop test]
give solid proof that word reading cannot be de- automated. In fact, semantic
activation was consistent across all situations

Problem:
To study the effect of suggestion on the accuracy of report

Hypothesis:
“Suggestion reduces accuracy of reports ‘

Plan:
5
 Expose a picture for 60 seconds. Compare the number of correct answers for 2
types of questions, suggestive and non- suggestive

Variables:

A} Independent variable: The nature of questions – suggestive and non –

suggestive
B} Dependent variable – The accuracy of report for suggestive and non-
suggestive questions

Experimental controls

A. Non – suggestive questions should be direct or refer to items present in the

picture
B Suggestive questions should be misleading so as to make the subjects accept
what is not there in the picture
C Answers to questions must be in one word or two words
D The subjects should not know the aim of the experiment

Materials

A. picture with many details mounted on cardboard and covered with a flap.
B. list of 20 questions – 10 suggestive and 10 non- suggestive
C key to correct answers
D stop clock

Procedure

6
The subject is seated comfortably before a table on which the picture, covered
with a flap, is placed. The subject is instructed to be ready to observe the picture
when it is exposed. With the signal “start”, expose the picture, and start the stop
clock simultaneously. After the lapse of 60 seconds [1minute], give the signal
“stop” and withdraw the picture. The present the list of 20 questions and obtain
responses to each. Find out the correct number of correct answers with the help
of the key.

Instructions to the subject;

With the signal “start “I will present a picture for a brief period. Observe the
picture carefully as you will have to answer some questions with regard to the
picture after I say “stop”.

Analysis of Data:

1. Find out the number of correct answers for suggestive and non-suggestive
questions.
2. Calculate the Means for the group data

Points for discussion

Discuss whether the subject is influenced by suggestion

Discuss the mean performance and individual differences, if any.

Discussion
The aim of the experiment was to study the effect of suggestion on the accuracy
of reports

Individual discussion:
7
Table 1: showing the number of correct answers given by the subject for
suggestive and non- suggestive questions.

Number of correct answers

Name Suggestive(I) Non- Difference (I-
suggestive(II) II)
SA 9 7 2

The experiment was conducted on SA an 18 year old irl studying as an EJP

student of st Joseph College, Bangalore. Look at table 1, it can be seen that the
subject SA has a score of 9 for suggestive series and and a score of 7 for non-
suggestive series with a difference of 2. Therefore the subject proves the
hypothesis

Group discussion
2: showing the number of correct answers given by the group of suggestive and
non-suggestive questions

Name Suggestive [i] Non- Difference [i-

suggestive [ii] Ii]
Chaitanya 10 6 4
Ananya patel 6 4 2
Mariyam 4 4 0
Rachel
Neha
Shine Maria 8 6 2

8
Neha suraj M 6 5 1
Vidushi J 8 10 2
Swathi Mishra 2 7 5
Tenzin 5 7 2
Rigzom
Riya Sati 6 8 2
NFS 5 8 -3
Hadiya 4 7 -3
Noorain
A.anusha 8 6 2
Zoya Amjad 6 8 -2
K.SOWMYA 8 6 2
Anju 6 7 -1
Tharakan
Zenovia A 3 7 -4
Hujon
Cassandra 6 7 -1
Rebekah 9 8 1
jayanthy
Aamir shaikh 9 4 5
Shrinkhala 5 7 -2
sharma
Shikha 9 7 2
Abraham
Harshitha 7 7 0
9
judy
Hizana 4 5 -1
khathoon
Vanshikha 8 8 0
khara
G. mrithika 9 7 2
Uthara 8 7 1
jayakumar
Anam Mariam 9 8 1
Ayisha 7 7 0
nazriya
PA 3 4 -1
Renee john 6 6 0
Brandon 7 5 2
Nazareth
Tenzin rigzom 5 7 -2
Seba binaf 9 5 4
Ananya jain 5 7 -2
Merlyn 9 3 6
George
Nowel john 3 0 3
pinto
Keerthana Y 8 9 -1
Shreya N 2 5 -3
Seba binaf 9 5 4
10
Thrisha jadish 5 7 -2
Jonathan 3 5 -2
Jacob
I kyathishree 6 7 1
Syeda 7 10 -3
muskaan
Judah Mathew 6 4 2
Anahitha 4 5 -1
Shetty
Hadiya 7 4 3
noorain
Simran 8 7 1
khursheed
Swathika 6 5 1
baiju
Rishikha nair 8 6 2
Meena kasi 7 6 1
Ananya patel 6 4 2
Srikar vetcha 7 6 1
TOTAL 339 327 12
MEAN 6.40 6.17 0.23

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The experiment was conducted on a group of 30 students studying at St Joseph
College autonomous. Looking at the table 2 it can be seen that the total mean
score for the group is 6.40 for the suggestive series and the total mean score is
6.17 for the non- suggestive series with a difference of 0.23. Therefore, the
group proves the hypothesis which is “suggestion reduces accuracy of report’’.

Conclusion

● Subject SA proves the hypothesis which is “ suggestion reduces

accuracy of report”

● The group proves the hypothesis which is “suggestion reduces the

accuracy of report’’.

References

1. Wiseman, R., & Greening, E. (2005). It's still bending: Verbal suggestion and
alleged psychokinetic ability. British Journal of Psychology, 96(1), 115-127.
2. Augustinova, M., & Ferrand, L. (2012). Suggestion does not de-automatize word
reading: Evidence from the semantically based Stroop task. Psychonomic Bulletin
& Review, 19(3), 521-527.

Experiment 2
BILATERAL TRANSFER
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 Introduction

The effect of past learning on new learning is designated as “transfer of

training”, According to Hilgard, “The influence that learning one task may have
on subsequent learning or performance of another task is called, “Transfer of
training”. Transfer of training is one of the most persuasive characteristics of
behavior, for it is this which guarantees the continuity and lawful development
of habits of ever growing complexity.
The effects of past learning on new learning may be classified in one of the
three categories:

1. Positive Transfer- occurs when past experiences facilitates the acquisition

of a new skill or the situation of a new problem.

2 Negative transfer- occurs when past experiences renders more difficult or slows
down the acquisition of a new skill or solution to a problem.

3 Cross education- refer to the facilitation of performance with one part of the
body, when practice is given to another part of the body. When cross education
is from one body organ to its symmetrical counterpart, it is called Bilateral
Transfer. It is usually demonstrated by mirror tracing board. Starch (1910) was
the first to apply mirror drawing to the study of bilateral transfer. Studies
indicate that bilateral transfer is a form of positive transfer where subjects do
better after training.

Here we study the effect of training the preferred hand on the performance
of the non-preferred hand.

Review of literature

13
 1 A study was conducted by Alpana mohan on the topic bilateral transfer deficit
among cogentially deaf. The study is conducted to examine whether bilateral
transfer deficit would persist in deaf children at a perpetual level. We know that
bilateral transfer is an activity with a particular part of the body usually
facilitates performance of the same activity with another part of the body. In
order to examine that it was assessed with the mirror drawing task. The study
revealed that congenital deaf subjects were more inaccurate and committed
more errors in mirror drawing task and had significantly less bilateral transfer of
motor skills is found in comparison to control subjects.

2 A study was conducted by Luis Augusto teixeria on the topic timing and force
components in bilateral transfer of learning. Bilateral transfer of perceptual and
motor components in movement control was investigated through 2
experiments. In experiment 1 a simple anticipatory timing task was practiced
with either preferred or non – preferred hand. In experiment 2, the same
experimental design was used to investigate bilateral transfer of fine force
control in wrist flexion movement. So here results showed that bilateral transfer
of learning took place for both anticipatory timing and force control with more
noticeable transfer of training than former. From the findings we can conclude
that anticipatory timing is a powerful component of bilateral training .

Problem:

To study bilateral transfer through mirror drawing.

Hypothesis:

Training given to one hand has a positive effect on the performance of the
other hand.

Plan:

Given one trial to trace the star pattern with the non-preferred hand, then five
trials with the preferred hand and then again, one trial with the non-preferred
hand. Compare the performance of the non – preferred hand before and after
training to the preferred hand.

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Variables:
Independent variables- Training given to the preferred hand,
Dependent variables- Time taken and errors committed in the trials of the non-
preferred hand.

Experimental controls:
1. The subject should not see the star pattern directly while tracing.
2. The subject must avoid touching the edge of the groove as much as
possible.

Materials:
1. Mirror tracing board with reset type impulse counter and built in rectifier.
2. Stop-clock

Procedure: Place the mirror tracing board in front of the subject.

Series I - Non-preferred hand before training:
The subject is asked to trace the pattern with the stylus with his/her own non-
preferred, not looking at the star directly but seeing its reflection in the mirror.
The subject should trace the star without touching the sides. Whenever this
happens, the counter makes a clicking sound indicating an error. Give the
signal to start and start the stop watch simultaneously. Note the time taken and
errors committed to trace the pattern using the non-preferred hand.

Training- Give five trials to the subject to trace the star pattern with the
referred hand. Note the time taken and the errors committed in each trial.

Series II- Non-preferred hand after training:

Following the same procedure, ask the subject to trace the star pattern
with the non-preferred hand again. Note the time and error scores.
Note: While tracing the star pattern, follow clockwise direction for the right
hand and anti- clockwise direction for the left hand.

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Instructions to the subject:
“At the signal ‘start’, start tracing the pattern with the stylus without
touching the edges, as fast as possible until you reach the starting point. When
you touch the edges, you will hear a sound which is counted as an error. While
tracing, do not look at the star pattern directly, look only at its reflection in the
mirror.”

Analysis of results:
1. Compare time and error scores of the non-preferred hand before and after
training.
2. Plot time and error scores on graph for preferred and non-preferred hands.
3. Compute mean for the group.

Points for discussion:

a. Discuss, with the help of the graph whether training given to the preferred
hand has improved learning in the non-preferred hand for the subject and for the
group.
b. Compare the learning curve of the subject and the group for the preferred
hand.

Discussion:
The aim of the test was to study the bilateral transfer through mirror
learning.

Individual discussion:
Table 1- Time taken and errors committed by the Subject in each trial
of the preferred hand.

Time taken Errors committed

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Name 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

SA 328 40 28 26 32 44 44 26 27 20

Table 2- Time taken and errors committed by the subject with

the non- preferred hand before and after training.

Time taken Errors committed

Name Series- Series Difference Series Series-ii Difference[

i –ii [ ii-i] –i ii-i]
SA 100 79 -21 65 40 -25

The experiment was conducted on SA, an 18 year old girl studying is St.
Joseph’s College Bangalore (Autonomous).

Looking at table 2, it can be seen that the time taken for series 1 is 100 seconds,
the errors committed are 65. The time taken for series 2 is 79 seconds and the
errors committed are 40. Therefore, it can be seen that training given to one
hand has had a positive effect on the performance of the other hand. The subject
SA proves the hypothesis.

17
Conclusion:
The subject HM proves the hypothesis that is training given to one hand has a
positive effect on the performance of the other hand.

References:

1. Mohan, A. (2014). Bilateral transfer deficit among

congenitally deaf. Indian Journal of Health & Wellbeing,
5(12).
2. Teixeira, L. A. (2000). Timing and force components in
bilateral transfer of learning. Brain and cognition, 44(3), 455-
469.

Experiment – 3

EFFECT OF MEANING ON RETENTION

INTRODUCTION
Memory includes remembering and forgetting, both depends on retention. The
presence of retention causes remembering and absence of it causes forgetting.
Retention can be measured through recall, recognition, relearning and
reconstruction. Retention varies with the meaningfulness of the material.
According to Freud, the material which has pleasant emotional tore tends to be
recalled more than those which are unpleasant. Retention is not only affected by
the type of material but also influenced by the method used to learn it.

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The material learnt by the method of recitation is retained is retained better and
longer than by the method of repetition. Material learnt by the method of
distribution is retained better and longer than the material learnt by mass
method. The degree of retention depends upon the level of interruption caused
while learning. Retention also depends upon the interest and attitude of the
subject. It varies from individual with age and intelligence.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A study was conducted by Granito and Chernobilsky on the topic,

“The Effect of technology on a student’s motivation and knowledge
retention.” The goal of this study was to see how technology affects a
student's motivation to learn new things and remember what they've
learned. The findings of this study back up the theory that when
students are given a project to choose from, they retain knowledge
regardless of whether it is a traditional or a computer-based project.

A study was conducted by Kitajima on the topic, “The effect of

instructional conditions on student’s vocabulary retention.” This is a
case study of five pupils acquiring Japanese language in two different
ways. Furthermore, two and a half months after the first exposures,
students used more words learned in the output condition than in the
input-dominant condition, despite the fact that there was no difference
between the two conditions in terms of contextual appropriateness of
word usage. These findings imply that output-focused learning
activities aid students in encoding surface-level forms into memory
more effectively than input-focused learning activities.

Problem:
“To determine the effect of meaning on retention”

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Hypothesis:
“Meaning has a positive effect on retention”
Plan:
“Conduct the experiment in 3 series, present three list of words orally- each list
thrice. Compare the no. of words reproduced from each list.”

Variables:
1. Independent variable:

The three lists of words:

● List A: Nonsense syllables
● List B: Meaningful unconnected words
● List C: Meaning connected words

2. Dependent variable:

The number of words recalled from each list.

Materials:

1. List A with 20 nonsense syllables

2. List B with 20 meaningful unconnected
3. List C with 20 meaningful connected words.
4. Additional blanks
5. Stop watch
6. Writing material

Procedure:
[Series 1]

20
 Sit the subject comfortably and inform her that a list of words will be read
out thrice. Subject should listen attentively. Words are presented orally at
a speed of 2 seconds per words in an even tone. After each presentation
interval of 5 seconds is given. After 3rd presentation, 1 minute of
distraction task is given. The subject is engaged with the additional blank.
At the end of the distraction period the subject is asked to reproduce list
A containing nonsense syllables.

[Series2 and 3]
In series 2 a list of meaningful, unconnected words are presented and in
series 3, a list of meaningful, connected words are presented. Then the
same procedure as series 1 is followed.

Instructions:
[series1]
“I’ll read out a list of words, listen carefully as you may have to recall the
list later. After the 3rd presentation, you’ll have to work on the additional
blank and continue adding until I ask you to stop.”

“Now recall list A”

[Series 2 and 3]
The same instructions are given in series 2 and 3 using the list B and C
respectively.

Precautions:
1. The rate of presentation and the tone must be constant
2. During the distraction period the experimenter should ensure that the
subject is engaged with some unconnected work.

Data Analysis:

21
 ● Find out how many words have been correctly reproduced for
each list.
● Find out the difference in lists A, B and C in the no. of words
correctly reproduced by the subject.
● Calculate the total and mean for group results.

Applications:
1. Increase focus and memory retention.
2. Determine presence of mind.

Discussion:

The aim of the experiment is to determine the effect of meaning on

retention.

Table 1: Individual subject scores

Name Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

SA 14 17 18

Looking at the table 1, it is seen that the subject has a total score of 7
for non-sense syllables, 8 for the second series which is meaningful
unconnected words and 13 for the third series, meaningful connected
words. Therefore, the subject has proved the hypothesis.

Conclusion:
The subject proves the hypothesis that meaning has a positive effect
on retention.

References

22
1. Granito, M., & Chernobilsky, E. (2012). The effect of technology on a
student's motivation and knowledge retention.

2. Kitajima, R. (2001). The effect of instructional conditions on students'

vocabulary retention. Foreign Language Annals, 34(5), 470-482.

23
 Experiment- 4
MULLER-LYRE ILLUSION
- METHOD OF AVERAGE ERROR – I

Introduction

Geometrical illusions, of which Muller-lyre is an illustration, is an example of

how our discriminal processes do not faithfully represent the objective world.
We do not always see things as they exist in physically measured reality. In
Muller lyre illusion, we tend to underestimate the length of the arrowhead line.
The constant error gives the quantitative measure of the extent of illusion. The
movement error is bias which the subject may have for moving the variable
outward (ascending series) as compared to moving it inward (descending
series), or vice versa.

Review of literature

1. A study was conducted by Bunce, Gray and Cook on the topic,

“The perception of Interpersonal distance is distorted by the Muller
Lyer illusion.” The findings showed that determining interpersonal
distance is more difficult than it appears. When watching two
persons standing face-to-face, for example, our findings show that
the nose-to-nose space between them appears to be enlarged. The
stated illusory distortion appears to have maladaptive and counter-
intuitive implications. When learning to dance or socially distance,
for example, a perceptual bias that affects judgments of
interpersonal distance may make it difficult to imitate
interpersonal distances modelled by others. There is
currently no agreement on the cause of the Müller-Lyer
illusion, as well as its functional importance.

24
 2. A study was conducted by Kopiske, Cesanek, Campagnoli and
Domini on the topic, “Adaptation effects in grasping the Muller
Lyre illusion.” The findings can be described effectively in terms
of a sensorimotor adaptation error-correction model with an error
signal sensed when touching the object, which could be a step
toward understanding how adaptation to visual illusions works.
The effect of both the incremental and decremental illusion
displays was also found to be reduced.

Problem:
To determine the extent of Muller Lyre illusion by the method of average error.
Hypothesis:
The extent of illusion varies with the direction of movement (Ascending and
descending).
Plan:
Ascending and descending series to be done alternatively. In each trial, the
subject manipulates the variable stimulus to make it equal to the standard length
of 1 centimeter.

Materials:
a) The Muller Lyre illusion board.
b) Writing materials

Variables:

Independent variable: The direction in which the subject varies the length of the
variable line.

Dependent variable: The error committed by the subject.

25
Experimental controls:

1. The experimenter should make sure that the subject has understood the
instructions.
2. The distance between the subject and the apparatus is kept constant.
3. The variable line should be held definitely longer in the descending series
and shorter in the ascending series.
4 The starting point of the variable line should vary from trial to trial to
avoid habituation

Procedure:
The subject is made to sit comfortably. The apparatus is placed at a distance of
two feet from the subject and the Muller Lyre illusion board is adjusted to the
eye level of the subject. This shown the standard and variable line.
Ascending series: Keep the variable line definitely shorter than the standard
line in the ascending series. Instruct the subject to slowly increase the length of
the variable line, till he/she feels it is equal to the standard line. When the
subject stops moving, the length of the variable line adjusted as equal to the
standard line is noted down with the help of the scale provided behind the
apparatus, by the experimenter. Ten trials are given.

Descending series: The length of the variable line is kept definitely longer than
the standard line in the descending series. The subject is instructed to slowly
decrease the length of the variable line till he/she feels it is equal to the standard
line. The length of the variable line adjusted as equal to the standard line is
noted down with the help of the scale behind the apparatus by the experimenter.
Ten trials are given here also
Note: the ascending and descending trials are given alternately to eliminate
practice effect

. INSTRUCTIONS:

26
 Ascending Series: The line between the two arrow heads is the standard line
and its length remains constant. The line between the two feather-heads is
the variable line and its length can be varied by manipulation. In this series
the variable line till you feel it is equal to the standard line.

Descending series: Now the variable line is held longer than the standard.
Decrease the length of the variable line. Stop when you feel that the length
of the variable line is equal to the length of the standard line.

EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL
The distance between the subject and the apparatus should be two feet.

Analysis of data:
1. In each trial, the subject’s judgment of the length of the variable line is noted
by the experimenter. This is the point of subjective equality. (PSE).

2. The mean PSE is calculated for each series.

3. The constant error (CE) is calculated for each series.

CE(Asc.) = Mean PSE (Asc.) - Standard line (16 cms)

CE (Des.) = Mean PSE (Des.) - Standard line (16 cms)

4. Calculate the Mean CE

Mean CE = CE(Asc. ) + CE (Des.) / 2

5. The movement error is calculated by using the formula :

Mean PSE (Des.) - Mean PSE(Asc.) / 2

27
Points for discussion:

Discuss whether method of presentation has affected the subject’s extent of

illusion

Discussion:

The aim of the experiment was to determine the extent of illusion varies with
the direction of movement (Ascending and descending}

Table 1: The readings of the subject in ascending and descending series:

NAME OF THE SUBJECT : PH

TRIALS ASCENDING DESCENDING

1 1.3 10.1

2 10.2 14.2

3 10.2 8.5

4 11.2 16

5 12.9 11.3

6 13.4 10.7

7 10.4 10.8

8 14 10.3

9 8.9 10.2

10 10.7 15.2

TOTAL 114.9 117.3

MEAN PSE 11.47 11.73

28
NAME CONSTANT ERROR MEAN C.E MOVEMENT
ERROR
Ascending Descending

PH -4.51 -4.27 -4.39 0.12

References
1. Bunce, C., Gray, K. L., & Cook, R. (2021). The perception of
interpersonal distance is distorted by the Müller-Lyer illusion. Scientific
Reports, 11(1), 1-
2.Kopiske, K. K., Cesanek, E., Campagnoli, C., & Domini, F. (2017).
Adaptation effects in grasping the Müller-Lyer illusion. Vision research,
136, 21-31.

Experiment 5

Mapping of Retinal Color Zones

Introduction:

29
Vision and other sensory processes were being investigated scientifically even
before psychology emerged as a formal discipline. The interests of physicists in
the nature of and physiologist in the functioning of sensory nerves and their
accessory structures, such as eye led to the discovery of many problems that
were physiological in nature. The research workers followed wherever the
problems led, regardless of the field in which they had been formally trained.
Today, problems of visual sensation and perception elicit keen interest from
psychologists engaged in laboratory studies of many kinds. The experiments
being done have many practical applications as well as theoretical implications.

The retina is photosensitive and is comprised of specialized nerve cells- rods

and cones. It is due to the cones that we respond to colour, whereas the rods
helps us in the night vision. The colour zones of the retina are smaller than the
visual field. There are some specific parts of the retina responsible for colour
vision. They are (a) Central (b) Middle and (c) Peripheral. The middle part of
the retina is sensitive only for blue and yellow colours, whereas the central part
is sensitive for all colours, besides grey and brightness. The peripheral zone is
sensitive only for brightness

As pointed out by Woodworth (1954) “One of the striking facts of normal

colour vision is that everyone is completely color blind in the periphery of the
retina.” A patch of any colour looks grey when seen in the margin of the visual
field. This is because peripheral vision is rod vision.

Review of Literature

1. A study was conducted by Fadzil and Iznita on the topic, “Area analysis
of foveal avascular zone in diabetic retinopathy color fundus images.”

30
 Through this study, it was found that if the accuracy of vessel detection
and reconstruction can be improved, or the under segmentation of thin
vessels at the perifoveal capillary network can be minimized, the
accuracy of the estimated FAZ( foveal avascular) region by the
established algorithm can be enhanced. This is because the earlier phase
uses the identified and recreated. Vessels to extract end points along
vessels for determining the FAZ border.

2. A study was conducted by Lee, Fan, Kim, Kang and Ko on the topic,
“High dynamic range image tone mapping based on asymmetric model of
retinal adaptation.” It was seen that in this study, we propose a new
asymmetric sigmoid curve (ASC) based on the human visual system, with
an asymmetric retinal response curve. This problem has a low
computational cost since the ideal solution may be determined in closed
form. Two quantitative quality assessment methods were used to evaluate
the proposed tone mapping operators, and they outperformed earlier
approaches.

Problem:

To measure the retinal colour zones of the right eye of the subject for red,
green, yellow and blue colours.

Hypothesis

: The retinal colour zones for yellow and blue are larger than that for red and
green.

Variables:

Independent variable: The different colour pointers.

31
 Dependent variable: Subject’s, responses as indicated by the readings of
the metal arc.

Materials:

a) Perimeter

b) Colour pointer for red, green, blue and yellow

c) Perimetric chart

Plan:

The experiment is conducted in 4 series, with the arc at 4 different angles 0, 90,
180 and 270 degrees. For each angle, one ‘inward’ trial is given, for each of the
4 colour pointers. The retinal colour zone for each colour is mapped and
compared.

Experimental controls:

1. Adequate light must be present to enable the subject to see the colour
clearly.
2. Subject’s right eye must be focused at the fixation point during each trial;
and the left eye kept closed.
3. Movement of colour pointer along the metal arc must be kept at a
constant and relatively slow speed.
4. Check subject’s colour vision to rule out colour blindness.

Procedure:

32
 The subject is seated comfortably, with his chin placed on the chin
rest of the perimeter, and his right eye focused on the fixation point. The subject
is instructed to report the color when he sees the color pointer.

After giving instructions, the experimenter says 'ready' and slowly moves the
color pointer inward, along the arc, till the subject responds correctly. The
reading on the metal arc is noted, and the procedure is repeated for the
remaining color pointers.

After 4 trials (one trial for each color) at 0°, move the arm of the perimeter to 90
and conduct the experiment. Repeat for 180° and 270°,

NOTE: Angle Position of the arm of perimeter

0 degree - Adjacent to the right eye

900 degree- Above the forehead
180 degree- Adjacent to the left eye
270 degree - Below the chin.

Instructions:

"Place your chin on the chin rest. Close your left eye and focus your right eye
on the fixation point. I will say 'ready' and start moving a color pointer along
this metal arc. As soon as you see It, report to me what color you see. Please do
not move your eye from the fixation point." 67

Analysis of results:

1) The readings for each color are recorded in the table for the 4 angles.
2) The retinal color zones are mapped on the perimetric charts using the
readings.

Points for discussion:

33
 1) Compare the subject’s color zones for red and green with those for blue
and yellow.
2) Verify the hypothesis on the basis of the obtained results.

Discussion:

The aim of the experiment is to measure the retinal color zones of the right eye
of the subject, for red, green, yellow and blue colors.

Table 1: Individual data: color zones at 4 angles

Angles Red Green Blue Yellow

0 degree 53 57 38 60
50 degree 33 14 14 25
180 degree 28 28 31 53
270 degree 29 29 24 26

The experiment was conducted on SA. An 18-year-old female studying in St.

Joseph’s College, Bangalore (Autonomous).
Looking at table 1, it can be seen that at 0 degree, the subject has been able to
identify the color red at 53, green at 57, blue at 38 and yellow at 60. The subject
partially proves the hypothesis at 0 degree. At 50 degree, the subject has been
able to identify the color red at 33, green at 14, blue at 14 and yellow at 25. The
subject partially proves the hypothesis at 50 degrees. At 180 degrees, the subject
has been able to identify the color red at30, green at 28, blue at 31 and yellow at
53. The subject proves the hypothesis at 180 degree. At 270 degree, subject has
been able to identify the color red at 20, green at 29, blue at 24 and yellow at
26. The subject partially proves the hypothesis at 270 degree.

34
 Conclusion:

The subject partially proves the hypothesis at 0 degree, 90 degree and 270
degree and proves the hypothesis at 180 degree which is, “The retinal color
zones for yellow and blue are larger than that for red and green.

References

1. Ahmad Fadzil, M. H., Lila Iznita, I., & Nugroho, H. A. (2011). Area analysis
of foveal avascular zone in diabetic retinopathy colour fundus
images. International Journal of Medical Engineering and Informatics, 3(1),
84-98.
2. Lee, D. H., Fan, M., Kim, S. W., Kang, M. C., & Ko, S. J. (2018). High
dynamic range image tone mapping based on asymmetric model of retinal
adaptation. Signal Processing: Image Communication, 68, 120-128.

Experiment 6

Retroactive inhibition

Introduction
It is believed that forgetting may occur as a result of different types of
interference with memory. When past memories interfere with memories of recent
experience, it is known as Pro-active inhibition. When memories of recent experience
interfere with past memories it is known as Retroactive inhibition.

Retroactive Inhibition refers to the difference in the degree of forgetting

resulting from the interpolation of a formal learning task, as compared with an

35
equivalent period free from learning activity. Retroactive Inhibition is a case of
negative transfer of training, as the learning of one task interferes with the retention of
another. Experiments have shown Retro-active Inhibition to be a highly reliable and
predictable phenomenon. At the same time it is true that the degree of Retro-active
Inhibition varies with a wide range of experimental variables like different conditions
of interpolation, the extent of similarity between the old and new materials, the degree
of meaning and logical relationship, length of material, strength of learning the original
material and interpolated activity.

Review of Literature:

1. A study was conducted by Hubert and Anderson on the topic, “Does

retrieving a memory insulate it against memory inhibition? A retroactive
interference study.” The Findings indicate that an insulating retrieval
impact could be due to the effects of an initial retrieval effort on the
accessibility of practice targets as well as any insulating features on
competitors being confounded. If these assumptions are right, it means
that while recall can help prevent forgetting in some cases, it does so
through mechanisms which do not require retrieval (e.g., integration,
priming of practiced targets).

2. A study was conducted by Melton and Lackum on the topic, “Retroactive

and Proactive Inhibition in Retention: Evidence for a Two-Factor Theory
of Retroactive Inhibition”.The interpretation of these findings as favoring
a variant of RI transfer theory that specifies an 'unlearning' element and a
competition' factor does not rule out the possibility of the 'unlearning'
factor being interpreted in terms of response competition

Problem:

36
To demonstrate the phenomenon of retroactive Inhibition on the recall of verbal
material.

Hypothesis:

Retroactive Inhibition has a negative effect on recall of verbal material .

Plan:

The experiment is conducted in two series- without interpolation and with

interpretation. The number of words correctly recalled. Under 18 two series is
compared and the extent of Retroactive Inhibition is determined.

Variables:

Independent variable: The Presentation of List ‘C’ as interpolated activity.

Dependent variable: Number of words recalled.

Materials:

1. Three lists of meaningful words, with twenty words in each list. List B

and C are synonyms.

2. Stop clock

3. Letter cancellation sheet

Procedure:

Series 1- (Without Interpolated activity): Instruct the subject to

listen carefully to the list of words presented orally and to learn it since he/she
has to recall it later. Give a ready signal and present the list orally at the rate of
two seconds per word. Present the list five times with an interval of five seconds
between each word in the list. After the fifth presentation, give a distraction

37
period of 280 seconds during which the subject is given letter cancellation so
that he/she may not rehearse the list. Now ask the subject to recall list A and
note down the number of words recalled.

Series 2- (With interpolated activity): Following the same procedure as above,

present list B five times. During the distraction period of 280 seconds, present
List C five times for interpolation. This covers 220 seconds (220 seconds
presentation and 20 seconds interval between presentations.) For the remaining
60 seconds engage the subject in letter cancellation. Ask the subject to recall list
B and note the number of words correctly recalled.

A memory drum can also be used for presentation of words.

Instructions:
“I will call out a list of words, listen to the carefully, you will have to reproduce

the same when you are asked to do.”

Controls and precautions:

1. The difficulty level of the words must be equal in all the lists.
2. The words of list B and C must be similar in meaning.
3. In a Second series, the subjects should not be aware the he/ she has to
recall list B.
4. During the distraction period, the subject must be kept occupied with
letter cancellation or mathematical sums or any such unrelated activities.

Analysis:
1. Determine the number of words recalled correctly in lists A and B
separately and find the difference.
2. Calculate mean and standard deviation for the group.

38
 Points for discussion:

1. Discuss whether retroactive inhibition has influenced recall of list

A and B.
2. Discuss variations in the group if any.

Individual discussion:
Table 1: Table showing the number of words recalled.

Name Series 1: words Series 2: Words Difference

recalled in List A recalled in list B

SM 9 5 3

The experiment was conducted on SM, a 50 year old male who is operating his
own business enterprise.
Looking at table 1, it is seen that, the number of words recalled in list A was 9
and the number of words recalled in list B was 10. Therefore the subject proves
the hypothesis which is, “Retroactive Inhibition has a negative effect on recall
of verbal material

Table 2: Showing the scores of the group on List A and List B of retroactive
inhibition

SL.N Participant Name List A List B

1 SB 10 8
2 TJ 14 8
3 K.P 10 6
4 AE 9 7

39
 5 M.C 8 4
6 K.C. 13 8
7 HH 12 7
8 BN 9 11
9 AH 7 5
10 BS 12 7
Total 104 71
Mean 10.4 7.1

Group Discussion:

This experiment was conducted on a group of 10 participants.

From table 2 it is noticed that the group has a score of 104 for list A and a score
of 71 for list B. Therefore, the group as a whole accepts the hypothesis with a
variation in the scores of subject BN who has a higher score for List B than for
List A.

Conclusion:

The subject proves the hypothesis which is, “Retroactive Inhibition has a
negative effect on recall of verbal material

Reference
1. Hulbert, J. C., & Anderson, M. C. (2020). Does retrieving a memory insulate it against
memory inhibition? A retroactive interference study. Memory, 28(3), 293-308.

2. Melton, A. W., & Von Lackum, W. J. (1941). Retroactive and proactive inhibition in
retention: Evidence for a two-factor theory of retroactive inhibition. The American
Journal of Psychology, 54(2), 157-173

40
 Experiment -7

Span of attention

Introduction:

Attention is the act of focusing of our consciousness on the object. It is selective

in nature. At any moment numerous stimuli act upon our sense organs. Only the
objects that attract our attention are selected and noticed. Shifting of attention,
fluctuation of attention, division of attention, span of attention and distraction of
attention have been experimentally studied.
The maximum number of items recognized by an individual in one act of
attention is his span of attention. Span of attention is determined by exposing a
number of letters for a very brief period using an apparatus called
Tachistoscope. This instrument is a wooden board with a slit at the center and
an exposure plate behind and a latch to hold the plate. With some simple
operations a card with letters of numbers or pictures could be exposed for a
short duration of time through the slit. The average span of an adult is 3-4 letters
or 4-5 numbers. But when a word that is familiar to the subject is presented it
may be reported even though it has 15 letters. This is called span of
apprehension rather than span of attention. It has been found that the span of
apprehension will be higher than span of attention. This finding helps us in
understanding the importance of presentation of meaningful concepts in
teaching.

41
Review of literature

1 An experiment was conducted by KS Tiwari, jubraj khamari and nirupma on

the topic’ A comparison on the span of attention with meaningful and non-
meaningful words’. Hypothesis of the study is that the span of attention for
meaningful words is more than that of non - meaningful words. The subject was
able to read exactly to all four alphabet of non-meaningful words when the card
containing three or four alphabet were shown of non-meaningful syllabus, the
response were correct the result was three or four respectively. But when the
card containing five non-meaningful syllables five were shown all the responses
were wrong and so the result for five non-meaningful syllables was zero. When
the card of meaningful words was shown the subject responded to all the words
was shown.The result go obtained shows that span of attention for meaningful
word is more as compare to that of non-meaningful word.

An experiment was conducted by pierre Barrouillet , Nathalie on the topic

‘Working memory span development ; a time – based resource – sharing model
account. The time-based resource-sharing model assumes that during complex
working memory span tasks, attention is frequently and surreptitiously switched
from processing to reactivate decaying memory traces before their complete
loss .Three experiments involving children from 5 to 14 years of age
investigated the role of this reactivation process in developmental differences in
working memory spans . Though preschoolers seem to adopt a serial control
without any attempt to refresh stored items when engaged in processing, the
reactivation process is efficient from age 7 onward and increases in efficiency
until late adolescence, underpinning a sizable part of developmental differences

Problem:
To determine the visual span of attention for nonsense syllables and words.
Hypothesis:
The visual span of attention for meaningful words is greater than it is for
nonsense syllables
Variables:

42
 Independent variable: the 2 sets of cards. Set 1 containing nonsense syllables.
Set 2 containing meaningful words
Dependent variable: the subjects span of attention for meaningful words and
nonsense syllables.
Plan:
The experiment is conducted in two series
a) Nonsense syllables
b) Words; the attention span in the two series is compared

Materials:
1. Tachistoscope
2. Cards having nonsense syllables (28 cards ranging from 3 to 9 letters
each group containing 4 cards).
3. Words (52 cards ranging from 3 to 15 cards each group containing 4
cards).
4. Writing materials
5. Wooden screen

Procedure:
The subject is seated comfortably 2-3 ft. away from of the tachistoscope. The
tachistoscope is kept in such a way that its aperture is directly in front of the
subject's eye. The subject is asked to look at the aperture while taking the
experiment. The experimenter will stand by the side of the tachistoscope. Cards
are kept behind a screen so that the subject will not able to see it.
I series: Nonsense syllables: The falling door of the tachistoscope is to be
lifted up. The first card from the nonsense syllables lot (3 letter words) is placed
in box provided behind the slit. The subject is given the following instructions.
"Please keep looking at the aperture. With the ready signal, I will expose a
series of cards having a few letters through this slit at a speed, approximately
1/10 of a second. You have to observe it carefully and immediately after each
exposure, you have to write the letters that you have seen there. In this same
manner I shall expose a series of cards continuously. You have to keep
reproducing the same after each exposure" With this instructions the
experimenter will expose the card one after the other from the same group ie. 3

43
letters X 4 cards, 4 Letters X 4 Cards, 5 letters X 4 cards and so on. After each
card is exposed, the experimenter has to assign 1 mark for a correct letter
written in the correct order. Half a mark is assigned for a correct letter in a
wrong order and zero mark for incorrect letter in any order. This procedure is
followed for all the four cards of the same group, i.e, 3 letter cards, 4 letter
cards, and 5 letter cards and so on. As and when all the four cards of one group
are, presented the experimenter has to find out the total of all the four cards of
that group and find out the percentage of the same. For example, if the subject
correctly reproduces all the four cards of The three letters lot, his total will be 3
X4 = 12 and his percentage will be 12/12 x100=100 and if he gets a total of 9,
his percentage will be 9/12x100=75. All the cards will the presented in the same
manner. When the subject fails to get 75% in two consecutive series (I.e. if he
fails in both 3 & 4, or 4 & 5, or 5 & 6 etc) the experiment should be stopped. If
a subject fails to get 75% marks in both 4 letters and 5 letters, his span of
attention for nonsense syllables will be 3.

Series II: meaningful words: The above procedure of presentation is

followed in this series also. However the cards up to 15 letters will be exposed
to the subject on successful reproduction by the subject.
The following table may be followed while calculating the percentages
No. of 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
letters
No. of 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
cards
Maxim 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 6
um 0
75% 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 4
5

Precautions:
1. The subject should not be familiar with the cards used in the first Series.

2. The cards have to be inserted in the box provided behind the aperture
after the shutter goes up and should be removed before lifting the Shutter
up. Otherwise the subject will see the card twice. The subject should not
see the card for more than 1/10 of a second.

44
 3. Calculations have to be made after all the cards of each lot are exposed.

After every 10 or 20 trials the subject may be asked to close his eyes and relax

Analysis of results:
The span of attention is determined for non-sense syllables and words
separately.

Discussion:
Aim: To determine if the visual span of attention for meaningful words is greater
than it is for nonsense syllable

Table 1; Showing the span of attention of the participant for nonsense

syllables and meaningful word.

Name Nonsense syllables Meaningful words

HTN 8 15

The experiment was conducted on a 20 heat old male studying for the Bachelor
of Arts degree in St Joseph's College (Autonomous) .

Looking at the table it can be seen that the subject has scored 8 in the nonsense
syllables and 15 in the meaningful words. Thus, the subject proves the
hypothesis i.e. the visual span of attention for meaningful words is greater than
it is for nonsense syllables.

Conclusion
The subject HTN proves the hypothesis I.e the visual span of attention for
meaningful words is greater than it is for nonsense syllables.

45
References

Tiwari, K. S., Khamari, J., & Sahu, N. (2014). A comparison on the span of attention with meaningful
and no meaningful words. Journal of Research and Method in Education (IOSR-JRME), 4(1), 33-7.

Barrouillet, P., Gavens, N., Vergauwe, E., Gaillard, V., & Camos, V. (2009). Working memory span
development: a time-based resource-sharing model account. Developmental psychology, 45(2), 477

Experiment 8

Ishiharas color blind test

46
Introduction

In general, we are able to see and respond to different colors and colored objects
in the environment sound us. This perception of colors and colored objects is
very important to deal with our environment effectively and efficiently.
Unfortunately, some of us can see various hues but have certain difficulties to
distinguish the various shades of a color. This is known as color weakness.
There are some others who (very few) are incapable of perceiving any color.
For them. The hues on the spectrum are nothing but e series of gray with
varying brightness. These people are called totally color blind. Though these
people cannot perceive colors, they can distinguish one from the other in terms
of varying brightness of the colors. Though color blinds are few, totally blind
are very rare. So, the large majority of this small group is either red or green
blind or blue and yellow blind, or blind for any one color. Among these, red and
green blinds are more common than blue and yellow blinds

Color blindness is mostly hereditary and it is a sex-linked trait. So, color blinds
are more among men than among women. Some theorists hold the view that
color blindness is due to the absence of corresponding photo-chemical
substance in the retina. It is also caused by over indulgence in tobacco and some
drugs

Various tests have been developed to test color blindness; some of them are (1)
color mixing test; (2) spectrometer test. (3) Ishihara color blindness test; (4)
Stillings pseudoisochromatic tables; (5) Holmgren’s wool test; (6) Edridge-
Green lantern test and (7) Nagel card test. In the present experiment we are
using Ishihara color blindness test

Color blindness tests are used in the selection of motor drivers, pilots, engine
drivers, railway guards, painters and in certain industries such as textile
industries (coloring section) and paper industries. Selection of people with color
blindness for such jobs may lead to certain consequences.

Review of literature

47
An experiment was conducted by Hatem M Marey and Noura A
Semary on Ishiharas electronic color blindness test.so for the
experiment two hundred and sixty seven volunteers have been
checked using both traditional Ishihara plates and a computer
diagnosis program using LCD monitors. The results suggested that
the prevalence of red green color vision deficiency was 8.75% of male
participants, no female participants were diagnosed, both in the paper
based test, and in the computer based test . Computer based test gave
100% sensitivity and 98.78% specificity. Presenting the computer
based color deficiency test software on LCD screen can be used for
screening of color vision deficiency with nearly similar sensitivity and
specificity to the Ishihara test with the advantage reducing the cost
through decreasing required resources over time, and decreasing the
time to analyze results.

An experiment was conducted by Mehmet Citrik and Golge Acaroglu

on cogential color blindness in young Turkish men. For the
experiment, they randomly selected recruits from different regions of
turkey and were about to be enlisted into the Turkish army. Ishiharas
test for color blindness was used to examine the subjects ability to
recognize certain numbers in 17 plates. The test was utilized by an
ophthalmologist in the same room with sufficient indirect daylight
during morning hours. Plates were viewed binocularly at a distance of
50 centimetres . So the findings suggested that 941 healthy men from
Turkish army were tested for cogential red green color blindness was
7.33. These ratios were higher than other reported samples from
Mediterranean Europe.

Problem:
To assess the color vision deficiency using the Ishihara color blindness test .

48
Materials:
1. Ishihara color blindness test (1 to 24 plates)
2. Manual of instructions, with key and norms
3. Stop-watch
4. Writing materials

(Ishihara test consists of 38 color plates. 26 plates have some numerals for
participant to read and the remaining 13 plates have some outlines to be
traced by the participant with their hand. The latter 13 plates are to be used
only in the case of participants who cannot read numbers).

Plan and procedure:

Seat the participant comfortably on a chair, in front of a table on which plates
are to be displayed. The plates are to be held in such a way that the illumination
falls on the plate uniformly

Instructions:

With the signal ready I will show you a few plates one by one. Observe each
plate attentively and report the number printed on it after seeing each plate. You
will also have to write your introspective report regarding the plates you read
easily and the plates you read with difficulty.
With the above instructions, say ready and hold the plate at a distance of 75 cms
from the participants eyes. Tilt the plate so that the plane of the plate is at right
angles to the line of the vision. The correct position is indicated on each plate at
the back by the number. Allow 3 seconds to read the number on the plate. Note
down the number reported by the participant against the serial number of the
plate in a note book. Follow the same procedure with respect to the remaining
20 plates. At the end check the answer of the participant with reference to the
key in the manual.

Precautions:

49
 1. This test must be administered in broad day light or in electric light which
matches the day light.
2. The plates should not be held beyond 75 cms away from the participant’s eye
or very close to his eyes.
3. Duration of exposure must be constant throughout

Analysis of the Results:

1. Find out how many plates are read out correctly by the participant

2. If the correct number of answers varies between 14 and 16, the participant
must be further tested with other color vision test to decide whether the
participant is color blind or not.
3. If 17 or more plates are read correctly, the color vision is regarded as normal.
4. If 13 or less than 13 plates are read correctly the color vision is regarded as
deficient.
5. If plates 18, 19, 20 and 21 are read as 5, 2, 45 and 73 are read easier than
those numerals on plates 14, 10, 13, and 17, the participant is considered to have
color vision blindness.
6. If the correct answers vary from 14 to 16 plates, then the participant is to be
tested further by other color vision test to confirm.

Table 1: Showing the number of correct responses given by the participant

on Ishihara’s test for color deficiency

NAME NUMBER OF CORRECTRESPONSES INTERPRETATION

SA 20 No color blindness

50
Discussion

Looking at the table it can be said that the subject has no color
blindness as the subject scores 20 and a score of 17 and more than
that is considered as no color blindness

Conclusion

The color vision of the subject is normal as the subject got a score
more than 17 which is regarded as no color blindness.

References
Marey, H. M., Semary, N. A., & Mandour, S. S. (2015). Ishihara electronic
color blindness test: An evaluation study. Ophthalmology Research: An
International Journal, 67-75
Citirik, M., Acaroglu, G., Batman, C., & Zilelioglu, O. (2005). Congenital color
blindness in young Turkish men. Ophthalmic epidemiology, 12(2), 133-137

51