TRANSNATIONAL CRIME

CYBERCRIME

Basics of computing

A computer system could be a desktop or laptop computer. However, mobile phones, tablet computers,
and Internet of things ( IoT) devices, which are Internet-connected devices (e.g., home appliances and
smartwatches) that are interconnected and interoperable and facilitate the monitoring of objects, people,
animals, and/or plants, and the sharing of information about them in order to provide the users of these
devices with some form of service (Maras, 2015; for more information about the IoT, among many other
devices, can also be considered computer systems. The definitions for a computer system vary. For
example, Article 1(a) of the Council of Europe's Convention on Cybercrime of 2001, defines a computer
system as "any device or a group of interconnected or related devices, one or more of which, pursuant to
a program, performs automatic processing of data" (for guidance on the notion of a "computer system"
included in the Convention, see Cybercrime Convention Committee, 2012). In contrast, Article 1 of
the African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection of 2014, defines a
computer system as "an electronic, magnetic, optical, electrochemical, or other high speed data
processing device or a group of interconnected or related devices performing logical, arithmetic, or
storage functions, and includ[ing] any data storage facility or communications facility directly related to or
operating in conjunction with such device or devices."

Note
Here we are trying to establish the basics of computing. The aim is for your students to have a basic
understanding of the engineering side of computing (how computers work), but also how different legal
systems define computer systems.

Computer systems tend to process data. Article 2(3) of the Arab League's (formerly known as the League
of Arab States) Arab Convention on Combating Information Technology Offences of 2010, defines data as
"all that may be stored, processed, generated and transferred by means of information technology, such
as numbers, letters, symbols, etc." Other terms have been used to refer to data: Article 1(b) of the Council
of Europe's Convention on Cybercrime uses the term "computer data" ("any representation of facts,
information or concepts in a form suitable for processing in a computer system, including a program
suitable to cause a computer system to perform a function"); Article 1 of the African Union Convention on
Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection of 2014, includes the term "computerized data," which has
almost the same definition of data as the one included in the Council of Europe's Convention on
Cybercrime of 2001 ("any representation of facts, information or concepts in a form suitable for
processing in a computer system"); and Article 1(b) of the Commonwealth of Independent
States' Agreement on Cooperation in Combating Offences related to Computer Information of 2001 that
uses the term "computer information" ("information stored in a computer's memory or in a
machine-readable or other storage medium in a format that can be read by a computer, or transmitted via
communications channels").

Most of the computer systems we are familiar with store data. For example, a smartphone can create a
picture with a built-in camera (data processing), and it can also save the picture for later access (data
storage). Data is normally stored in an internal, persistent memory called a hard drive.

Those responsible for the provision of services relating to a computer system are known as service
providers. Article 2(2) of the Arab Convention on Combating Information Technology Offences of 2010
defines a service provider as "any natural or juridical person, common or private, who provides
subscribers with the services needed to communicate through information technology, or who processes
or stores information on behalf of the communication service or its users."

The Internet in home computers and mobile phones are provided by Internet service providers (ISPs).
The ISP has computer systems that can send and receive data to/from computers or phones. A computer
network is created when two or more computers can send and receive data between each other.
Think about your email. If you use email, you probably open a browser and connect to a website. After
logging in, you can send and receive emails. You probably do not own this website; another organization
does. That organization is providing an email service, and can be considered a type of service provider.
Note that access to the Internet and access to your email are very different services.

This brings us to traffic data, defined by Article 1(d) of the Council of Europe's Convention on
Cybercrime of 2001 as "any computer data relating to a communication by means of a computer system,
generated by a computer system that formed a part in the chain of communication, indicating the
communication's origin, destination, route, time, date, size, duration, or type of underlying service."
Earlier, we talked about computer data as data that is stored or processed by a computer system. Traffic
data is data that is transmitted over a computer network (or network).

Think about your email again. You write your email and then 'send' the message to the recipient.
The data in the email is sent through a network until it reaches its destination. Traffic data is any data that
is needed for the email to reach its destination.

A good example is a telephone. Imagine you wanted to call your friend. You and your friend would both
need phones, and you would both need phone numbers. Your service provider would lease you a phone
number and network access, as long as you paid your phone bill. You would then need to know your
friend's phone number to make the call. After you and your friend have a working service AND know each
other's numbers, THEN you can communicate. The same is basically true for computer networks.
When you want to access a website, you type a domain name (e.g., yahoo.com) in an Internet (or web)
browser (e.g., Google, Bing). This domain name can be resolved (i.e., mapped) to one or more Internet
Protocol addresses (or IP address), "a unique identifier assigned to a computer [or other
Internet-connected digital device] by the Internet service provider when it connects to the Internet"
(Maras, 2014, p. 385). The Domain Name System (DNS) enables Internet access by translating domain
names to IP address.

Global connectivity and technology usage trends

There are very few places on Earth where you cannot access the Internet. Most countries have at least
one Internet service provider that provides a network infrastructure (hardware such as equipment, cables,
and wireless access) to major cities. Even in areas with no local Internet service providers, global satellite
networks can provide Internet access to remote areas.

Broadband technology in developing countries is slow, resulting in the populations of these countries
using mobile technology to access the Internet (Statista, 2018). Because of the availability of Internet
services through mobile devices, Internet use has been consistently growing (Statista, 2018).
Smartphones are becoming less expensive with more features, and mobile service providers are
providing more reliable Internet over less-expensive cellular networks. This is contributing to increased
Internet penetration rates in many countries. 2016 was the first year in which mobile device access made
up the majority of worldwide Internet usage (Statcounter, 2016).

The Internet penetration rate refers to "the percentage of the total population of a given country or region
that uses the Internet" (IGI Global, n.d.). As of September 2017, the global Internet penetration rate is
estimated at 51% (Statista, 2018). Accordingly, approximately one half of the world's population has
access to the Internet and the capacity to use the Internet (see Figure 1 for a breakdown of the Internet
penetration rate by region).
Figure 1

Source: Statista (2018). Global internet penetration rate as of September 2017, by region.

As connections to the Internet become more reliable and more people connect, more important services
tend to be provided online. For example, Internet connectivity is very fast and very reliable in South
Korea. As of 2018, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) estimates that
South Korea has a 99.5% household Internet penetration rate. With so many people connected, the
Korean Government and businesses are offering more services online. For example, if you receive a
speeding ticket (automatically from an Internet-connected speed camera), you can check a government
website to view your speeding ticket information. You can then pay your ticket instantly through an online
bank transfer. The process can be completely paperless. In some cases, there are fewer
supported offline government services than online services.
China is currently experiencing a similar situation to a higher degree. According to the 41st Statistical
Report on Internet Development in China released in January 2018, as of the "end of December 2017,
the number of Internet users in China reached 772 million, with an increase of 40.74 million from the end
of 2016. The Internet penetration reached 55.8%, up 2.6 percentage points from the end of 2016. […] The
number of mobile Internet users in China reached 753 million, an increase of 57.34 million from the end of
2016" (p. 7). Internet services such as instant messaging, online payment, online shopping, online
take-out, or online travel booking are accessed by hundreds of millions of users. Apps such as WeChat
(an instant messaging tool) and Alipay (a third-party payment tool) have become essential apps for
almost every smartphone. Mobile devices, mobile Internet, and these apps are so popular that
government services, payments, investments, public and private transportation and many other services
are fully integrated in the application (Kessel and Mozur, n.d.). With critical services increasingly being
offered online - at times, accompanied by a reduction of offline services, there is also more opportunity to
abuse technology and to commit crime.

Cybercrime in brief

There is no universally accepted definition of cybercrime. However, the following definition includes
elements common to existing cybercrime definitions. Cybercrime is an act that violates the law, which is
perpetrated using information and communication technology (ICT) to either target networks, systems,
data, websites and/or technology or facilitate a crime (e.g., Goodman, and Brenner, 2002; Wall, 2007;
Wilson, 2008; ITU, 2012; Maras, 2014; Maras, 2016). Cybercrime differs from traditional crime in that it
"knows no physical or geographic boundaries" and can be conducted with less effort, greater ease, and at
greater speed than traditional crime (although this depends on the type of cybercrime and type of crime it
is being compared to) (Maras, 2014; for information about different types of cybercrime, see Cybercrime
Module 2 on General Types of Cybercrime).

Europol (2018) differentiates cybercrime into cyber-dependent crimes (i.e., "any crime that can only be
committed using computers, computer networks or other forms of information communication
technology;" McGuire and Dowling, 2013, p. 4; Europol, 2018, p. 15) and cyber-enabled crimes (i.e.,
traditional crimes facilitated by the Internet and digital technologies). The key distinction between these
categories of cybercrime is the role of ICT in the offence - whether it is the target of the offence or part of
the modus operandi (or M.O.; i.e., method of operation) of the offender (UNODC, 2013, p. 15). When ICT
is the target of the offence, this cybercrime negatively affects the confidentiality, integrity and/or availability
of computer data or systems (UNODC, 2013). Confidentiality, integrity and availability make up what is
known as the "CIA Triad" (Rouse, 2014): put simply, private information should stay private, it should not
be changed without permission from the owner, and data, services, and systems should be accessible to
the owner at all times. When the ICT is part of the M.O., the cybercrime involves a traditional crime (e.g.,
fraud and theft) facilitated in some way by the Internet and digital technologies. These categories and the
types of cybercrime that fall under them are explored in greater detail in Cybercrime Module 2 on General
Types of Cybercrime.

Cybercrime can be perpetrated by individuals, groups, businesses, and nation-states. While these actors
may use similar tactics (e.g., using malicious software) and attack similar targets (e.g., a computer
system), they have different motives and intent for committing cybercrimes (Wall, 2007). Various studies
of cybercrimehave been conducted (see, for example, studies published by Deviant Behavior and the
International Journal of Cyber Criminology). These studies have examined cybercrime through the lens of
psychology, sociology, and criminology, as well as other academic disciplines (Jaishankar, 2011; Chapter
11, Holt, Bossler, and Seigfried-Spellar, 2018; see also Chapters 5-9, Maras, 2016, for a review of
cybercrime studies from multiple disciplines). Some literature explains criminals' actions as an outcome of
rational and free choice, while other literature considers criminality as a product of internal and/or external
forces (see, for example, key and classical works on criminology included in Mclaughlin and Muncie,
2013; see also Organized Crime Module 6 on Causes and Facilitating Factors of Organized Crime, for
information about some of these theories). Other works have examined the role of "space" in cybercrime,
particularly the role of online spaces and online communities in the cultural transmission of criminal and/or
delinquent values (Evans, 2001; see also Chapter 6, Maras, 2016). These scientific studies on cybercrime
seek to shed light on the impact of cybercrime, "the nature and extent of cybercrime, assess reactions to
cybercrime and the implications of these reactions, and evaluate the efficacy of existing methods used in
the control, mitigation, and prevention of cybercrime" (Maras, 2016, p. 13).

Cybercrime trends

Regional and international law enforcement agencies (e.g., Europol and INTERPOL), and regional
organizations (e.g., the African Union and Organization of American States) publish information about
cybercrime and cybersecurity trends. Cybercrime trends can also be identified from annual reports on
and/or data analysed from various official crime measurement tools and victimization surveys: for
example, the National Incident-Based Reporting System (e.g., the United States); General Social
Survey (Canada); Crime Survey for England and Wales (England and Wales). These crime measurement
tools and victimization surveys vary based on the types of cybercrime data collected and analysed, and
the methods used in collecting and analysing data.

Did you know?

The African Union, the United States, and Symantec are part of the Global Forum for Cybersecurity
Expertise (GFCE) Initiative, which published its first cybercrime and cybersecurity trends report in 2017.
Find out more.

Other agencies also publish reports on cybercrime and cybersecurity trends, for example, see
Europol, Trends and Routes.

Cybersecurity businesses and other private organizations that focus on security, business risk and and/or
threat analysis around the world publish cybercrime and/or cybersecurity trend reports based on historical
cybersecurity incidents, and their types, frequency and impact. For example, in 2018, ransomware was
identified as a cybercrime trend by TrendMicro (TrendMicro, 2018). With this form of cybercrime,
computer systems are infected with malicious code ( malware) and the data within them are made
unavailable and inaccessible to owners and/or legitimate users until a fee is paid to the cybercriminal.
While ransomware attacks are not new, the number, frequency, intensity, and reach of these attacks has
increased. Perpetrators of this type of cybercrime initially targeted individuals and requested small sums
of money, then began to target businesses, companies, and organizations, and ultimately, others in the
private and public sectors that provide critical services (e.g., hospitals). An example of the latter is the
2017 WannaCry ransomware attack that affected approximately 150 countries (Reuters, 2017), including
more than 80 NHS [(National Health Service)] "organisations in England alone, resulting in almost 20,000
cancelled appointments, 600 GP surgeries having to return to pen and paper, and five hospitals simply
diverting ambulances, unable to handle any more emergency cases" (Hern, 2017). Europol's 2017
Internet Organised Crime Threat Assessment also identified ransomware as a cybercrime trend.

Note
The reliability of the data used to identify trends also varies by agency and organization. A conflict of
interest may exist in the reporting on trends if companies sell cybersecurity products that could be used
by the public to protect against the cybercrimes identified as trends.

With the advent of new technologies (e.g., Internet of things, drones, robots, self-driving cars), new
cybercrime trends will be identified. What is more, as the 2017 Internet Organised Crime Threat
Assessment by Europol revealed, law enforcement and security measures impact cybercrime and the
tactics, tools and targets of cybercriminals. These measures, therefore, will also influence and impact
future cybercrime trends.

Technical Challenges

There are several technical reasons that make fighting cybercrime difficult. The first is attribution (for
further information, see Cybercrime Module 5 on Cybercrime Investigation). Any computer that is
connected to the Internet can communicate with any other computer connected to the Internet. Normally,
we can see a computer's public IP address (Cisco, 2016) when that computer connects to our computer.
The IP address is a generally globally-unique number that lets us identify which country and Internet
service provider the computer is connecting from. The problem is that there are many ways for an
attacker to hide their IP address, or even pretend to be connecting from a different IP address. What is
more, criminals can use a variety of tools to evade detection by law enforcement agencies and obscure
access and hide darknet sites (for more information about these tools and the darknet, see
Cybercrime Module 5 on Cybercrime Investigation).

The second technical issue deals with software. Computer programmes are software. The apps on your
phone or tablet are software. The services you connect to on the Internet, like a website, is also software.
Very often software has vulnerabilities (Securelist, 2018). A vulnerability could be a problem in a
programme or a misconfiguration that allows an attacker to do something they should not be able to do
(like downloading customer credit card information).

Software companies may not easily detect vulnerabilities, especially those involving large software
projects that change often. Sometimes attackers find a vulnerability before the company that makes the
software (i.e., a zero-day vulnerability; for more information, see Zetter, 2014). According to Bilge and
Dumitras (2012), "while the vulnerability remains unknown, the software affected cannot be patched and
anti-virus products cannot detect the attack through signature-based scanning" (p. 1). The company
becomes aware of this type of vulnerability when it is exploited by cybercriminals to attack the
confidentiality, integrity or availability of software, and users of the software.

In 2017, Equifax - a US credit reporting service - lost "sensitive personal data" on 143 million Americans
because of a software vulnerability (Timberg, et al., 2017). This vulnerability was exploited for three
months, until it was fixed. Vulnerabilities leading to data loss are relatively common, even for major
organizations because it is difficult to properly create, configure and secure digital systems.

Another technical challenge is virtualized information technology infrastructure (e.g., cloud). When an
organization's infrastructure is moved into a cloud, it implies that
● The company shifts part of the cybersecurity responsibility to the cloud provider (e.g., physical
system security, data centre security);
● When breaches happen, the company has to work with the cloud provider to investigate the
incidents, which may further lead to technical and legal challenges (legal challenges of cloud data
Legal Challenges.
●
Cybercrime is a transnational crime and perpetrators and victims can be located anywhere in the world
with an Internet connection. Because of this, cybercrime investigators often require access to and the
sharing of data across borders. This can be accomplished if the data sought is retained by service
providers and existing measures are in place that enable law enforcement agencies to access data. The
main legal challenges to investigating cybercrime and prosecuting cybercriminals are: the different legal
systems between countries; variations in national cybercrime laws; differences in the rules of evidence
and criminal procedure (e.g., the process by which law enforcement authorities can access digital
evidence; for example, with or without a legal order, such as a search warrant); variations in the scope
and geographic applicability of regional and multilateral cybercrime treaties; and differences in
approaches to data protection and respect for human rights.

Ethical Challenges

Law enforcement agencies should legally and ethically investigate crime (and cybercrime) handle,
analyse, and interpret evidence. Beyond law enforcement, ethical challenges arise in individuals, groups,
companies, organizations, and governments' use of information and communication technology (ICT). For
example, ethical conduct using ICT involves refraining from harming others, systems, and data, and
respecting the rule of law and human rights (for more information on the importance of integrity and
ethics, please see also the E4J University Module Series on Integrity and Ethics). The Cambridge
Analytica revelations brought home the lesson that attention needed to be paid to ethical issues involving
data collection and use on social media platforms. Specifically, the media revealed that the data firm
Cambridge Analytica
paid to acquire Facebook users' personal information through an outside researcher, Aleksandr Kogan,
who created a data-harvesting personality quiz app that told users (in fine print) that it was collecting the
information for academic purposes - a claim Facebook did not verify and was not true. Although only
305,000 people participated in the quiz and consented to having their data harvested, their friends also
had their profiles scraped, bringing the estimated number of those affected to 87 million (AMA, 2018).

The Cambridge Analytica incident revealed unethical behaviour on the part of those responsible for the
copious amounts of data harvested on individuals and used in a manner unanticipated by users who
agreed to provide (some) information and in unauthorized ways for those who never consented to have
any of their information collected and used in the first place. Even if what Cambridge Analytica and others
involved did is not considered illegal, their actions are unethical (for information about differences and
relationship between ethics and law.

Operational Challenges

One key operational challenge with cybercrime investigations is related to cooperation with other
countries. International cooperation on cybercrime investigations require harmonized laws between
cooperating countries. Tools such as mutual legal assistance treaties (i.e., agreements whereby parties
agree to cooperate in investigations and prosecutions of offences criminalized under their national laws;
Garcia & Doyle 2010; Maras, 2016) can be used to make formal requests for assistance from one country
to another. However, requests for international support can take a long time, and may not produce usable
results, such as preventing the crime or producing evidence for use in court.

Cybercrime prevention

Cybercriminals often use both technical and social approaches to commit crime. Some types of
cybercrime are difficult to prevent, however, technology users can take certain actions to protect
themselves (to an extent) from cybercrime.

Europol (2018) provides numerous public awareness and prevention guides on its website. However,
even small actions can make a big difference. Below are some tips to consider when accessing the
Internet.
● Keep your operating system and installed software up-to-date
● Regularly uninstall software that you no longer use
● Use an anti-virus programme from a reputable company
● Do not download software, movies or music from sharing sites - these very often have malware
● Do not download attachments or click on links from senders you do not recognize
● Do not enter personal information in unknown websites
● Confirm the correct website when entering financial information

References

American Marketing Association. (2018). The Murky Ethics of Data Gathering in a Post-Cambridge
Analytica World. The Medium, 31 May 2018.

Asia-Pacific Network Information Center (APNIC). (2018). WDNS01: DNS Concepts. Workshop.

Bilge, Leyla and Tudor Dumitras. (2012). Before We Knew It: An Empirical Study of Zero-Day Attacks in
The Real World. Proceedings of the 2012 ACM conference on Computer and communications security.

China Internet Network Information Center. (2018). The 41st Statistical Report on Internet Development in
China (January 2018).
Cisco. (2016). IP Addressing and Subnetting for New Users.
Council of Europe. (2001). Convention on Cybercrime. Budapest.

Cybercrime Convention Committee (2012). T-CY Guidance Note # 1. On the notion of computer system.
Article 1(a) Budapest Convention on Cybercrime. Adopted by the T-CY at its 8th Plenary (December
2012).

Directorate General For Internal Policies Policy Department C: Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs
(2015). The Law Enforcement Challenges of Cybercrime: Are we really catching up?

Europol. (2017). Internet Organised Crime Threat Assessment 2017

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Europol. (2018). Internet Organised Crime Threat Assessment 2018.

Europol. (2018). Public Awareness and Prevention Guides.

Europol. (2011). Cybercrime Presents a Major Challenge for Law Enforcements.

Fisher, Tim. (2018). Free and Public DNS Servers. Lifewire.

Garcia, Michael John and Doyle, Charles. (2010). Extradition to and from the United States: Overview of
the Law and Recent Treaties. Congressional Research Service 7-5700.

Goodman, Marc D. and Brenner, Susan W. (2002). The Emerging Consensus on Criminal Conduct in
Cyberspace. International Journal of Law and Information Technology, Vol. 10, No. 2, 139-223.

Hern, Alex. (2017). WannaCry, Petya, NotPetya: how ransomware hit the big time in 2017. The Guardian,
30 December 2017.

Holt, Thomas, J., Adam M. Bossler, and Kathryn C. Seigfried-Spellar. (2018). Cybercrime and Digital
Forensics, 2nd edition. Routledge.

IGI Global. (n.d.) What is the penetration rate.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU). (2012). Understanding cybercrime: Phenomena, challenges

and legal response.

Jaishankar, K. (Ed.). Cyber criminology: Exploring Internet crimes and criminal behavior. CRC Press.
Kessel, J. M. and Mozur, P. (2016). How China Is Changing Your Internet. New York Times.

Krocker, Rachel. (2013). An Internet Connection does not equal Internet access. ICT Works.

Lee, Seung-ho. (2013). Cybercrime sleuths have highly intricate challenges.

Maras, Marie-Helen. (2014). Computer Forensics: Cybercriminals, Laws and Evidence,second edition.
Jones and Bartlett.

Maras, Marie-Helen. (2016). Cybercriminology. Oxford University Press.

Maras, Marie-Helen. (2015). The Internet of Things: Security and Privacy Implications. International Data
Privacy Law, Vol. 5(2), 99-104.

McGuire, Mike and Dowling, Samantha. (2013). Cyber crime: A review of the evidence. Research Report
75, Chapter 1: Cyber-dependent crimes.
OECD. (2018). Data: Internet access.

Reuters. (2017). Cyber attack hits 200,000 in at least 150 countries: Europol. Reuters, 14 May 2017.
Rouse, Margaret. (2014). Confidentiality, integrity and availability (CIA Triad). TechTarget.

Securelist. (2018). Software vulnerabilities. Kaspersky Lab.

Statcounter. (2016). Mobile and tablet internet usage exceeds desktop for first time worldwide.
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Statista. (2018). Global internet penetration rate as of September 2017, by region.

Timberg, Craig, Elizabeth Dowskin, Brian Fung. (2017). Data of 143 million Americans exposed in hack of
credit reporting agency Equifax. The Washington Post.

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2017.

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 TRANSNATIONAL CRIME
TERRORISM
A brief history of terrorism
In terms of targeting, many of the tactical means and methods of modern terrorism have, until relatively
recently, followed those utilized between States in their armed conflicts inter se. It has been argued
specifically that, a century ago, terrorist codes on targeting victims closely resembled professional military
codes, in that they respected the distinction between soldiers and officials on the one hand, and innocent
civilians on the other (e.g., the targeted assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June
1914) (Walzer, 1977, pp. 197-234). This was the case from approximately the mid-nineteenth century
onwards, when increasingly industrialized weaponry facilitated a lack of targeting, in the sense that killing
the enemy became more indiscriminate and deadly. The industrialized and indiscriminate means and
methods of warfare utilized during the two "total wars" of the twentieth century (e.g., in widespread
disregard of the principle of distinction) effectively taught those who would become post-war revolutionary
terrorists, and who also would adopt more irregular weapons and forms of fighting, such as urban guerrilla
warfare. In the contemporary world, indiscriminate weaponry (e.g., high-level bombing capacities,
weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), and so on) is a recurring feature.
In terms of terrorist strategy, a useful way to conceptualize the evolution of modern terrorism as a resort
to revolutionary violence is provided by David Rapoport's influential concept of the "waves" of terrorism (
'The Four Waves of Terrorism'). For example, one wave is the late nineteenth century/early twentieth
century "anarchist wave". Another is the "anti-colonial wave" (starting with the post-World War I political
principle of self-determination, e.g., the Aaland Islands arbitration in 1921, and its violent evolution into a
legal right after World War II, examples being the Algerian Civil War and the Vietnam War).
In turn, the tactics employed in each of these waves often mirrored those utilized between States during
armed conflict, not least because demobilized soldiers throughout the ages have returned to their homes
at the end of a war fully trained tactically to utilize force, while the name of each terrorist wave reflects its
dominant strategic goals. The wave theory further reflects that terrorist groups rise and fall, that they can
dissolve when no longer capable of inspiring others to continue with violent resistance to authority, to
violently redress one or other grievance, or to protest violently against a lack of political concessions. This
point also suggests that terrorism and its motivations are clearly impacted by the conditions of and
changes in social and political cultures.
In contrast, Parker and Sitter (2016) posit that violent terrorist situations occur around the world not so
much in waves, but because terrorist actors are motivated differentially through four goal-oriented strains:
socialism, nationalism, religious extremism or exclusionism. These underlying motivators are not
chronologically sequential, i.e., one strain dies and a new one arises. Instead, they can work in parallel,
and can occasionally overlap, to motivate different terrorist movements according to their needs.
Such academic discourse offers a flavour of some of the discussions and debates that occur when
seeking to better comprehend or categorize "terrorist" groups. This University Module Series, however,
does not take a view regarding what the motivational factors of various non-State actors may or may not
be. These are issues that those teaching this or any other parts of this University Module Series may wish
to explore further within different contexts.

Terrorism in the nineteenth century

Modern terrorism can be traced back to nineteenth century revolutionary radicalism, and, in particular, the
emergence of "anarchist", "collectivist anarchist" and "anarcho-communist" groups. For example, from the
mid-nineteenth century onwards, groups led or influenced by the Frenchman Pierre-Joseph Proudhon,
author of What is Property? (1840), the German Karl Marx, and the Russian Mikhail Bakunin, were
promoting one or another anti-establishment model. Within a decade, similar groups had appeared
throughout Western Europe, the Balkans and Asia. The German revolutionary Karl Heinzen was the first
to articulate the use of violence, even mass murder, by individuals to effect political change in his
influential 1853 pamphlet, Mord und Freiheit, coining the term Freiheitskämpfer or "freedom fighter" in the
process. However, as these early radicals became disillusioned by their failure to provoke widespread
social revolution among the peasantry through traditional means such as distributing political pamphlets
and leaflets urging uprisings and riots to put government under pressure, they turned instead to violence
in the hope of forcing political reform and of undermining the State. In this way, "propaganda by the
deed", as a strategy for political action, became central to the politics of European anarchism (see for
example, Fleming, 1980).
The principal violent method of spreading terror utilized by virtually all such groups at the time was
targeted assassination, which not only carried with it serious personal risk but also the potential for
political martyrdom. The assassination of Czar Alexander II in 1881 by the Russian revolutionary group
Narodnaya Volya is emblematic of this period of terrorism. Targeted assassination could be differentiated
from ordinary criminal acts, because targeting persons acting in an official State capacity signified a deep,
personal commitment to a "cause that could inspire others, and epitomised the revolutionary 'code of
honour' by sparing innocent citizens". This arguably made terrorist assassination a more humane form of
violence than civil war, since the terrorist's targeted attack would strike only against State "oppressors",
and would help maintain the low casualty rate of terrorism that was also an advantage of the "propaganda
by the deed" strategy (Morozov, 1880, p. 106).
Technological developments in the mid and late nineteenth century also played a pivotal role in the rise of
terrorism. The ready availability of dynamite allowed terrorists to perpetrate and disseminate their deadly
acts more widely as propaganda by the deed. The development of mass communication technologies
allowed news, learning, ideas and events to be rapidly communicated across long distances, opening up
an era of mass communication and of migration that was crucial to inspiring groups elsewhere. The
invention of the telegraph and the steam-powered rotary press meant that newspapers could receive
messages almost instantly after transmission from around the world and gave millions of people access to
information about events virtually as soon as they occurred. New technologies, together with greater
access to educational opportunities, facilitated the migration of agricultural labourers and artisans to
urban centres. The development of commercial railways and trans-Atlantic passage steamers aided
groups to travel long distances, and to carry their political sympathies further afield.
Although the successful assassination of Czar Alexander II would initially inspire a wave of anarchist
violence that shook Europe and the Americas over the following decades (Zimmer, 2009), Russian rebels
encouraged and trained a variety of rebel groups who were emerging elsewhere, even when their political
aims were vastly different. While a narchists carried out bombings in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and
elsewhere, which at times turned into cycles of retribution between anarchists and the authorities
(Zimmer, 2009), Western States attempted to stem the tide through such legal mechanisms as
immigration controls and extradition treaties targeted against "undesirable aliens". These included a
protocol concerning measures to be taken against the anarchist movement, signed on behalf of nine
States in March 1904, and an administrative convention for the exchange of information concerning
individuals considered dangerous to society, signed in October 1905 (Hudson, 1941, p. 862). By the
mid-nineteenth century, many extradition treaties exempted fugitives accused of "political offences" or
"crimes of a political character" from extradition (Hannay, 1988, p. 116). Only the conservative regimes of
Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Naples persisted in advocating that ideologically similar nations should use
their extradition laws to help suppress each other's revolutionaries (Pyle, 1988, pp. 181-182).

On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a young Serbian nationalist and supporter of the clandestine Black
Hand group, which wished to bring about a Greater Serbia, assassinated the Archduke of Austria and heir
presumptive, Franz Ferdinand, and his wife, in Sarajevo. This event unleashed a "domino effect" of
defensive alliances developed in the pre-war years, leading to the "total war" of World War I, which
irrevocably changed the face of terrorism for the eras to come. By the end of the war, with the return of
fully-trained soldiers to their homes and families, the tactics and methods learned in "total war" between
1914 and1918 would continue to haunt States. As revolutionary politics at the local level continued to
simmer throughout the nineteenth century, the continued availability and use of "political offence"
exceptions as grounds upon which States might refuse requests by other States for the extradition of
persons suspected of having perpetrated violent offences for various ideological, religious or political
motives highlighted the difficulties associated with distinguishing criminal acts of terrorism from criminal
acts generally. These definitional issues have continued to the present day.

The League of Nations and terrorism

The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty between Germany and the Allied Powers that concluded World War I
precipitated the next phase in the development of modern terrorism. The Covenant of the League of
Nations (the League Covenant) redistributed former German and Turkish colonies and other
dependencies through the League mandate system, which was designed to ensure a "mild form of
international accountability for [their] administration" (Thullen, 1964, p. 9). Otherwise, standards to help
integrate minority peoples in the new States created after 1919, such as Yugoslavia, were also provided
for, and were intended to serve a peace-making function, while deterring transboundary alliances (Veatch,
1983/2010, p. 369). Nonetheless, protected common rights, such as the right to a nationality, the free
exercise of belief, employment and identity, and rights enshrined in the ideals of the mandate system and
policies on minorities did not apply to the peoples and minorities in the victorious States, which later were
instead the guarantors of peace and security as a whole, while the victors also presumably rejected the
notion of new colonial acquisitions when declining to annex former colonies and non-governing territories.
Overall, the Covenant system of mutual defence appeared to be designed to favour international security
concerns rather than those of the rule of law and international law, in the event of a conflict.

The twentieth century link between modern terrorism and the ideal of self-determination arose within the
competing ideologies of communist/socialist theory (Lenin, 1914/1972), and those reflected in a League
of Nations Covenant in which there is no express reference to the principle of self-determination. In
contrast to the rejection of all prior Czarist debts and obligations by the post-war revolutionary
Government of the Soviet Union, the United States, under the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, was a
strong proponent of the "peoplehood" principle of self-determination (Morgan, 1980, pp. 355-359).
However, Wilson did not hold sway on this concept of self-determination at the Versailles conference at
which the final version of the Covenant was agreed. In addressing the issue of self-determination, article
VI of the Wilson-Miller draft of the proposed League Covenant provided that:

The League of Nations shall require all new states to bind themselves, as a condition precedent to their
recognition as independent or autonomous states, to accord to all racial or national minorities within their
jurisdiction exactly the same treatment and security, both in law and in fact, that is accorded to the racial
or national majority of their people (Fawcett, 1979, p. 7).

Even so, such issues in the era of the League of Nations represented only a number of the factors to be
considered during the formation of new States, whether within the operational context of mechanisms to
attain statehood, or as a matter of self-help. When issues relating to self-determination arose early on in
the League's existence during the Aaland Islands dispute in 1920 between Sweden and Finland, the
League Council appointed the International Commission of Jurists to determine the matter. The
Commission concluded that the mere recognition of the principle of self-determination, as made out in a
number of treaties, did not create a positive rule of the law of nations (Wilson, 1988, p. 57). In part, this
was due to the Commission of Jurists’s apprehension about creating a precedent for secession, thereby
encouraging anarchy. However, a subsequent Committee of Inquiry refined this result by concluding that if
Finland failed to provide the islanders with certain specified guarantees, they would indeed have a right
under international law to a plebiscite, which could have resulted in separation from Finland. Nowadays,
the Aaland Islands solution is regarded as a precedent for successful international dispute settlement
(O'Brien, 2012).
In the meantime, the spate of terrorist assassinations continued. By the 1930s, several bilateral
agreements referred to the suppression of terrorism, and many extradition treaties contained clauses
excluding assassination attempts against Heads of State from the exempted list of political offences (e.g.,
Convention on Extradition 1933, article 3 (e)). The assassinations of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia and
the French Minister for Foreign Affairs together in Marseilles on 9 October 1934 brought matters to a
head, when the requested extradition of the persons accused was refused by Italy on the grounds that the
offences were political (Chadwick, 1996). In response, a Committee of Experts was established by the
League Council to draft a Convention on Terrorism for the establishment of an International Criminal
Court, which would have jurisdiction over certain acts specified as acts of terrorism in the Convention, and
which States Parties were obliged to criminalize within their national laws. Article 1(2) of the Terrorism
Convention defines "acts of terrorism" as "criminal acts directed against a state" (1937). Such acts must
be "intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons, or a group of
persons or the general public". The Convention is silent on the purpose of the fear generated (Chadwick,
1996).

Nonetheless, State and regional traditions of asylum, coupled with strong national sympathies, made any
differentiation between "terrorist" and "political" offences problematic, and the granting of asylum
remained possible then, as now. Moreover, the 1937 Terrorism Convention, as a creature of its time, had
no "international" criminal law to be grounded in, as reflected in article 19, which provides that:

The present Convention does not affect the principle that, provided the offender is not allowed to escape
punishment owing to an omission in the criminal law, the characterisation of the various offences dealt
with in the present Convention, the imposition of sentences, the methods of prosecution and trial, and the
rules as to mitigating circumstances, pardon and amnesty are determined in each country by the
provisions of domestic law.

Therefore, the law applicable to any criminal prosecution for acts established as offences under the
Convention was to be that of the referring, and thus, prosecuting, State. Unfortunately, World War II
erupted soon after, and neither convention entered into force.

The United Nations and terrorism

A recurring feature of discussions, debates and political sensitivities regarding terrorism during the
post-1945 United Nations era have related to issues of terror-violence by so-called "liberation fighters"
claiming to be utilizing "direct action" to pursue their right to the self-determination of peoples, as they
argued is provided for in the United Nations Charter (Treaty Series, vol. 1, no. XVI), articles 1(2) and 55
(see also 1941 Atlantic Charter). The Charter contextualizes the Organization's obligation to "develop
friendly relations" among nations (not "States") based on the principles of equal rights and the
self-determination of "peoples". Difficulties with and controversies regarding the practical operation of
equal rights and self-determination soon arose, including where national liberation agendas stretched far
beyond the narrow confines of the League of Nations mandate system and the protection of minorities. As
a consequence, conflicting interpretations of relevant Charter principles and provisions surrounding
self-determination quickly arose and have remained ever since.

This Module, as well as the University Module Series as a whole, does not attempt to comment on the
accuracy or otherwise of particular legal or political positions. Rather it seeks to provide an impartial
commentary on legal and interdisciplinary approaches to terrorism and counter-terrorism, by identifying
the existence of ongoing debates, where appropriate, in order to assist students in better comprehending
current approaches to the phenomenon of terrorism and current responses to it by States and
intergovernmental organizations, including the United Nations system. On issues such as
self-determination, including the ongoing "freedom fighter versus terrorist" conundrum, what is important
to understand is that these issues have been, continue and are likely to remain contentious and have
implications for issues such as the continuing inability of the international community to agree on a
universal definition of terrorism with law-making consequences.

In any event, many terrorist activities that have occurred during the post-1945 era have not been
associated with self-determination debates at all. Identified causes of terrorism have instead ranged
through the entire spectrum of human discontent, including the economic, political, social, psychological,
ideological, etc., with short or long-term goals, both objective and subjective, becoming the object of
violence (Whittaker, 2001, p. 33). In response, some in the international community, especially
academics, have sought to label terrorist groups according to their motivational goals or ideologies rather
than in terms of criminal acts, as is the approach within the United Nations system. Consequently,
students may come across the categorization of such groups within scholarship as "revolutionary",
"separatist", "ethnocentric", "nationalist" or "religious".

In terms of the use of violence and force by terrorists, this also ranges across a wide spectrum, from
individuals with military training and experience, to what Whittaker has termed "throw away" operatives,
who are effectively sent untrained on suicide missions. Their use of violence also illustrates the slow
evolution of terrorist tactics and strategies, including traditional assassination, bombings, arson,
hostage-taking, hijacking, kidnapping, sabotage, the perpetration of hoaxes and suicide bombings, to
name but a few (see, for example, Global Terrorism Index 2017 ). More recent tactics can include
unconventional forms of terrorism, including nuclear terrorism (for example, fabricating a dirty bomb,
attacking a nuclear reactor, etc.), high-tech terrorism involving cyber attacks, ecological terrorism (for
instance, the threat of destruction to the environment) and terrorist attacks aiming at destroying cultural
heritage, as perpetrated by ISIL (see, for example, the Executive Committee of the Commonwealth of
Independent States, 1999, article 1).
Of particular interest is the fact that such issues and debates have shaped the approach of the
international community to its universal anti-terrorism conventions so that they are framed around terrorist
acts as serious international crimes regardless of any underlying motivation. Broadly speaking,
anti-terrorism instruments were adopted roughly in three phases. Beginning with legislation covering the
safety of aviation and shipping, the early instruments were developed from the 1960s through to the early
1990s, and addressed specific types of terrorist offences. Notably, acts perpetrated during "liberation
conflicts" were expressly made exceptions to terrorist crimes, for example, the 1979 Hostages
Convention ( Treaty Series, vol. 1316, p. 205, adopted 17 December 1979, entered into force 3 June
1983), as such acts were to be dealt with under other areas of international law, such as international
humanitarian law. The most recent phase reflects the broadening, post-categorization of terrorist groups
and "causes", to include groups such as the Taliban, Al-Qaida and ISIL, and thus reflect the contemporary
terrorist threat to the international community. Within this latter phase, anti-terrorism instruments have
been developed that deal with new crimes associated with terrorist bombings (1997, Treaty Series, vol.
2149, p. 256), the financing of terrorism (1999, Treaty Series, vol. 2178, p. 197) and nuclear terrorism
(2005, Treaty Series, vol. 2445, p. 89).
the evolution and substantive content of United Nations anti-terrorism instruments in the Charter era will
be considered in more detail.

Terrorist victimization: victims of terrorism

Victimization can be understood as the action of singling someone out for cruel or unjust treatment. This
section explores terrorist victimization, for example, the factors that come into play when targeting the
future victims of a planned terrorist attack.
Terrorist attacks can be broadly categorized into two categories: focused and indiscriminate. Historically,
terrorism has largely fallen under the former category. As noted earlier, terrorist attacks were used as an
instrument for politically motivated action, which targeted specific members of governments or political
actors for the purposes of attaining a particular political aim (Schmid, 2006, p. 3; Turković, 2006, p. 55).
Such attacks involved some element of participation in the conflict, albeit indirectly, between the terrorist
group and the adversary. However, contemporary terrorism is characterized by an increasing frequency
and magnitude of indiscriminate violence. Victims of terrorist attacks are not usually specifically selected
on the basis of their individual characteristics, but are "chance" victims who happen to be in the wrong
place at the wrong time. These victims serve as an instrument designed to influence third party actors
(Šeparović, 2006, p. 20). It is partly this element of unpredictability and randomness of victim selection
that gives terrorism its modern power-"a power enhanced manifold by the media's display and replay of
acts of victimization" (Schmid, 2006, p. 9). This evolution of the focus of terrorism reflects a shift from
individual terror to a dimension of mass murder and psychological warfare (Schmid, 2006, p. 9). In this
sense, terrorism attempts to coerce a population and/or its leadership by inciting fear of being hurt
(Šeparović, 2006, p. 21).

Primary (direct) victims of terrorist acts or campaigns

Those who are killed by terrorist kidnappers, hostage-takers, gunmen or bombers.
Those who are injured, mutilated or mentally tortured by terrorists but ultimately released or liberated.
Those who are wounded or die in a counter-terrorist rescue operation at the hands of terrorists or armed
first responders.
Those who become mentally or physically handicapped or die (commit suicide) in a causal sequel to one
or several terrorist events in which they were involved or of which they were direct witnesses.
Alex Schmid (2006). "Magnitudes and Focus of Terrorist Victimization." In Uwe Ewald and Ksenija Turkovi
ć eds. Large-Scale Victimisation as a Potential Source of Terrorist Activities, IOS Press, p. 4.
Although terrorist attacks are indeed serious crimes, it is important to remember that terrorist victimization
differs from criminal victimization in that the former has an inherent political dimension. This political
dimension may also encapsulate ideological or religious aims. For instance, the direct victim of a terrorist
attack is rarely the ultimate target of the violence. Rather, the act of singling out a target serves as an
amplifier to convey a broader message and to influence a wider audience, such as an adversary State of
the terrorist organization (Schmid, 2006, p. 4). An important goal of terrorism is for mass audiences to pay
attention to the messages being conveyed, and to undergo a sense of terror and panic as a result of the
terrorist attack. The terror invoked in individuals is further amplified by a process of identification with the
victim, a fear that "it could have been me" (Schmid, 2006, p. 7).The victims of terrorist attacks therefore
serve as symbols of shared group or class characteristics, which in turn form one basis for their selection
as victims (Šeparović, 2006, p. 21). In this sense, victims of terrorism serve as instrumental targets.

Ten terrorist audiences

The adversary/-ies of the terrorist organization (usually one or several governments)
The constituency/society of the adversary/-ies
The targeted direct victims and their families and friends
Others who have reason to fear that they might be the next targets
"Neutral" distant audiences
The supporting constituency of the terrorist organization
Potential sympathetic sectors of domestic and foreign audiences
Other terrorist groups rivalling for prominence
The terrorist and his or her organization
The media.
Alex Schmid (2006). "Magnitudes and Focus of Terrorist Victimization." In Uwe Ewald and Ksenija Turkovi
ć, eds. Large-Scale Victimisation as a Potential Source of Terrorist Activities, IOS Press, p. 4.
By using violence, or the threat of violence, wider audiences are put in a state of chronic fear or terror
which takes a physical, psychological, social, political and economic toll on society as a whole (Šeparović,
2006, p. 21; Schmid, 2006, p. 5). This indirect method of combat can have several aims: to produce
disorientation and/or force their targets to comply with their demands (e.g., government); to mobilize third
party actors to act; or, to stir society and public opinion in order to change attitudes or behaviours that
benefit the interests of the perpetrators. Successful victimization of sectors of society signals to the public
at home and abroad that the State cannot protect them effectively, and this sense of insecurity may be
further exploited by violent extremist organizations (see further Module 2) (Schmid, 2006, p. 4). The ability
of terrorist organizations to manipulate wider audiences by the public victimization of a few indirect victims
in an environment that is media-rich has transformed terrorism from a marginal mode of protest, blackmail
and intimidation into a major form of psychological warfare.

References

Books / e-books
Hudson, Manley O. ed. (1941). International Legislation: A Collection of the Texts of Multipartite
International Instruments of General Interest , vol. 7, no. 499.
Proudhon, P. J. (1840). What is Property? An Inquiry into the Principle of Right and of Government .
Morozov, Nikolai (1880). "The Terrorist Struggle." Fully reprinted in: Violence in Politics. Terror and
Political Assassination in Eastern Europe and Russia, Feliks Gross ed. The Hague and Paris: Mouton,
1972.
Thullen, George (1964). Problems of the Trusteeship System: a Study of Political Behavior in the United
Nations. Librairie Droz.
Walzer, Michael (1977). Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. Basic
Books.
Wilson, Heather (1988). International Law and the Use of Force by National Liberation Movements.
Clarendon Press.
Whittaker, David (2001). The Terrorism Reader. London: Routledge.

Book chapters
Falk, Richard A. (1990). "Revolutionaries and Functionaries: The Dual Face of Terrorism." In Charles W.
Kegley, Jr., ed. International Terrorism: Characteristics, Causes, Controls. St. Martin's Press.
Hannay, William M. (1988). "The Legislative Approach to the Political Offense Exception." In M. Cherif
Bassiouni ed. Legal Reponses to International Terrorism - U.S. Procedural Aspects. Dordrecht: Nijhoff.
Lenin, Vladimir (first published 1914, republished 1972). " The Right of Nations to Self-Determination." In
Lenin's Collected Works, Vol 20. Progress Publishers.
Pyle, Christopher H. (1988). "The Political Offense Exception." In M. Cherif Bassiouni ed. Legal Reponses
to International Terrorism - U.S. Procedural Aspects. Dordrecht: Nijhoff.
Schmid, Alex (2006). "Magnitudes and Focus of Terrorist Victimization." In Uwe Ewald and Ksenija
Turković eds. Large-Scale Victimisation as a Potential Source of Terrorist Activities. IOS Press.
Šeparović, Zvonimir Paul (2006). "International Terrorism: Large-Scale Victimization' Terrorism." In Uwe
Ewald and Ksenija Turković eds. Large-Scale Victimisation as a Potential Source of Terrorist Activities.
IOS Press.
Turković, Ksenija (2006). "What Victimology has to Offer in the Fight Against Terrorism." In Uwe Ewald
and Ksenija Turković eds. Large-Scale Victimisation as a Potential Source of Terrorist Activities. IOS
Press.
Veatch, R. (1983, reprinted 2010). "Minorities and the League." In The League of Nations in Retrospect:
Proceedings of the Symposium, United Nations Library, Geneva: Series E, Guides and studies 3. De
Gruyter.
Zimmer, Kenyon (2009). " Propaganda by the Deed." In Immanuel Ness ed. The International
Encyclopaedia of Revolution and Protest. Malden: Blackwell.

Cases
Case C-402/05 P and C-415/05, P. Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council and
Commission [2008] ECR I-6351.

Conventions, charters and treaties

Atlantic Charter . 14 August 1941.
Convention on Extradition, adopted by the Seventh International Conference of American States. League
of Nations Treaty Series , vol. 165, p.45. Montevideo, 26 December 1933.
Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism. League of Nations, document
C.546.M.383.1937.V. Geneva, 16 November 1937.
Executive Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Treaty on Cooperation among the
States Members of the Commonwealth of Independent States in Combating Terrorism . Minsk, 4 June
1999.
United Nations. International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages . Treaty Series, vol. 1316, p.
205, New York, 17 December 1979.
United Nations. International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings . Treaty Series, vol.
2149, p. 256, New York, 15 December 1997.
United Nations. International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism . Treaty
Series, vol. 2178, p. 197.

Journal/online articles and presentation

Illustration of David C. Rapoport's 'The Four Waves of Terrorism' . 2004.
Chadwick, Elizabeth (1996). " Terrorism and the law: Historical contexts, contemporary dilemmas, and the
end(s) of democracy." Crime, Law and Social Changes, vol. 26, issue 4, pp. 329-350.
Fidler, David P. (2016). " Cyberspace, Terrorism and International Law." Journal of Conflict and Security
Law, vol. 21, issue. 3,pp. 475-493.
Fleming, Marie (2008). " Propaganda by the deed: Terrorism and anarchist theory in late
nineteenth-century Europe." Terrorism, vol. 4, issue 1-4, pp.1-23.
Friedlander, Robert A. (1976). "The Origins of International Terrorism: A Micro Legal-Historical
Perspective." Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, vol. 6, p. 49.
LaFree, Gary, Nancy A. Morris and Laura Dugan (2010). " Cross-national patterns of terrorism: comparing
trajectories for total, attributed and fatal attacks, 1970-2006." British Journal of Criminology, vol. 50, no.4,
pp. 622-649
Morgan, Edward M. (1988). "The Imagery and Meaning of Self-Determination." New York University
Journal of International Law and Politics, vol. 20, pp. 355-359.
Parker, Tom, and Nick Sitter (2016). " The Four Horsemen of Terrorism: It's Not Waves, It's Strains."
Terrorism and Political Violence, vol. 28, issue 2, pp. 197-216.
Wilson, Margaret A., Angela Scholes and Elizabeth Brocklehurst (2010). " A behavioural analysis of
terrorist action: the assassination and bombing campaigns of ETA between 1980 and 2007." British
Journal of Criminology, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 690-707.

United Nations materials

Charter of the United Nations . San Francisco, 26 June 1945.
Security Council resolution 1267 (1999).
Security Council resolution 1373 (2001).

Reports and remarks

Fawcett, James (1979). "The International Protection of Minorities." Minority Rights Group, Report No. 41.
International Law Association, Use of Force Committee (2010). "Final Report on the Meaning of Armed
Conflict in International Law." The Hague.
O'Brien, Patricia (2012). "The Åland Island Solution: A precedent for successful international disputes
settlement." Remarks made on 17 January.
 LAW ENFORCEMENT ADMINISTRATION
COMPARATIVE MODELS IN POLICING
REVIEW NOTES
COMPARATIVE POLICE SYSTEM
● It is the science and art of investigating and
comparing the police system of nations. It covers
the study of police organizations, trainings and
methods of policing of various nations.
● Process of outlining the similarities and differences
of one police system to another to discover insights
in the field of international policing.
Comparative - relating to or based on or involving
comparison
Why Compare?
✔ Crime has become a global phenomenon.
✔ Transnational crimes crosses borders and the need
for bilateral and international cooperation become
imperative.
How to Compare?
1. Safari Method - researcher visits another country.
2. Collaborative Method - researcher communicates
with foreign researcher
Police - the governmental department charged with the
regulation and control of the affairs of a community, now
chiefly the department established to maintain order,
enforce the law, and prevent and detect crime.
System - a group of independent but interrelated
elements comprising a unified whole.
THEORIES OF COMPARATIVE POLICING
1st Theory: “Alertness to Crime Theory”
● Society develops awareness to crime is heightened.
● They report more crime to police and demand the
police to become more effective in solving crime
problems.
2nd Theory: “Economic/Migration Theory”
● crime everywhere is the result of unrestrained
migration and overpopulation
3rd Theory: “Opportunity Theory”
● Those with higher standards of living become more
careless of their belongings and opportunities for
committing crime multiply.
4th Theory: “Demographic Theory”
● It is based on the presumption that when greater
number of children is born delinquent subcultures
are developing out of the adolescent crisis.
5th Theory: “Deprivation Theory”
● Those people at the bottom level develop unrealistic
expectations while people at the top don’t see
themselves rising fast enough
6th Theory: “Modernization Theory”
● It sees the problem as society becoming too
complex
7th Theory: “Theory of Anomie”
● It suggests that progressive lifestyle and norms
result in the disintegration of older norms.
TYPES OF POLICE SYSTEMS
A. Common law systems: The Anglo-American Justice
System
● It exists in most English-speaking countries of the
world, such as the U.S., England, Australia, and
New Zealand.
● There is strong adversarial system and rely upon
oral system of evidence in which the public trial is a
main focal point
B. Civil law systems: The Continental or
Romano-Germanic Justice System
● It is practiced by most of the European Union as
well as in places such as Sweden, Germany,
France, and Japan.
● They are notable by a strong inquisitorial system
where less right is granted to the accused, and the
written law is taken as gospel and subject to little
interpretation.
C. Socialist systems: The Marxist-Leninist Justice
System
● It is practiced in Africa and Asia, where there had
been a Communist revolution.
● They are renowned by procedures intended to
revitalize or retrain people into satisfying their
responsibilities to the state
D. Islamic systems: The Muslim or Arabic Justice
System
● They derive all their procedures and practices from
interpretation of the Koran.
● Islamic systems in general are distinguish by the
absence of positive law and are based more on the
concept of natural justice.
● Religion plays a significant role
THEORIES OF POLICE SERVICE
1. Continental theory
● maintains that police officers are servants of
higher authorities
● effectiveness of policemen depends on the
express wishes of top officials of the government.
● prevails in the continental countries like France,
Italy and Spain.
2. Home Rule Theory
● states that police officers are servants of the
community or the people.
● effectiveness of policemen depends on the
express wishes of the people.
● prevails in England and United States
THEORIES IN POLICING SYSTEM
1. Old Policing System
● The yardstick of the efficiency of the police is
determined by the number of arrest.
● Punishment is the sole instrument of crime
control.
2. Modern System
● The yardstick of police efficiency is the absence or
lesser occurrence of crimes.
● Police omnipresence is considered as the tool or
instrument in crime prevention.
Deviance Control
1
● modern police function which primarily involves the
mission to reinforce community values and laws
● adopted by Germany, China and Japan.
Civil Order Control
● not organizationally separated from deviance
control but is performed by regular street police
● adopted by England and United States.
Three Styles of Policing (J. Q. Wilson)
1. Legalistic- emphasizes on violations of law, and the
use of threats or actual arrests to solve disputes.
2. Watchman - emphasizes on informal means of
resolving disputes.
3. Service - emphasizes on helping the community, as
opposed to enforcing the law.
Significant Considerations in Policing
✔ Crime has become a global phenomenon.
✔ Transnational crimes like terrorism, drug trafficking,
money laundering, human smuggling, etc. goes
global.
✔ Thus, it has the potential of wear down the
foundation for a prosperous and peaceful
community of the United Nations; a threat to law
enforcement.
✔ Given that assumption, policing itself must become
global in its scope.
GLOBALIZATION
● The increasingly global relationships of culture,
people and economic activity.
● Transnational circulation of ideas, languages, and
popular culture
● This process has effects on the environment, on
culture, on political systems, on economic
development and prosperity, and on human physical
well-being in societies around the world.
Effects of Globalization to Law Enforcement
1. The facilitation of transnational crimes and criminals
can be easily achieved.
2. There is a need for transnational policing. The
cooperation among police organizations in the world
is vital.
3. Training instructions for incoming law enforcement
officers must include advance computer to prepare
them as cyber cops so they can be better prepared
to deal with cybercrimes.
4. Development of new strategies to deal with
international organized crimes is a must.
5. Provisions of law enforcement with updated
legislations related to modernization theories of
crime
Transnational Crimes
● Crimes that take place in one country, but their
consequences significantly affect another country.
● Crimes that are not only international but crimes
that by their nature involve border crossing as an
essential part of the criminal activity.
● A continuing illegal activity of group of people which
is primarily concerned with the generation of profits,
irrespective of national boundaries as a result of
globalization.
TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME
● Crime perpetuated by organized criminal group
which the aim of committing one or more serious
crimes or offenses in order to obtain directly or
indirectly, a financial or other material benefits
committed through crossing of borders or
jurisdictions
● According to the United Nations Convention of
Transnational Organized Crime (Article 3:2), an
offense is transnational if it is:
✔ committed in more than one state.
✔ committed in one state, but a substantial part of
preparation, planning, direction or control takes
place in another state.
✔ committed in one state but involves an
organized crime group that engages in criminal
activities in more than one state; or
✔ committed in one state but has substantial
effects in another state.
The 11 Categories of Transnational Organized
Crime
1. Environmental Crimes
2. Economic Crimes
3. Cybercrime
4. Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships
5. Intellectual Property Theft
6. Illicit Trade of Small Arms and Light Weapons
7. Smuggling of Cultural Properties
8. Money Laundering
9. Terrorism
10. Drug Trafficking
11. Trafficking in Persons
Drug Trafficking
● The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global
black market consisting of the cultivation,
manufacture, distribution and sale of illegal drugs.
Sexual Slavery
● It refers to the organized coercion of unwilling
people into various sexual practices. It
encompasses most if not all forms of forced
prostitution.
Prostitution
● The act or practice of providing sexual services to
another person in return for payment.
● People who execute such activities are called
prostitutes.
● Prostitution is one of the branches of the sex
industry.
● The legal status of prostitution varies from country
to country, from being a punishable crime to a
regulated profession.
● described as the “world's oldest profession”
Trafficking of Persons
● Recruitment, transportation, transfer or harboring, or
receipt of persons with or without the victim’s consent
or knowledge, within or across national borders by
any means for the purpose of exploitation (e.g.
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 prostitution, forced labor, slavery, servitude, removal
or sale of organs)
● The most common destination for victims of human
trafficking are Thailand, Japan, Israel, Belgium,
Netherlands, Germany, Italy, turkey and the US
according to the report by the UNODC, United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
● The major sources of trafficked persons include
Thailand, China, Nigeria, Albania, Bulgaria, Belarus,
Moldova, and Ukraine.
Causes of Human Trafficking
1. Poverty
2. Uneven economic development
3. Family orientation & values
4. Weak enforcement of laws
5. Corruption
6. Immediate benefits of working abroad
Qualified Trafficking in Persons
✔ When it involves a child;
✔ When it was conducted through adoption under
R.A. 8043
✔ When committed by syndicate or in a large scale
✔ When the offender is an ascendant, parents,
siblings, guardians or one who exercise authority
over the trafficked persons or by public officer or
employee;
✔ When the trafficked person engaged in prostitution
with any member of the military or law enforcement
agencies;
✔ When the offender is a member of the military or
law enforcement agencies;
✔ When the person trafficked dies, became insane,
suffer mutilation or infected with HIV or AIDS.
Smuggling of Human Organs (RA 9208)
● The illegal procurements and/or sale of human
organs.
Philippine Domestic Laws
1. RA 9208 - “Anti-trafficking in Persons Act of 2003”.
2. RA 7610 - “Special Protection of Children Against
Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act”.
3. RA 8042 - “Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipino
Act”
4. RA 6955- “An Act to Declare Unlawful the Practice
of Matching Filipino Women for Marriage to Foreign
Nationals on a Mail-Order Basis and Other similar
Practices”
5. RA 8239- “Philippine Passport Act of 1996”
Illegal Recruitment (RA 8042 as amended by RA
10022)
● shall mean any act of canvassing, enlisting,
contracting, transporting, utilizing, hiring or
procuring of workers which includes referring,
contract services, promising or advertising for
employment abroad, whether for profit or not, when
undertaken by a non-license or non-holder of
authority.
Modus Operandi of Illegal Recruiters
1. Tourist worker scheme – workers leave the country
as tourist but are leaving for employment abroad.
2. Escort services - workers are “escorted” at the
airport and seaports and allowed to leave them
without the required travel documents.
3. Blind ads - advertisements for overseas
employment published in the dailies do not indicate
the name of recruiter but provide a P.O. Box to
which application may be submitted.
4. Backdoor exit - workers leave through southern
ports of exit where “immigration control is lax”. They
usually leave on a cargo ship or on boats.
5. Assumed identity - workers leave under another
name either using the name of another name of
worker or through the baklas system” or obtaining
passports through fake birth certificate and other
documents.
6. Direct hiring - worker are recruited directly by the
foreign employer and employed either as tourist or
through any of the illegal means.
7. Trainee-worker scheme - workers are recruited and
employed as trainee on a training agreement”. More
often, HRM students leaving in the guise of a
traineeship program for hotels abroad but
eventually landing jobs in hotels/ restaurants
abroad.
8. Visa assistance or immigration consultancy scheme
- entities operating under the guise of consultancy
or offering services for visa facilitation are usually
engaged in recruitment by offering placement
abroad on immigrant visa. Some of them also
operate through the conduct of orientation
seminars, which are actually recruiting activities.
9. Camouflaged participants/ representatives in
seminars/ sports events - workers leave as
participants in seminars or sports events abroad but
actually intend to work there.
10. Mail-order bride scheme - Marriage is arranged by
brokers between Filipino women to foreigners. The
Filipino wife ends up being a domestic helper to her
husband and to his family or in worst situations
abroad.
11. Tie-up or kabit system - unlicensed recruiters tie-up
with licensed agencies and recruit workers through
the facilities of the latter. Workers are usually
deployed under the job order of the licensed agency
but actually work for another employer abroad or
foreign principal of the unlicensed recruiter is
registered or accredited under the licensed
agency’s name.
12. Adoption method - adoption of children to smuggle
out of the country; foreigners will pretend to adopt
them but the reality they will be sold to labor
markets or prostitutions dens.
13. Family tours - organized by unscrupulous travel
agency to have one “bogus family”, somebody will
pretend as parents and children will use tampered
documents to complete the “bogus family”.
14. Smuggling of firearms - transnational transportation
of illegal firearms, mostly small arms, by
governments and insurgents in war zone regions.
15. Money laundering - The monetary proceeds of the
criminal activity are converted into funds of
apparent legal source (Manzel, 1996). Money
laundering suggest a cycle of transactions in which
the illegitimate dirty money comes out clean after
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 being processed into legitimate legal source.
(Fairchild, 2001).
MONEY LAUNDERING - turning dirty money into clean
money
3 Steps of Money Laundering
1. Placement
● Process of moving money from the location of
the criminal activity
● Getting currency into the bank, around the
reporting system, at home or abroad.
● “Smurfing”
2. Layering
● Involves the frequent series of money transfers
and transactions used to “cover the tracks” of
the illegal funds.
● The use of the electronic methods is the most
cost-effective method of layering
● “Heavy soaping”
3. Integration
● When the money is returned to the regular
economy through purchase of investment.
● The launderer then makes the proceeds
available to the criminals in an apparently
legitimate form.
● “spin dry”
Loan Sharking
● It refers to the lending of money at excessively high
rates of interest
● Embraces two central features: the assessment of
exorbitant interest rates in extending credit and; the
use of threats and violence in collecting debts.
Cyber Crimes
● Computer crime, or cybercrime, refers to any
crime that involves a computer and a network,
where the computers may or may not have
played an instrumental part in the commission of
a crime.
RA 10175- Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012
Cyberspace
● A term coined by sci-fi novelist William Gibson in
1999
● It is used to refer to the spaces within computers
and the spaces between computers (across
networks) when people interact with information
and with each other.
Categories of Computer Crimes
1. The computer as a target - attacking the computers
of others (spreading viruses is an example).
2. The computer as a weapon - using a computer to
commit "traditional crime" that we see in the
physical world (such as fraud or illegal gambling).
3. The computer as an accessory - using a computer
as a "fancy filing cabinet" to store illegal or stolen
information.
Famous Viruses and Worms
1. I love You Virus – created on May 4, 2000 by Onel
De Guzman, a Filipino Computer Science Student
2. Internet Worm – world-famous worm that almost
brought the development of internet to a complete
halt; created by Robert Morris
3. Melissa Virus – create by David Smith who was
sentenced to 20 months of imprisonment.
4. Ms Blaster Worm/W32 - attacks the Microsoft
Windows
CLASSIFICATION OF CYBER CRIMES
1. Against Individuals
a. Cyber-stalking/Harassment - A form of
electronic harassment, often express or implied
physical threats that create fear in the victim; any
unreasonable intrusion into the private life of a
person that causes the person to suffer mental
distress.
b. Dissemination of Obscene Material -
Pornography on the net may take various forms.
These obscene matters may cause harm to the
mind of the youth and tend to deprave or corrupt
their mind.
c. Cyber Defamation - The making of a false
statement of fact that injures someone’s
reputation.
The public nature of bulletin boards and even
e-mail presents the opportunity to publish
defamatory statements.
d. Credit Card Fraud
i. Phishing - occurs when scammers send mass
e–mails posing as banks, credit card
companies, or popular commercial websites,
asking recipients to confirm or update
personal and financial information in a
hyperlink to a look like coming from the
original web site.
ii. Skimming Device - It is a device used to
illegally capture a consumer's credit and debit
card account information. The captured data is
then used to commit fraud.
e. Identity Theft - A form of fraud or cheating of
another person's identity in which someone
pretends to be someone else by assuming that
person's identity, typically to access resources or
obtain credit and other benefits in that person's
name.
2. Against Individual Property
a. Intellectual Property Crimes - Any unlawful act
by which the owner is deprived completely or
partially of his rights. The most common forms of
IPR violation includes software piracy, copyright
infringement, theft of computer source code, etc.
b. Virus Dissemination - A software or code which
modifies or destroys data, steals data or allows
unauthorized access, or exploits or damages a
system in a manner not intended by the user.
c. Hacking - Act of illegally accessing the computer
system/network of an individual, group or
business enterprise without the consent or
approval of the owner of the system.
d. Cracking - a higher form of hacking in which the
unauthorized access culminates with the process
of defeating the security system for the purpose of
acquiring money or information and/or availing of
free services.
4
 e. Web Defacement - Usually the substitution of the
original home page of a website with another page
(usually pornographic or defamatory in nature) by
a hacker.
f. Online Scam - It is a fraudulent business scheme
through computer system.
3. Against society at large
a. Internet Pornography - The trafficking,
distribution, posting, and dissemination of
obscene material including children’s nude
pictures, indecent exposure, and child sex slavery
posted into the internet.
b. Online Gambling - Playing games of chance or
betting in the hope of winning money through the
internet.
Kinds of Hackers
1. Black hat hacker - one who breaks into computer
systems with malicious intent, usually for some
criminal purpose.
2. White hat hacker - identifies and exposes a
weakness in a way that allows the system's owners
to fix the breach before others take advantage of it.
3. Gray hat hackers - include network vigilantes who
shut down pornography sites.
TERRORISM
● the word terror derives from the Latin word terrere,
meaning “to frighten”
● The unlawful use of force or violence against
persons or property to intimidate or coerce a
government, civilian population, or any segment
thereof, In furtherance of political or social
objectives. (FBI, 1997)
● The commission of crimes (rebellion, murder,
kidnapping, hijacking etc.) that sow or create a
condition of widespread and extraordinary fear and
panic among the populace in order to coerce the
government to give in to an unlawful demand. (R.A.
9372 or the Human Security Act)
R.A. 9372: The Human Security Act of 2007
Sec 3. Any person who commits an act punishable
under any of the following provisions of the Revised
Penal Code:
a. Art 122(Piracy and Mutiny)
b. Art 134 (Rebellion and Insurrection)
c. Art 134-a (Coup d’etat)
d. Art 248 (Murder)
e. Art 267 (Kidnapping and serious illegal
detention)
f. Art 324 (Crimes Involving Destruction); Or under
g. PD 1613 (The Law on Arson)
h. R.A. 6969 (Toxic Substance Control Act)
i. R.A. 5207 (Atomic Energy Regulatory Act)
j. R.A. 6235 (Anti – Hijacking Law)
k. PD 532 (Anti-Piracy and Highway Robbery)
l. PD1866 (Illegal Possession of Fire Arms)
Different Types of Terrorism
1. Ethnocentric - is the category of terrorist
organization which is aimed at establishing a
dominant or superior race that will be looked upon
by the entire populace in the world.
2. Revolutionary - is the category of terrorist group
which is dedicated to overthrow an established
order and replacing it with a new political or social
structure.
3. Political - is the category of terrorist group which
aims in restructuring the society.
4. Nationalistic - those who commit acts of violence
due to their loyalty or devotion to their country.
The Fight Against Transnational Crime
The key struggle against transnational crime is
dynamic cooperation is based upon:
✔ Mutual trust;
✔ Common perception of the threat;
✔ Realization that crime must be influence beyond
national borders;
✔ Understanding of the limitations of domestic
intervention and unilateral action; and
✔ Signaled attention to work with other interested
nations in the interest of protecting national integrity
and sovereignty.
I. PCTC (Philippine Center for Transnational
Crimes)
Legal Basis:
a. Executive Order no.62 Series of 1999 (dated
January 15,1999) - PCTC is created to establish a
shared database among concerned agencies for
information on criminals, methodologies, arrest and
conviction on transnational crime in all its forms.
b. Executive Order No.100 Series of 1999 dated May
7, 1999), Executive No. 295 dated September 28,
2002, and Executive Order No.146 dated October
22, 2002 - Strengthened the operational,
administrative and information support system of
the PCTC. Under these Executive Orders, the
Center was given general supervision and control
over the following:
i. Loop Center of the National Action
Committee on Anti- Hijacking and Terrorism
(NACAHT)
ii. International Criminal Police Organization
ICPO-INTERPOL-NCB Manila, which has
been reconstituted to serve as the national
liaison office and main coordinating body for
international police cooperation against
transnational crime.
iii. Police attaches of the Philippine National
Police, and
iv. Political attaches/counselors for security
matters of the Department of Interior and
Local Government (DILG).
Four Major Concerns of Phil. Center for
Transnational Crimes
1. Information exchange
2. strategies studies
3. capacity building
4. law enforcement coordination
Activities of the PCTC to underscore its role in the
fight against transnational crimes:
a. Strong regional coordination
b. Support to the United Nations
c. Capacity building by Local Government Units
d. National cooperation
hosts various technical working group meetings
formulating proposed legislation
Organization of the PCTC
1. Executive Offices – functions as Committee on
Decorum, Grievance Committee, and Travel Board
Personnel Selection and Recruitment Committee
5
 a. Office of the Executive Director (EOD)
b. Office of the Deputy Executive Director (EDOD)\
2. Directorates
a. Directorate for Support Services (DSS) –
performs its function through its three divisions
● Administrative Divisions
● Security Service Division
● Budget and Finance Division
b. Directorate for Operation (DO) performs its
function through four divisions:
● INTERPOL Command and Coordination
Division
● Case Management Division
● Capacity Building Division
● Fugitive Investigation and International
Notices Division
c. Directorate for Research (DR) – performs its
function through its six divisions:
● Public Safety and terrorism Division
● Drugs and Criminal Organization Division
● Financial and High-Tech Crimes Division
● Special Crime Division
● Human Trafficking and Smuggling Division
● Information and Technology Division
d. Directorate for Plans and Policies (DPP) –
performs its function in three divisions:
● Strategic Research Division
● Policy Formulation Division
● International Cooperation Division
II. INTERPOL
● The world’s largest international police organization
● Founded in Vienna in 1923 and reconstituted in
1946
● Facilitates cross-border police cooperation, and
supports and assists all organizations, authorities
and services whose mission is to prevent or combat
international crime.
● has an annual budget of around €78 million, most of
which is provided through annual contributions by
its membership of 190 countries (as of 2015).
OICP – Organization Internationale De Police Criminelle
ICPO – International Criminal Police Organization
Emblem - adopted in 1950 symbolizing the following:
✔ Globe - worldwide activity
✔ Olive branches – peace
✔ Sword - police action
✔ Scales - justice
Flag - used since 1950 featuring the following:
✔ Light blue background
✔ Logo is in the center
✔ Four lighting flashes arranged symmetrically around
the emblem symbolize telecommunication and
speed in police action
INTERPOL’s 6 Priority Crime Areas
1. Drug and criminal organization
2. Financial and high-tech crime
3. Fugitives
4. Public safety and terrorism
5. Trafficking in human beings
6. Corruption
INTERPOL’S Core Functions
1. Secure global police communication services -
Interpol’s global police communications system,
known as I-24/7, enables police in all member
countries to request, submit and access vital data
instantly in a secure environment.
2. Operational data services and databases for police
- Member countries have direct and immediate
access to a wide range of databases including
information on known criminals, fingerprints, DNA
profiles and stolen or lost travel documents.
INTERPOL also disseminates critical crime-related
data through a system of international notices.
3. Operational police support services - INTERPOL
provides law enforcement officials in the field with
emergency support and operational activities,
especially in its priority crime areas.
4. Police training and development - INTERPOL
provides focused police training initiatives with the
aim of enhancing the capacity of member countries
to effectively combat transnational crime and
terrorism. This includes sharing knowledge, skills
and best practices in policing and establishing
global standards.
INTERPOL’s Organizational Structure
1. GENERAL ASSEMBLY
● supreme governing body, it meets annually
and comprises delegates appointed by each
member country.
● takes all important decisions related to policy,
resources, working methods, finances,
activities and programs.
● elects the Organization's Executive Committee.
2. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
● selected deliberate organ which meets three
time a year, usually in March, July, and
immediately before the General Assembly
● mandated to:
o supervise the execution of the decision of
the General Assembly
o prepare the agenda for sessions of the
General Assembly
o submit to the General Assembly any
program of work or project which is
considers useful
o supervise the administration and work of
the Secretary General.
● Comprised of 1 president, 3 vice-presidents and
9 delegates.The president is elected for 4 years,
and vice-presidents for 3. They are not
immediately eligible for re-election either to the
same posts, or as delegates to the Executive
Committee
3. GENERAL SECRETARIAT
● Located in Lyon, France and operates 24 hours
a day, 365 days a year.
● mandated to:
o coordinate the international activities of
member countries
o hold the Library of international Criminal
Records, and
o organize regular meetings at which
delegation can exchange information on
police work
4. NATIONAL CENTRAL BUREAUS
● staffed by national law enforcement officers.
● designated contact point for the General
Secretariat for all INTERPOL Operations,
regional offices and other member countries
requiring assistance with overseas
investigations and the location and
apprehension of fugitives.
6

The INTERPOL NCB – Manila
Chairman: Police General, PNP
Members: Director, NBI
Commissioner, BoC
Commissioner, BIR
Commissioner, BI
Governor, BSP
Executive Director, DDB
Commissioner, EIIB
Advisers - experts in a purely advisory capacity, who
may be appointed by the Executive Committee and
confirmed by the General Assembly.
5. COMMISSION FOR THE CONTROL OF
INTERPOL’S FILES (CCF)
● ensure that the processing of personal
information by INTERPOL complies with the
Organization's regulations,
● advise INTERPOL on any project, operation, set
of rules or other matter involving the processing
of personal information and
● process requests concerning the information
contained in INTERPOL's files.
Jolly R. Bugarin - the former Filipino President of
INTERPOL in 1980 – 1984.
Mireille Ballestrazzi – 2012-2016 President, elected at
the 81st INTERPOL General Assembly held in Rome.
Meng Hongwei – 2016-2020 INTERPOL President, and
the Deputy Minister of Public Security of China.
Ronald Kenneth Noble - elected Secretary General by
the 69th INTERPOL General Assembly in Rhodes,
Greece, in 2000, and reelected to by the 74th
INTERPOL General Assembly in Berlin, Germany, in
2005.
Jürgen Stock - was unanimously elected Secretary
General at the 83rd INTERPOL General Assembly
session in Monaco, November 2014.
The Eight Notices
a. Red Notice - To seek the arrest or provisional
arrest of wanted persons with a view to extradition
b. Blue Notice - To collect additional information
about a person’s identity or activities in relation to a
crime.
c. Green Notice - To provide warnings and criminal
intelligence about persons who have committed
criminal offences and are likely to repeat these
crimes in other countries.
d. Yellow Notice - To help locate missing persons,
often minors, or to help identify persons who are
unable to identify themselves.
e. Black Notice - To seek information on unidentified
bodies.
f. Orange Notice - To warn police, public entities and
other international organizations about potential
threats from disguised weapons, parcel bombs and
other dangerous materials.
g. Purple Notice - To provide information on modus
operandi, procedures, objects, devices and
concealment methods used by criminals.
h. INTERPOL-United Nations Special Notice -
Issued for groups and individuals who are the
targets of UN sanctions against Al Qaeda and the
Taliban.
Official Languages used by the INTERPOL (SAFE)
1. Spanish
2. Arabic
3. French
4. English
III. United Nations (UN)
● An international organization whose stated aims are
facilitating cooperation in international law,
international security, economic development, social
progress, human rights, and achievement of world
peace.
● It was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace
the League of Nations, to stop wars between
countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue.
● The United Nations Headquarters resides in
international territory in New York City, with further
main offices at Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna.
Official Languages used by the UN (SAFE-CR)
1. Spanish
2. Arabic
3. French
4. English
5. Chinese
6. Russian
UN’s Organizational Structure
A. General Assembly
● main deliberative assembly of the United
Nations.
o composed of all United Nations member
states, the assembly meets in regular
yearly sessions under a president elected
from among the member states.
● The first session was convened on 10 January
1946 in the Westminster Central Hall in London
and included representatives of 51 nations.
● When the General Assembly votes on important
questions, a two-thirds majority of those present
and voting is required
Functions:
a. Deliberative- initiating studies and making
recommendations for the development of the
International Law
b. Supervisory- receiving and considering annual
and special reports from another organ.
c. Financial- approval and apportionment of the
budget.
d. Elective- election of non-permanent members of
the security council.
e. Constituent- admission of members and the
amendments of charter.
B. Security Council
● charged with maintenance of peace and security
among countries. It has the power to make
binding decisions that member governments
have agreed to carry out.
● Composed of five (5) permanent members
(China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and
the United States of America) and ten (10)
elective members, elected for two years by the
General Assembly.
● The presidency of the Security Council is rotated
alphabetically each month.
Functions:
a. Preventive Action- consist of provisional
measures to prevent a conflict from worsening
and may involve the deployment of
peacekeeping and/or observer missions.
7
 b. Enforcement Actions- consist in the deployment
of air, sea and land forces, or in the institution of
blockade.
C. Secretariat
● acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of
the UN.
● chief administrative organ of the UN.
● Secretary general is the highest representative
of UN.
D. International Court of Justice, The Hague,
Netherland
● primary judicial organ of the United Nations
● established in 1945 by the United Nations
Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the
successor to the Permanent Court of
International Justice.
● composed of 15 members who are elected for a
term of 9 years by absolute majority vote in
General Assembly and the Security Council.
E. Economic and Social Council
● assists the General Assembly in promoting
international economic and social cooperation
and development.
● has 54 members, all of which are elected by the
General Assembly for a three-year term.
● The president is elected for a one-year term and
chosen amongst the small or middle powers
represented on ECOSOC.
● meets once a year in July for a four-week
session.
Participation of PNP Personnel in UN Peacekeeping
Missions
Legal Basis: PNP Memorandum Circular No. 2009-006
(Rules and procedures on the selection of the PNP
personnel for secondment, detail to international
organizations, peacekeeping missions)
UN Special Action Team (UNSAT) Qualifications
1. Age Requirement:
✔ must not be less than 25 years old or more than
53 years old upon actual deployment.
2. Rank Requirement
✔ For PCO’s: P/Insp. To P/Supt.
✔ For PNCO’s: PO3 to SPO4
✔ All applicants must have been appointed in
permanent status in their respective present
ranks.
3. Service Requirement
✔ minimum of 5 years of active police service
(excluding cadetship, officer orientation/trainee
course, and police basic course)
4. Physical Requirement
✔ passed the latest Physical Fitness Test (PFT)
conducted by the PNP DHRDD, as well as
medical, dental, and neuropsychiatric
examinations.
5. Special Skills Needed
✔ Computer Literacy Requirement
✔ Driving Proficiency Requirement (at least one (1)
year experience in vehicle driving reckoned from
the date of issuance of his/her valid driver’s
license)
6. Unit Recommendation Requirement
✔ must be recommended by Unit Commanders
(Command Group or Directors of their
respective Directorial Staff, National Support
Units, or Police Regional Offices).
7. Other Requirements
✔ must hold a Performance Evaluation Rating
(PER) with a minimum Very Satisfactory
evaluation for two (2) consecutive rating
semesters
✔ must not have been repatriated from any
previous UN mission for disciplinary reasons.
✔ must not have been convicted of any
administrative or criminal offense; have no
pending administrative/criminal cases in any
body/tribunal/court.
✔ must not be a witness to any
administrative/criminal case, especially those
covered by Republic Act 9165, or a summary
hearing officer with unresolved cases.
✔ without firearm accountability as certified by the
Directorate for Logistics (DL).
UNSAT Term of Deployment – one (1) year tenure,
extendable to 6 months.
UNSAT Priority for Deployment
a. First priority- PNP personnel without previous UN
Mission deployment
b. Second priority- PNP personnel with previous UN
mission deployment
c. Personnel who obtained the highest exam rating, or
those superior in rank, length of service,
educational attainment, or with fewer missions, in
such order shall have priority for deployment.
IV. ASEAN CHIEFS OF POLICE (ASEANAPOL)
● Established in 1981
● Regional platform for all the heads of Asian
national police forces to interact and discuss
● After 24 years, it has grown from 5 police chiefs
to a solid force of the ASEAN TEN.
● Members:
o Indonesia
o Malaysia
o Philippines
o Singapore
o Thailand
o Brunei Darussalam
o Vietnam
o Laos
o Myanmar
o Cambodia
Objectives:
1. Enhancing police professionalism
2. Forging stronger regional cooperation in police work
3. Promoting lasting friendship amongst the police
officers of ASEAN countries
V. INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CHIEFS OF
POLICE (IACP)
● The world's oldest and largest nonprofit
membership organization of police executives, with
over 20,000 members in over 89 different countries.
● consists of the operating chief executives of
international, federal, state and local agencies of all
sizes.
8
 Lowest Rank: Constable
PNP-AFP Rank Comparison
PNP AFP Country: Cambodia
Police General General Police Force: Cambodian Police Force
Police Lieutenant Lieutenant General Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs
General Highest Rank: Brigadier General
Police Major General Major General Lowest Rank: Officer Cadet
Police Brigadier General Brigadier General
Police Colonel Colonel Country: China (PRC)
Police Lieutenant Lieutenant Colonel Police Force: People’s Armed Police Force
Colonel Department: Ministry of Public Security
Police Major Major Highest Rank: Commissioner General
Police Captain Captain Lowest Rank: Constable 2nd Class
Police 1st & 2nd 1st & 2nd Lieutenant
Lieutenant Country: Cyprus
Police Master Sergeant Master Sergeant Police Force: Cyprus Police Force
Police Technical Technical Sergeant Department: Ministry of Justice
Sergeant Highest Rank: Chief of Police
Police Staff Sergeant Staff Sergeant Lowest Rank: Constable
Police Sergeant Sergeant
Police Corporal Corporal Country: Georgia
Police Private First Class Private First Class Police Force: Georgia National Police
Patrolman/Patrolwoma Private Department: Department of Public Safety
n
Highest Rank: Commissioner of Police
Lowest Rank: Constable
POLICE SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD
Country: Hong Kong
Country: Afghanistan
Police Force: Hong Kong Police Force
Police Force: Afghanistan National Police (ANP)
Department: Operations and Support
Department: Ministry of Interior
Department
Highest Rank: Police General
Highest Rank: Commissioner of Police
Lowest Rank: 2nd Patrolman
Lowest Rank: Constable
Country: Armenia
Country: India
Police Force: Police of the Republic of Armenia
Police Force: Indian Police Service
Department: Ministry of Defense
Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Rank: Police Colonel General
Highest Rank: Commissioner
Lowest Rank: Junior Sergeant
Lowest Rank: Police
Country: Azerbaijan
Country: Indonesia
Police Force: National Police of the Republic of
Police Force: Indonesian National Police
Azerbaijan
Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs
Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Rank: Police General
Highest Rank:
Lowest Rank: Second Bhayangkara
Lowest Rank:
Country: Iran
Country: Bahrain
Police Force: Iran National Police
Police Force: Bahrain National Police
Department: Ministry of Interior and Justice
Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank:
Highest Rank:
Lowest Rank:
Lowest Rank:
Country: Iraq
Country: Bangladesh
Police Force: Iraqi Police Service
Police Force: Bangladesh Police
Department: Ministry of Interior
Department: Ministry of Home Affairs
Highest Rank: Chief of Police
Highest Rank: Inspector General of Police
Lowest Rank: Patrolman
Lowest Rank: Constable
Country: Israel
Country: Bhutan
Police Force: Israeli Police Force
Police Force: Royal Bhutan Police (RBP)
Department: Ministry of Internal Security
Department: Ministry of Home and Cultural
Affairs Highest Rank: Commissioner
Highest Rank: Gagpoen (Chief of Police) Lowest Rank: Constable
Lowest Rank: Gagpa
Country: Japan
Country: Brunei Police Force: National Police Agency
Police Force: Royal Brunei Police Force Department: National Public Safety Commission
Department: Home Affairs Ministry Highest Rank: Commissioner General
Highest Rank: Lowest Rank: Police Officer
9
 Lowest Rank: Lance Constable
Country: Jordan
Police Force: Public Security Force Country: Mongolia
Department: Public Security Directorate of the Police Force: Mongolia Public Security Force
Ministry of Interior Department: Ministry of Justice and Home
Highest Rank: Affairs
Lowest Rank: Highest Rank: General
Lowest Rank: Private
Country: Kazakhstan
Police Force: National Police of Kazakhstan Country: Myanmar (formerly Burma)
Department: National Security Committee and Police Force: Myanmar National Police
Ministry of Internal Affairs Department: Ministry of Home Affairs
Highest Rank: Procurator General Highest Rank: Police Major General
Lowest Rank: Ryadovoy Lowest Rank: Private

Country: North Korea Country: Nepal

Police Force: National Police Agency Police Force: Nepal Police Force
Department: Ministry of Public Security Department: Ministry of Home Affairs
Highest Rank: Daewonsu (Grand Marshal) Highest Rank: Inspector General
Lowest Rank: Chonsa (Private) Lowest Rank: Constable
Country: South Korea
Police Force: Korean National Police Agency Country: Oman
Department: Ministry of Government Police Force: Royal Oman Police
Administration and Home Affairs Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank: Commissioner Police Highest Rank: Lieutenant General
Lowest Rank: Police Officer Lowest Rank: Conscript

Country: Kuwait Country: Pakistan

Police Force: Kuwait National Police Police Force: Pakistan Police Force
Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank: Lieutenant General Highest Rank: Inspector General
Lowest Rank: Constable Lowest Rank: Constable

Country: Kyrgyzstan Country: Papua New Guinea

Police Force: Kyrgyzstan Police Police Force: Royal Papua New Guinea
Department: Ministry of Interior Constabulary
Highest Rank: General Department:
Lowest Rank: Police Officer Highest Rank: Commissioner of Police
Lowest Rank: Kiap (Patrol Officer)
Country: Laos
Police Force: Laos National Police Country: Philippines
Department: Ministry of Public Security Police Force: Philippine National Police
Highest Rank: General Department: Department of Interior and Local
Lowest Rank: Constable Government
Highest Rank: Police General
Country: Lebanon Lowest Rank: Patrolman/Patrolwoman
Police Force: International Security Forces
Department: Ministry of Interior Country: Qatar
Highest Rank: Director General Police Force: Qatar National Police
Lowest Rank: Gendarme Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank:
Country: Macau Lowest Rank: Shurti
Police Force: Macau National Police
Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs Country: Russia
Highest Rank: Superintendent Police Force: Militsiya
Lowest Rank: Guard Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Rank: Police Colonel
Country: Malaysia Lowest Rank: Police Cadet
Police Force: Royal Malaysian Police
Department: Ministry of Home Affairs Country: Saudi Arabia
Highest Rank: Inspector General of Police Police Force:
Lowest Rank: Constable Department: Department of Security
Highest Rank:
Country: Maldives Lowest Rank:
Police Force: Maldives Police Service
Department: National Security and Defense Country: Singapore
Branch Police Force: Singapore Police Force
Highest Rank: Commissioner of Police Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs
10
Highest Rank: Commissioner of Police Highest Rank: General
Lowest Rank: Police Constable Lowest Rank:

Country: Sri Lanka Country: Yemen

Police Force: Sri Lanka Police Service Police Force: Yemen National Police
Department: Defense Ministry Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank: Inspector General of Police Highest Rank:
Lowest Rank: Police Constable Class 4 Lowest Rank:

Country: Syria
Police Force: Syria Public Security Force
Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank: Director General
Lowest Rank: Police Private

Country: Taiwan (ROC)

Police Force: National Police Agency
Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank: Police Supervisor General
Lowest Rank: Police Rank 4

Country: Thailand
Police Force: Royal Thai Police Force
Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank: Police General
Lowest Rank: Police Constable

Country: Timor-Leste
Police Force: National Police of East Timor
Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Rank:
Lowest Rank:

Country: Turkey
Police Force: Turkish Police (General Directorate
of Security)
Department: Ministry of Internal Affairs
Highest Rank: Director General
Lowest Rank: Police Officer

Country: Turkmenistan
Police Force: Turkmenistan National Police Force
Department: Ministry of State Security
Highest Rank:
Lowest Rank:

Country: United Arab Emirates (Dubai)

Police Force: National Police Forces
Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank: General Commander
Lowest Rank:

Country: Uzbekistan
Police Force: Uzbekistani Police Force (Militia)
Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank: Director General
Lowest Rank: Constable

Country: Uzbekistan
Police Force: Uzbekistani Police Force (Militia)
Department: Ministry of Interior
Highest Rank: Director General
Lowest Rank: Constable

Country: Vietnam
Police Force: People’s Police Force of Vietnam
Department: Ministry of Public Security
11
 TRANSNATIONAL CRIME MODULE
(Reference United Nation Office on Drugs and Crimes)

Introduction

The impact of organized crime permeates the everyday life of ordinary people like you
and me. Its existence also fascinates the public. The news media, novelists and filmmakers use
this fascination, often mixing fact and fiction. The result is a combination of reality, stereotypes
and myths about the true nature of organized crime.
Although the reality of organized crime is complex and multifaceted, it is a fact that
organized criminal groups seek illicit profits and seize opportunities to infiltrate governments
and control markets of illegal goods and services including drugs, stolen property, counterfeiting,
among many others. They may use violence and corruption to achieve their goals and often
exploit legal persons - such as firms or corporations - to commit crimes or launder the proceeds
of illegal activities. The harms produced include physical harm, economic harm, and
undermining legitimate government and business operations.
Organized crime is a global problem, yet its true nature and activities are often little
understood. This Module is designed to help teachers designing and delivering a session which
offers greater clarity on the nature of organized crime. It offers a careful analysis of the existing
conceptual landscape of the term "organized crime" with a focus on a nuanced reading of the
United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (henceforth "Organized
Crime Convention"). It also presents a typology of organized crime activity, as distinct from
other forms of crime - such as terrorism and white-collar crime - that incorporates various forms
of harmful conduct, including provision of illicit goods and services and infiltration of legitimate
business and government. Finally, it provides a brief overview of organization and composition
of organized criminal groups.

Topics covered
● Organized crime
● United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime
● Organized criminal group
● Serious crime
● Crime-terror nexus
● Ethnicity and crime
● Gender and crime

Learning outcomes
● Understand different approaches to defining organized crime.
● Know the definition of an organized criminal group under the Organized Crime
Convention.
● Distinguish the similarities and differences between organized crime and other forms of
crime, such as white-collar crime and terrorism.
● Apply a typology of organized crime activity to individual organized crimes.
● Differentiate the ways in which organized criminal groups can be assessed.
Defining organized crime

The most obvious distinction between organized crime and other forms of criminal conduct is
that it is "organized." In general terms, it does not include random, unplanned, individual
criminal acts. Instead, it focuses exclusively on planned, rational acts that reflect the effort of
groups of individuals. Several efforts have been made to elicit common elements to describe and
define organized crime with greater specificity.

A list of all the crimes committed by organized criminal groups would be outdated quickly as
social, political and technological changes result in changing opportunities for crime in different
locations. Therefore, the unit of analysis in most definitions is not the offence but the offender:
an organized criminal group. A better understanding of the nature of these groups will help in
developing more effective responses to them.

There are many definitions of organized crime. Analysis reveals that several characteristics of
organized crime are common among these definitions (Albanese, 2016; Finckenauer, 2005;
Hagan, 1983; Maltz, 1985). These characteristics include the purpose of organized crime to
financially profit through crime. Organized crime mainly responds to public demand for services.
Corruption is an enabler that protects organized crime operations. Sometimes intimidation,
threats and/or force are also needed to protect those operations. These elements comprise
organized crime as a continuing criminal enterprise.

For the purposes of these Modules, a general definition of organized crime could read as follows:

Definition of organized crime for the purpose of these Modules

Organized crime is a continuing criminal enterprise that rationally works to profit from illicit
activities that are often in great public demand. Its continuing existence is maintained through
corruption of public officials and the use of intimidation, threats or force to protect its
operations.

A general definition has limitations, however, because organized crime activity varies across
countries, regions, crime-types, and nature of its organization. Therefore, it is important to know
the general elements of organized crime, but greater knowledge is needed to understand how it
manifests in different locations and criminal contexts.

Definition in the Organized Crime Convention

The realization that not a single country, no matter how powerful, can fight organized crime
across borders in isolation, led to the passage of the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime, which came into force in 2003. The negotiations leading up to
this Convention caused Member States to consider the definition of organized crime in setting
the stage for international action.
The Convention does not contain a definition of transnational organized crime or organized
crime. There are many elements of organized crime, which might not occur in every case, and
might also change over time, making a specific consensus definition difficult. Instead, the
Convention defines "an organized criminal group." A precise definition is required because the
Convention aims at directing policy, law, and practice in preventing and combating organized
crime.

Under the Convention (article 2a), an "organized criminal group" is defined using four
criteria:
1. A structured group of three or more persons;
2. The group exists for a period of time;
3. It acts in concert with the aim of committing at least one serious crime;
4. To obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit.

Structured group is defined in the negative: as one that does not need a formal hierarchy or
continuity of its membership. This makes the definition broad, including loosely affiliated groups
without any formally defined roles for its members or a developed structure.

For purposes of the Convention, serious crime means an offence punishable by a maximum
penalty of incarceration of at least four years (article 2b). Four years was selected by
international consensus at the time of negotiation as a reflection of offence seriousness while it
recognizes that criminal codes vary widely around the world in prescribing incarceration for
various offences. There is no requirement for countries to introduce a definition of serious crime
or to follow the definition of the Convention. The definition of serious crime is included to
define the scope of application of the Convention and to invoke the international cooperation
provisions of the Convention.
The purpose of organized criminal groups
The interpretative notes to the Convention state that the words "in order to obtain, directly or
indirectly, a financial or other material benefit" should be understood broadly. It includes, for
example, crimes in which the predominant motivation may be sexual gratification, such as the
receipt or trade of materials by members of child pornography rings, the trading of children by
members of paedophile rings or cost sharing among ring members.

Source: Travaux Préparatoires of the negotiations for the elaboration of the United Nations Convention against
Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto.

The Convention has near universal adherence, representing the overwhelming majority of the
world's nations. For an updated list of countries that have ratified the Convention, please visit the
Strategies and Treaties section of UNODC Portal on Sharing Electronic Resources and Laws on
Crime (SHERLOC). The portal contains legislation, case law and other relevant information
regarding the implementation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime.

The definitions make clear that the size of an organized criminal group can be quite small
(although some organized criminal groups can be large), and it does not have to exist for a long
period of time (although some do). Significantly, the seriousness of the crimes committed by
these groups, and their profit-driven nature, are defining elements.
The Convention covers only transnational crimes, which are planned, executed, or have effects
across national borders. This broad definition of transnationality acknowledges the complexity of
the issue and sets the stage for broad international cooperation.

The element of transnationality

The offence is transnational if:
1. It is committed in more than one State;
2. It is committed in one State but a substantial part of its preparation, planning, direction or
control takes place in another State;
3. It is committed in one State but involves an organized criminal group that engages in
criminal activities in more than one State; or
4. It is committed in one State but has substantial effects in another State.
Source: United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, article 3.2.

It is important to note that, while the Convention covers only transnational crimes, in
article 34(2), it also specifies that the transnational element and the involvement of an organized
criminal group are not to be considered elements of those offences in domestic legislation for
criminalization purposes. This provision is to avoid loopholes in domestic legislation. The
Convention requires the criminalization of four specific offences: many organized criminal
groups utilize money laundering, corruption and obstruction of justice to protect their operations
from law enforcement. Therefore, that modus operandi has to be criminalized in all jurisdictions.
The Convention also requires the criminalization of participation in an organized criminal group.

Three protocols to the Convention relate to specific types of transnational crime:

trafficking in persons, smuggling of migrants and trafficking in firearms. These will be discussed
in other Guides as examples of transnational organized crime that often involve multiple
countries of origin, transit and destination, and strongly require concerted actions of these
countries to respond or prevent these crimes effectively.

Similarities and differences between organized crime and other forms of crime

Using the offence, rather than the offender, as a unit of analysis, some acts are clearly
"organized," in their commission but are not considered part of organized crime for the purpose
of the Organized Crime Convention. Organized crime is actually one type of several categories
of organized criminal behaviour.

White-collar crime, for instance, is related to and overlaps with organized crime and the
definition contained in the Organized Crime Convention allows to capture many cases of white
collar crime. Nonetheless, the two crimes have significant differences in that white-collar crime
occurs as a deviation from legitimate business activity, whereas organized crime occurs as
a continuing criminal enterprise that exists to profit primarily from illicit activity. White-collar
crime can be carried out by an individual whereas organized crime requires more people and
planning in order to carry out offences on a more systematic basis. White-collar crime can also
be carried out by organized criminal groups. There has been much research comparing the
linkages between organized crime and white-collar crime (Kegö, Leijonmarck and Molcean,
2011; Tusikov, 2012).
 Governmental bodies and politicians can also be considered offenders of organized crime
if the elements of the general definition are met. It is also important to notice that not only
individuals but also legal persons, such as corporations, can carry out crimes during the course of
business. Serious crime is frequently committed through or under the cover of legal entities.
Complex structures can effectively hide the true ownership, clients or particular transactions.
Legal persons may also be used to shield natural persons from liability, and complex structures
may be used to conceal illegal activity. The role of legal persons in illegal activity may span the
whole range of organized transnational crimes, from trafficking in persons, drugs or arms to
corruption and money laundering. Ensuring the liability of legal persons is therefore an important
component in combating transnational organized crime.

Terrorism is another form of "organized" criminal behaviour, but it is distinct from

organized crime. In general terms, terrorism involves crimes committed with the objective of
intimidating a population or compelling a government or international organization with a view
to achieving political or social objectives. Examples would include hostage-taking in order to
secure freedom for those seen as imprisoned unjustly or acts of violence done in retribution for
perceived past injustices. An act of terrorism has a political objective.

Organized crime, on the other hand, always seeks to obtain a financial or other material
benefit, whereas power and control can be secondary motives. Organized crime can involve
violence and coercion, but the objective in organized crime remains profit.

The definition of "organized criminal group" in the Organized Crime Convention only
includes groups that through their activities seek to obtain, directly or indirectly, a "financial or
other material benefit." This would not, in principle, include groups such as some terrorist or
insurgent groups, provided that their goals were purely non-material. However, the Convention
may still apply to crimes committed by those groups in the event that they commit crimes
covered by the Convention in order to raise financial or other material benefits.

In other words, while they generally pursue different objectives, activities of terrorists
and organized criminal groups can overlap (Bassiouni, 1990). A clear example is when terrorist
groups use organized crime activity to fund their political objectives. Terrorist organizations can
thus adopt the conventional tactics of organized criminal groups, such as generating profits from
drug trafficking, or other types of illicit trade. In this context, UN General Assembly Resolution
55/25 adopting the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime also calls upon States to
recognize the link between transnational organized criminal activities and acts of terrorism.

Another important element of distinction between these two crimes is that by definition,
organized crime cannot be committed by a single person (as spelled out in the definition of
organized criminal group provided by article 2(a) of the Organized Crime Convention) while a
terrorist act can be.
There is no definition agreed on by all Members States on terrorism. Instead, there are 19
universal legal instruments against terrorism negotiated over the last 50 years. Although
negotiations to draft a comprehensive convention on international terrorism have been
undergoing, so far the development of a comprehensive strategy against terrorism has been
constrained by the inability to agree on a definition of terrorism, among other issues.
The International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism provides a broad
definition that is reported below.
Broad definition of terrorism
Article 2-1: Any person commits an offence within the meaning of this Convention if that person
by any means, directly or indirectly, unlawfully and wilfully, provides or collects funds with the
intention that they should be used or in the knowledge that they are to be used, in full or in part,
in order to carry out: […]
(b) Any other act intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to a civilian, or to any other
person not taking an active part in the hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, when the
purpose of such act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a
government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act.

Source: International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism; FATF Interpretative Note to
Special Recommendation II on the Financing of Terrorism, defining terrorist act as the above, in addition to offences
under the universal anti-terrorism conventions and protocols negotiated as of 1999.

Organized criminal groups, however, may also adopt terrorist tactics of indiscriminate
violence and large-scale public intimidation to further criminal objectives or fulfil special
operational aims. Organized criminal groups and terrorist organizations may build alliances with
each other. The nature of these alliances varies broadly and can include one-off, short-term, and
long-term relationships. With time, criminal and terrorist groups may develop a capacity to
engage in both criminal and terrorist activities, thus forming entities that display the
characteristics of both groups. Figure 1.1 illustrates the crime-terror nexus. It shows that while
organized crime and terrorism have different objectives, they can also overlap.

Figure 1.1 Crime-terror nexus

Activities, organization and composition of organized criminal groups

Activities

Examining the descriptions and definitions of organized crime in criminal codes and case
studies, three primary categories of illegal behaviour emerge. These categories reflect the
individual crimes that are most commonly associated with organized crime activity (Albanese,
2015). The three categories include provision of illicit services, provision of illicit goods, and the
infiltration of legitimate business or government. Within each of these categories are offences
that are more specific.

The provision of illicit services attempts to satisfy the public demand for, for instance, sexual and
other forms of labour that is not permitted under law as well as procuring or facilitating the
illegal entry or stay of a person in a country. Specific offences in this category include trafficking
in persons, including for purposes of sexual exploitation, and smuggling of migrants.

Besides illicit services, organized criminal groups also provide particular products that a
segment of the public desires, but cannot obtain legally. Many people wish to buy illegal
products or legal ones at the lowest price possible, regardless of where the seller originally
obtained them, or unaware that the products may not be safe. Due to this demand, organized
criminal groups emerge who produce, buy and sell stolen, counterfeit or falsified merchandise,
i.e., stolen art and other cultural property, falsified medical products, illicitly manufactured/
traded firearms, illicit wildlife products and counterfeit food items. The stolen, counterfeit or
falsified property might also consist of automobiles, jewellery, stereo equipment, mobile phones,
software, or any other product for which there is a high consumer demand.

The third category of criminal activities is the infiltration of legitimate business or

government. An example is labour intimidation, which involves the use of force or threats to
obtain money for ensuring jobs or peace at construction sites. These offences often entail threats
to employers or employees that if money is not paid, there will be no job for the employees, or
that violence, strikes, or vandalism will occur at the employer's companies. There is a clear
connection between corruption and the infiltration of business or government, because public
officials are often willingly bribed or corrupted in these cases, or are coerced using intimidation
or threats.

The provision of illicit goods and the provision of illicit services can be distinguished
from the infiltration of legitimate business in their consensual nature and lack of inherent
violence, although there are clear exceptions, such as in the case of trafficking in persons.
Organized criminal groups who offer drugs, stolen property, or counterfeit goods rely on the
existing demand among the public to make money. Because they also rely heavily on return
business, they want the illicit transaction to go well in order to ensure future illicit sales and
exchanges.

In providing illegal goods and service, it is most common that members of the public who
are interested in these goods and services seek out the illicit opportunities. These exchanges are
usually non-violent, but violence or threats occur when one party to the transaction feels cheated
or short-changed. Violence can also occur when an organized criminal group attempts to
monopolize an illicit market by threatening its criminal competitors.

There are also many harms created by organized crime, and some of these are not often
visible. The trafficking and provision of illicit goods and services create economic harm to the
legitimate economy in supporting an underground, untaxed, illicit economy. There are also harms
to health and to the victims of these crimes. The harms that result from the infiltration of
legitimate business or government are associated with corruption and extortion. These offences
often involve intimidation, threats, or violence, causing economic harm, in addition to harm to
the legitimacy of public institutions, and the misuse of public funds for criminal purposes.

Figure 1.2 Types, activities and harms of organized crime

Organization

Membership and hierarchy

Organized criminal groups are organized in different ways. Some organized criminal
groups are hierarchical with some kind of structure and leadership within the group, as has been
found in some mafia groups. Some organized criminal groups are ethnically or culturally bound,
but may lack a clear hierarchical structure. Many groups more closely resemble networks
organized by needed skills or access to economic opportunities in illicit markets, rather than
relying on pre-existing relationships. Of course, there are variations and overlaps in the way
different organized criminal groups organize within societies and across borders.

Territorial versus non-territorial organized criminal groups

 Organized criminal groups differ in their relationship to specific territories or
jurisdictions. Some groups focus on a local territory and attempt to maintain monopoly control of
illegal activities in the area, enforcing their control through extortion and corruption. Territorial
groups include some traditional mafia groups, street gangs and maritime piracy groups. Other
organized criminal groups are non-territorial, and their activities regularly cross-jurisdictional
boundaries and national borders. Organized criminal groups that engage in cybercrime,
environmental crimes, and firearms trafficking are usually non-territorial in nature, which create
different problems for enforcement across jurisdictional boundaries (Barker, 2014; De Ruyver,
Vermeulen, Vander Beken, 2002; van Dijk, 2008; Viano, 2017). Smuggling of migrants is
transnational per definition.

Composition

Some typologies of organized crime attempt to classify by looking at who is involved in

the activity rather than by looking at the activity itself. Typologies of organized crime focus most
often on ethnicity and the nature of the structure of the organized criminal group.

Ethnicity or culture versus criminal markets

Ethnicity (i.e., the ancestry or culture of a particular group of people) is perhaps the most
common of all categorizations of organized crime, but it is not a good descriptor. This is because
criminal cases and research studies show that organized crime activities are often committed by
interethnic groups, and available criminal opportunities cause groups to emerge from many
different backgrounds. As Europol's Organized Crime Threat Assessment found, "Organized
criminal groups are as varied as the markets they service and the activities they engage in"
(Europol, 2017). Therefore, criminal markets and activities provide greater understanding of
organized crime than do ethnicity or national origin (UNODC, 2010).

Both historically and in contemporary society there are many examples of interethnic and
international organized crime (Block Alan, 1979; Blom and Jennissen, 2014; Bovenkerk and
Siegel 2003; Siegel and Bovenkerk, 2000). Europol found criminals of more than 180
nationalities were involved in serious and organized crime in the EU, and the majority of
organized criminal groups operating internationally had members of more than one nationality
(Europol, 2017). Biographical attributes, such as ethnicity or culture, can help describe a
particular person or group, but they do little to explain that person or group's behaviour, which
requires analysis of criminal markets and activities.

Illicit activities that the public desires combined with local availability, or other
opportunity factors, appear to dictate how and which type of criminal group will emerge to
exploit the opportunity. It is less common, but sometimes a group will attempt to create a
criminal opportunity through intimidation or extortion.

There have been many studies of criminal groups, and many have found them to be
loosely organized, due to the self-interest of each participant. So highly structured organized
criminal groups have been found to be less common (Adler, 1985; Antonopoulos, 2009; Ianni,
and Reuss-Ianni, 1973; Soudijn and Kleemans, 2009). A mafia member who became an
informer, Joseph Valachi, testified during the 1960s about his experience with Italian-American
organized crime. He stated that the function of the "family" or group was mutual protection;
otherwise, "everybody operates by himself" (U.S. Senate Committee on Government Operations
Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, 1963). Therefore, attention must be given to how
criminal markets and opportunities work to shape particular types of organized criminal groups.

Gender and organized crime

Organized crime was seen historically as masculine behaviour with women involved only
for purposes of exploitation, or as silent supporters of their partners' questionable activities. In
more recent years, closer attention has been paid to the role of women in organized crime
activity. Women have been found to be leaders in organized criminal groups, including
organizers of organized criminal activities and equal partners in crime. They have also been
found to assume assistant and supporting roles, subordinate to male criminals as stable and often
central support systems. Such tasks have included taking care of the finances of the organized
criminal group. In trafficking in persons cases, women have been found to act as the
intermediary between perpetrators and victims, often through a "promotion" from a victim to a
supervisory position (Arsovska and Allum, 2014; Global Initiative Secretariat, 2017;
Pizzini-Gambetta, 2014; UNODC, 2016).

Other analyses have found considerable evidence that women had knowledge and
awareness of the criminal affiliations of their male counterparts, and in some cases were active
participants in maintaining and concealing criminal activity (Bonanno and Donofrio, 1991;
Calder, 1995; O'Brien and Kurins, 1991; San, 2011). It is likely that additional investigations will
yield more evidence of female involvement in organized crime.

Young women and organized crime

"Girls and young women are pulled into gangs through their lives and exposure in areas where
gangs provide the principal forms of social organisation for young people ... The result is a litany
of lost lives and a reinforcing of a 'cycle of gangsterism and violence' as the young children they
bear are themselves vulnerable to being drawn into gang life."
Source: Shaw, Mark and Luke Lee Skywalker, 2017 (p. 12).

Summary

Organized crime is characterized by both the nature of the criminal conduct and also by the
structure of the criminal group. Under the UN Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime, an "organized criminal group" is defined using four criteria:

1. A structured group of three or more persons (that was not randomly formed);
2. The group exists for a period of time;
3. It acts in concert with the aim of committing at least one serious crime (punishable by at
least four years of incarceration);
4. To obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit.
 The three categories of crimes committed by these groups include the provision of illicit
services, the provision of illicit goods, and the infiltration of legitimate business or government.
The infiltration of legitimate business and government is distinguished from the provision of
illicit goods and services most clearly by its characteristic use of extortionate threats. To carry
out these activities, organized criminal groups are organized in different ways, often dependent
on opportunities.

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● Albanese, Jay S. (1982). What Lockheed and La Cosa Nostra Have in Common: The
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● Antonopoulos, Georgios A. (2009). Are the 'Others' Coming? Evidence on Alien
Conspiracy from Three Illegal Markets in Greece. Crime, Law and Social Change, vol.
52, 475-93.
● Arsovska, Jana and Felia Allum (2014). Introduction: Women and Transnational
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● Barker, Thomas (2014). Biker Gangs and Transnational Organized Crime. Routledge.
● Bassiouni, M. Cherif (1990). Effective National and International Action against
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● Bidgood, Jess (2012). Girlfriend of Crime Boss Gets 8-Year Prison Sentence. The New
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and the US in Combating Transnational Organized Crime. Maklu.
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● Van de Bunt, Henk, Siegel, Dina, and Zaitch, Damián (2014). The Social Embeddedness
of Organized Crime. The Oxford Handbook of Organized Crime. Oxford University
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International Approaches. Berlin: Springer.
 COMPARATIVE POLICE SYSTEM REVIEWER
Philippines Copyright, 2012

Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.

And

VICTOR O. DELOS SANTOS

All Rights Reserved

The text of this book or any part hereof, may not be reproduced or transmitted in
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Acknowledgments

To God Almighty, he has remain faithful from the time I was born from to the
present and even in times that I was not faithful to Him. His majestic name is
praised forever!

To Dr. Miller F. Peckley, whom I considered as a father in my Criminology, thank

you for the constant practical advices.

TO all authors of books and websites, this book could not have been realized
without their research and ideas.

To all my classmates and friends in the academe, namely:

Mr. Mario Rosete Dr. Bernard Paquitol

Mr. Rey Quilang Mr. Robino Cawi
Dr. Marcelo Catalino Dr. Reyvo Sannad
Pastor Darlito Bernard Delizo

To all my colleagues in the University of Baguio, you have been a constant

source of both trials and victory. You are such wonderful gifts from above.

To my students in comparative, they have helped me enriched the contents of

this book.
Dedication

I would like to dedicated this book to

my smart wife SOFIA

and to my obedient and respectful children

Soar Philip

Benedict “Bic Bic”

and Blessy.
FOREWORD
 The content of the book authorized by Dr. Vic Delos Santos is very important
today specially to terms of the coverage of the Criminologists Licensure Examination.
The subject comparative Police System is a new subject incorporated in the Licensure
Examination under the Law Enhancement Administration.

After reading the book I was amazed and impressed because the content is
simplified but very rich in terms of the data, ideas, and topics that are necessary for the
subject.

This book is a MUST to all criminology students and examiners as it s brilliant

tool that can help prepare you in your chosen field. Furthermore, it is recommended as
a resource material for Criminology faculty who are teaching Law Enforcement subjects.

DR. MILLER F. PECKLEY, CSP, CSMS

Preface

Writing a books especially on new topic needs a long period of research. The
time that I supposed to spend with my family was deprived. Thus, I am deeply indebted
from my wife Sofia and my children Soar Philip, Benedict and Blessy of their love,
patience and understanding.

The prime intention of writing this book is to offer material help to graduates of
BS Criminology in preparation to their taking the Criminologist Licensure examination.
This can be useful too as a reference book for Criminal Justice educators and students
in the Philippines.

Furthermore, this material is produced to bridge the gap on the inclusion of

Comparative Police System subject in Criminology curriculum provided under CHED
Memorandum 21 s., 2005 and actual teaching and learning practice.

As of the year 2012, this is the first and only book on Comparative Police System
reviewer. I am proud that it is a pioneering book written to set a new pathway that will
ameliorate the readers knowledge regarding this subject.

There are four challenging chapters of this book. The first chapter consist the
questions and answers regarding the salient features of comparative police system.
This will help you in gaining basic ideas on understanding the unique and evolution of
policing system in other countries. You will out the reasons why some nations have
lower crime rate than other countries.

Chapter two has four parts. First is the multiple choice question type which most
of the questions taken from the books. Second is the multiple choice questions type that
was taken from the internet. The last two parts of this chapter are the multiple choice
type on Law Enforcement as a whole. The answers are provided at the end of these
examinations.

In chapter three, it deals on the informational matrix regarding comparison of the

name of police force, department, highest rank and lowest rank of Asian countries. This
is simplified for easier understanding.

The 4th chapter is a matrix that covers the complete roster of ranks from highest
to lowest. Finally, chapter five enumerates some of the police types in the world.
Table of Contents

Pages

Preliminaries

Chapter I. Questions and Answers on Comparative Police

System………………………1 Chapter II. Multiple Choice

Questions………………………………………………….…..23 Test I Comparative Police

System…………………………………………………..23 Test II Comparative Police

System………………………………………………….39 Suggested

Answers………………………………………….………………..53 Test III Law

Enforcement Administration……………………………………..…….54 Suggested

Answers……………………………………………...……………73 Previous

Questions……………………………………………..……………..74 Test IV Law

Enforcement Administration……………………………………….…..75 Chapter III. Matrix

on Police Force Highest to Lowest Rank in Asian Countries…..…..93 Chapter IV. List of

Police Ranks ……………………………………………………………98 Chapter V. Types

of Police……………………………….…………………………….…..110 Guidelines in
 Reviewing ……………………………………………………………….……113 References

……………………………………………………………………………….…..115

Chapter I

Questions and Answers

Chapter I contains introductory questions and answers on the salient features of comparative
police system (cps). It is focused on the basic terms and topics covered on this subject prior to the actual
comparison of police system. Most questions in this chapter begins with the word what. 1. What is
Comparative Police System?

It is the science and art of investigating and comparing the police system of nations. It
covers the study of police organizations, trainings and methods of policing of various nations.

2. What is the Comparative Criminal Justice?

It is subfield of the study of Criminal Justice that compares justice systems worldwide.
Such study can take a descriptive, historical , or political approach. It studies the similarities and
differences in structure, goals, punishment and emphasis on rights as well as the history and
political stature of different systems.

3. What are the 3 basic functions of criminal justice system?

∙ policing
∙ adjudication
∙ corrections

4. What is the International Criminal Justice?

It involves the study and description of one country’s law, criminal procedure, or justice
(Erika Fairchild). Comparative criminal justice system attempts to build on the knowledge of
criminal justice in one country by investigating and evaluating, in terms of another country,
culture, or institution.

5. What is transnational crime?

It is a term that has been used in comparative and international criminal justice study in
recent years to reflect the complexity and enormity of global crime issues. It is defined by the
United Nations (UN) offences whose inception, proportion and/or direct or indirect effects
involve in more than one country. Examples are:

∙ Money laundering
∙ Drug trafficking
∙ Terrorism
∙ Human trafficking
 ∙ Cyber crimes

6. What is International Crime?

Defined as crimes against the peace and security of mankind (Adler, Mueller, and Laufer,
1994). The UN has identified the following as international crimes.

∙ Aggression (by one state against another)

∙ Treat of aggression
∙ Genocide (destroying a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group)
∙ Terrorism
∙ Drug trafficking

7. What is meant by model system?

Model system is used to described the countries being used as topics of discussion.
These countries are chosen not because they are greater than others but because they are the
focus of comparison being studied.

8. Why compare systems and issues in criminal justice?

According to Harry Damner there are many reasons why we need to compare but the
basic reasons are:

∙ To benefit from the experience of others

∙ To broaden our understanding of the different cultures and approaches to
problems
∙ To help us deal with the many transnational crime problems that plague our world
today

9. What are the 4 types of societies?

The following are the four types of societies in the world that comparativists study:

1. Folk-communal societies are also called primitive societies.

A folk-communal society has little codification law, no specification among police, and a
system of punishment that just lets things go for a while without attention until things
become too much, and then harsh, barbatic punishment is resorted to. Classic examples
include the early Roman gentles, African and Middle Eastern tribes, and Puritan settlements
in North America (with the Salem “with trials”).

2. Urban-commercial societies, which rely on trade as the essence of their market system.

An urban-commercial society has civil law (some standards and customs are written
down), specialized police forces (some for religious offenses, others for enforcing the King’s
Law), and punishment is inconsistent, sometimes harsh, sometimes lenient. Most of
Continental Europe developed along this path.
 3. Urban-industrial societies, which produce which produce most of the goods and services they
need without government interference.
An urban-industrial society not only has codified laws (statutes that prohibit) but laws
that prescribes good behavior, police become specialized in how to handle property crimes,
and the system of punishment is run on market principles of creating incentives and
disincentives. England and the U.S. followed this positive legal path.

4. Bureaucratic societies are modern post-industrial societies where the emphasis is upon
technique or the “technologizing” of everything, with the government.

A bureaucratic society has a system of laws (along with armies of lawyers), police who
tend to keep busy handling political crime and terrorism, and a system of punishment
characterized by over criminalization and overcrowding. The U.S. and perhaps only eight
other nations fit the bureaucratic pattern. Juvenile delinquency is a phenomenon that only
occurs in a bureaucratic society.

10. What are the 10 types of criminal justice law in the world?

1. Common Law System

These are also known as Anglo-American justice, and exist in most English-speaking
countries of the world, such as the U.S., England, Australia, and New Zealand. They are
distinguished by a strong adversarial system where lawyers interpret and judges are bound
by precedent. Common law systems are distinctive in the significance they attach to
precedent (the importance of previously decided cases). They primarily rely upon oral
systems of previously in which the public trial is a main focal point.

2. Civil Law System

Also know as Continental justice or Romano-Germanic justice, and practice throughout

most of the European Union as well as elsewhere, in places such as Sweden, Germany,
France, and Japan. They are distinguished by a strong inquisitorial system where fewer rights
are granted to the accused, and the written law is taken as gospel and subject to little
interpretation. For example, a French maxim goes like this: “If judge knows the answer, he
must not be prohibited from achieving it by undue attention to regulations of procedure and
evidence. By contrast, the common law method is for a judge to at least suspend belief until
the sporting event of a trial is over. Legal scholarship is much more sophisticated and elitist
in civil law systems, as opposed to the more democratic common law countries where just
about anybody can get into law school. Romano-Germanic systems are founded on the basis
of natural law, which is a respect for traditional and custom. The sovereigns, or leaders, of a
civil law system are considered above the law, as opposed to the common law notion that
nobody is above the law.

3. Socialist Systems

These are also known as Marxist-Leninist justice, and exist in many places, such as Africa
 and Asia, where there has been a Communist revolution or the remnants of one. They are
distinguished by procedures designed to rehabilitate or retrain people into fulfilling their
responsibilities to the state. It is the ultimate expression of positive law, designed to move
the state forward toward the perfectibility of state and mankind. It is also primarily
characterized by administrative law, where non-legal officials make most of the decisions.
For example, in a socialist state, neither judges nor lawyers are allowed to make law. Law is
the same as policy, and an orthodox Marxist view is that eventually, the law will not be
necessary.

4. Islamic System

Are also known as Muslim or Arabic justice, and derive all their procedures and practices
from interpretation of the Koran. These are exceptions, however. Various tribes (such as the
Siwa in the desert of North Africa) are descendents of the ancient than the harsher Shariah
punishments. Islamic systems in general are characterized by the absence of positive law
(the use of law to move societies forward toward some progressive future) and are based
more on the concept of natural justice (crimes are considered acts of injustice that conflict
with tradition). Religion plays an important role that Islamic systems, so much a role that
most nations of this type are theocracies, where legal rule and religious rule go together.

11. What are the Comparative Research Methods?

Comparative research is usually carried out by the following:

A. “Safari” method (a researcher visits another country) or “collaborative” method (the

researcher communicates with a foreign researcher).
B. Published works tend to fall into three categories:
∙ Single – culture studies (the crime problem of a single foreign country is discussed) ∙
Two-culture studies (the most common type) Comprehensive textbooks (it covers three
or more countries). The examination of crime and its control in the comparative context
often requires an historical perspective since the phenomena under study are seen as
having developed under unique social, economic, and political structures.

C. Historical-comprehensive method the most often employed by researchers. It is basically an

alternative to both quantitative and qualitative research methods that is sometimes called
historiography or holism.

12. What are the Countries with lesser or no crime?

a. Switzerland
For many years used to have travel brochures saying “there is no crime in Switzerland”,
and criminologist were stumped on why this was so, whether because of the high rate of
firearm ownership or the extensive welfare system. It turned out that the Swiss (along with
some other welfare nations, like Sweden) were not reporting all their crime rate. However, it
was true that their crime rate was fairly low.

Reasons of having low crime rates

 ∙ They did not remarkable job managing their underclass population, the poor
people who lived the ghettos and slums.
∙ Swiss crime control is highly effective in using an “iron fist, velvet glove” approach
toward those who commit crime and come from the bottom echelons
of Swiss society. For example, when a poor person commits a crime, the
government goes to work analyzing the family, educational, and employment
needs of everyone in that poor person’s family. Then, after some punishment
(which the offender frequently agrees with as deserved, a long term treatment
plan is put into effect to raise that family out of poverty.

b. Japan
Another country with an interestingly low crime rate is Japan where the crime rates are
not necessarily that low, but stable and resistant to fluctuating spikes.
Some reasons of having low crime rates are the characteristics of this country which
include:
∙ community policing
∙ a patriarchal family system
∙ the importance of higher education,
∙ and the way businesses serve as surrogate families.

Asian societies are also “shame-based” rather than guilt-based” as Western societies are. For
example, it is unthinkable to commit a crime in such places because of shame it would bring
upon one’s family and the business or corporation with which that family is associated with.

c. Ireland
Ireland is another place with a unexpectedly low crime rate. Despite a serious
unemployment, the presence of large urban ghettos, and a crisis with religious terrorism,
the Irish pattern of urban crime is no higher than its pattern or rural crime.

The key reason of having low crime rate is the factor that appears to be:
a. A sense of hope and confidence among the people Legitimate surveys, for example,
show that 86% of more of the population believe that the local authorities are well
skilled and doing everything they can.
b. People felt like they had a high degree of population participation in crime control.

d. Egypt
The Siwa Oasis in Egypt is another place with little or no crime. The population of 23,000
consists of 11 tribes who are the descendants of ancient Greeks, and it is said that Plato
himself fashioned his model or perfect government in the Republic there. The inhabitants
practice a moderate form of Islamic justice, rejecting Shariah punishment and embracing
Urrf law (the law of tradition). Conflicts are resolved by a tribal council, and there are no jails
or prisons. The last known crime occurred around 1950, and was an act of involuntary
manslaughter. The typical punishment of wrong doing is social ostracization (shunning). This
type of society is an excellent example of the folk-communal, or informal justice system.

13. What are the 7 Theories of Comparative Criminology?

 According to Scheider (2001), the various theories that exist with empirical support are
the following theories of comparative Criminology:
1. Alertness to crime theory is that as a nation develops, people’s alertness to crime is
heightened, so they report more crime to police and also demand the police become more
effective at solving crime problems.
2. Economic or migration theory is that crime everywhere is the result of unrestrained migration
and over population in urban areas such as ghettos and slums.
3. Opportunity theory is that along with higher standards of living, victims become more
careless of their belongings, and opportunities for committing crime multiply. 4. Demographic
theory is based on the event of when a greater number of children are being born, because as
these baby booms grow up, delinquent subcultures develop out of the adolescent identity crisis.
Deprivation theory holds that progress comes along with rising expectations, and people at the
bottom develop unrealistic expectations while people at the top don’t see themselves rising fast
enough.
5. Modernization theory sees the problem as society becoming too complex. 6. Theory of
anomie and synomie (the latter being a term referring to social cohesion on values), suggests
that progressive lifestyle and norms result in the disintegration of older norms that once held
people together (anomie).

14. What are the types of police in the world?

The following are some of the types of police

1. Uniformed police
2. Detectives
3. Auxiliary
4. Special police
5. Military police
6. Religious police
7. Border police
8. Transport police

15. Differentiate centralized from decentralized system of law enforcement?

Decentralized Law Enforcement

Decentralized police refers to a system where police administrations and operations are
independent from one state to another. It is more applicable to countries with federal government.

In many countries, particularly those with a federal system of government, there may be several
police or police-like organizations, each serving different levels of government and enforcing
different subsets of the applicable law. The United States has a highly decentralized and fragmented
system of law enforcement, with over 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies. Germany
and UK have also decentralized law enforcement agencies.

Countries with Centralized policing system

Simply means on police force operating in a country.
Some countries, such as Chile, Israel, Philippines, France, Austria, use a centralized system of
policing. A country with only one recognized police force which operates entire that country is called
is called centralized police. Thus, Philippines is an example of centralized police because the
Philippine National Police has one central office with many regional, provincial and local branches
throughout the country.
16. What can the Philippines National Police Adopt?

As to organization, decentralization of regional or city police office that can be

financially support its operation. This is to do away with the scenario that the fault of Manila is
the fault of the entire officers of the PNP.

As the responsibilities, the specific functions of officers assigned in the Koban and
Chuzaizho can be applied hence, the new PNP officers can be assigned to

A. Gather data related to his jurisdiction (for city police officer) like list of people who are -
working late at night who might be of help as witnesses to crime
- not engage in formal employment (stand by)
- owns gun or swords
- with mental illness
- old living in the area alone who should be visited periodically
- leaders of legitimate organizations
- leaders of illegitimate organization
- total population
- list of households, rented homes and apartments

B. Conduct the following (for provincial or municipal police officer) like

∙ Visit each house twice a year to be acquainted and to determine their needs related to law
enforcement
∙ Seminars among barangay leaders related to peace and order

As to the general entry qualification, height must not be a requirement (from UK Law
Enforcement) when the applicant has an above average intelligent quotient. As to participation of
civilian, accreditation of individuals who are not members of the PNP but with specialization in the
fields related to law enforcement is encourage.
For example, priest, pastors and ministries may be involved in values trainings of the PNP.
Biologist, Ballisticians and other related profession may be accredited to help in law enforcement
exercises.
Another on organization and supervision, the PNP may be separated and be fully controlled and
supervised by the National Police Commission without interference of local executives. For example,
a City Chief of Police could have same position as a City Mayor. The former is in charge with peace
and order and law enforcement concerns while the last later is more an administration of the city’s
concern not covering the concern of the chief of police. Coordination and cooperation are
imperative in this recommendation. This idea will empower the PNP to initiate a more constructive
and practical ways to improve peace and order. This recommendation may also reduce the incidence
of taking orders from the whims and caprices of corrupt politicians, examples is the Maguindanao
Massacre.

17. What are the 2 Types of Court Systems of the World?

 1. Adversarial System
In adversarial the accused is innocent until proven guilty, and inquisitorial, where the
accused is guilty until proven innocent or mitigated. The U.S. adversarial system is unique in
the world. No other nation, not even the U.K. places as much emphasis upon determination
of factual guilt in the courtroom as the U.S. does. Outside the U.S. most trials are concerned
with legal guilt where everyone knows the offender did it, and the purpose is to get the
offender to apologize, own up to their responsibility, argue for mercy, or suggest an
appropriate sentence for themselves.
2. Inquisitorial Systems
Where lesser rights are granted to the accused, and the written law is taken as gospel
and subject to little interpretation.

18. What is Globalization?

Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies,

and government of different nations, as process driven by international trade and investment
and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture,
on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well
being in societies around the world.

In economic context, it refers to the reduction and removal of barriers between national
borders in order to facilitate to flow of goods, capital, services and labor..although considerable
barriers remain to the flow of labor.

19. What are Effects of Globalization to La w Enforcement in the Philippines? (V. Delos Santos) ∙ The
facilitation of transnational crimes and criminals can be easily achieved. ∙ There is a need for
transnational policing. The cooperation among police organization in the world is vital.
∙ Training instructional for incoming law enforcement officers must include advance
computer to prepare them as cyber cops so they can be better prepared to deal with
cyber crimes.
∙ Development of new strategies to deal with international organized crimes is a must. ∙
Provisions of law enforcement with updated legislations related to modernization theory of
crime.

20. What are the Threats to Law Enforcement Brought by Globalization

International criminal networks have been quick to take advantage of the opportunities
resulting from the revolutionary changes in world politics, technology, and communication that
have strengthened democracy and free markets, brought the world’s nations closer together,
and given the some countries unprecedented security and prosperity.

Globalization allowed international criminals to expand their networks and increase

their cooperation in illicit activities and financial transactions.

Criminals have taken advantage of transitioning and more open economies to establish
front companies and quasi-legitimate businesses that facilitates smuggling, money laundering,
 financial frauds, intellectual property piracy, and other illicit ventures.

Criminal groups have taken advantage of the high volume of legitimate trade to smuggle
drugs, arms, and other contraband across national boundaries.
Criminals are able to exploit the complexity of the international system to hide drugs or
other contraband or to conceal the true origin and ownership of cargo within contraband is
hidden.

Through the use of computers, international criminals have an unprecedented capability

to obtain, process, and protect information and sidestep law enforcement investigations. They
can use the interactive capabilities of advanced computer and telecommunications systems to
plot marketing strategies for drugs and other illicit commodities, to find the most efficient
routes and methods for smuggling and moving money or banking security. International
criminals also take advantage of the speed and magnitude of financial transactions and the fact
that there are few safeguards to prevent abuse of the system to move large amounts of money
without scrutiny. More threateningly, some criminals organizations appear to be adept at using
technology for counter intelligence purpose and for tracking law enforcement activities.

21. What are the Different Police Global Organizations?

The different police international associations in the world are

∙ ASEAN Chiefs of Police
∙ Europol
∙ IACP
∙ Interpol
∙ UN policing

22. When was ASEAN Chiefs of Police Establish?

Aseanapol (ASEAN Chiefs of police) was established in 1998.

23. What are the member of countries of ASEAN CP?

∙ Indonesia
∙ Malaysia
∙ Philippines
∙ Singapore
∙ Thailand
∙ Brunei Darussalam
∙ Vietnam
∙ Lao PDR
∙ Myanmar
∙ Cambodia

24. What are the objectives of ASEANAPOL?

1. Enhancing police professionalism

 2. Forging stronger regional co-operation in police work and promoting lasting friendship among
the police officers of ASEAN countries.
25. What is EUROPOL?

It means European Police Office or Europol

Europal is the European Union’s criminal intelligence agency. It became fully operational
on 1 July 1999.

26. What is the aim of Europol?

Europol’s aim to improve the effectiveness and co-operation between the competent
authorities of the member states primarily by sharing and pooling intelligence to prevent and
combat serious international organized crime. Its mission is to make a significant contribution to
the European Union’s law enforcement efforts targeting organized crime.

27. What is the mission of Europol?

The mission of Europol is to make a significant contribution to the European Union’s law
enforcement action against organized crime and terrorism with an emphasis on targeting
criminal organizations.

28. How does Europol Assist Member States Investigations?

Europol supports the law enforcement activities of the member states by:
Facilitating the exchange of information between Europol and Europol Liaison Officers
(ELO’s) are seconded the Europol by the Members States as representatives of their national law
enforcement agencies, thus they are not under the command of Europol and its Director as
such. Furthermore, they act in accordance with their national law.

Providing operational analysis and support to Member States operations;

Providing expertise and technical support for investigations and operations carried out
within the EU, under the supervision and the legal responsibility of the Member States;

Generating strategic reports (e.g. threat assessment) and crime analysis on the basis of
information and intelligence supplied by Member States or gathered from other sources.

29. What is Europol’ss mandate?

Europols supports the law enforcement activities of the member states mainly against:

∙ Illicit drug trafficking

∙ Illicit immigration networks;
∙ Terrorism; Forgery of money (counterfeiting of the euro) and other means of
payment;
∙ Trafficking in human beings (including child pornography);
∙ Illicit vehicle trafficking;
 ∙ Money laundering.
30. Does Europol only act on request?

Yes, Europol only acts on request at present. However, the Protocol of the 28 November
2002 amending the Europol convention, allows Europol to request the competent authorities of
the Member States to investigate. Article 3 b) of the Protocol states that “Member States should
be deal with any request from Europol to initiate, conduct or co-ordinate investigations in
specific cases and should give such requests due consideration. Europol should be informed
whether the requested investigation will be initiated”.

31. What is the added value of having Europol as a European law enforcement agency?

There are numerous advantages for the European law enforcement community. Europol
is unique in this field as it is multi-disciplinary agency, comprising not only regular price officers
but staff members from the various law enforcement agencies of the Member States and
covering specialized areas such as customs, immigration services, intelligence services, border
and financial police.

32. What is IACP?

It stands for International Association of Chiefs of Police. The International Association

of Chiefs of Police is the world’s oldest and largest nonprofit membership organization of police
executives, with over 20,000 members in over 80 different countries. IACP’s leadership consists
of the operating chief executes of international, federal, state and local agencies of all sizes.

33. What are the Missions of IACP?

The IACP shall

1. Advance professional police services;
2. Promote enhanced administrative, technical, and operational police practices, foster
cooperation and the exchange of information and experience among police leaders
and police organizations of recognized professional and technical standing
throughout the world.

34. What is Interpol?

Interpol is the short form of International Criminal Police Organization. It began in 1923,
and at the same time its name was International Criminal Police Commission. In 1956, its name
became International Criminal Police Organization. The word Interpol was a short of
International Criminal Police Organization. This short form served as the address to receive
telegrams. Slowly, the name of this international organization became famous as Interpol. Now,
Interpol is the second biggest international organization; the United Nations is the first. Some
important information about Interpol:

Interpol is crime fighting organization, just like your local police department. Instead,
they help other member countries that need to co-operate by connecting all members of
Interpol by a network of files of criminals and cases if any of Interpol’s 182 nations need them.
35. What does Interpol do?

Interpol records any information about something that was in a criminal case, ex:
information on criminals, type of crime, vehicles, anything to help any police officer with
information about a certain crime.

36. Why was Interpol created?

The countries in Europe needed a co-operation between countries. This was needed
because criminals would commit crimes in one country in Europe and then skip to another
country to avoid prosecution. Since Europe is a tightly packed continent, police didn’t have
enough time to catch criminals, and the idea was created.

37. What UN Police Do?

One of the objectives of the Philippine National Police Officers being deployed in the UN
mission is for mentoring other law enforcement of foreign countries like East Timor and Kosovo.
Assistance to host-state police and other law enforcement agencies. United Nations Police
Officers support the reform, restructuring and rebuilding of domestic police and other law
enforcement agencies through training and advising. Direct assistance is also provided, often
through trust funds, for the refurbishment of facilities and the procurement of vehicles,
communication equipment and other law enforcement material. Such assistance has been
provided in the past, for example, by the police components of peace operations in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Burundi, Cote dlvoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Haiti, Kosovo, Liberia and
Sierre Leone.

38. What is Transnational Organized Crime?

Transnational organized crime involves the planning and execution of illicit business
ventures by groups or networks of individuals working in more than one country. These criminal
groups use systematic violence and corruption to achieve their goal. Crimes commonly include
money laundering; human smuggling; cybercrime; and trafficking of humans, drugs, weapons,
endangered species, body parts, or nuclear material.
Transnational crime ring activities weaken economies and financial systems and
undermine democracy. These networks often prey on governments that are not powerful
enough to oppose them, prospering on illegal activities, such as drug trafficking that bring them
immense profits. In carrying out illegal activities, they upset the peace and stability of nations
worldwide, often using bribery, violence, or terror to achieve their goals.

39. What the Major Transnational Organized Crime Groups?

Transnational crime often operate in well-organized groups, intentionally united to carry

out illegal actions. Groups typically involve certain hierarchies and are headed by a powerful
leader. These transnational organized crime groups work to make a profit through illegal
activities. Because groups operate internationally, their activity is a threat to global security,
often weakening governmental institutions or destroying legitimate business endeavors.
 Well-known organized crime groups include:
∙ Russian Mafia.
Around 200 Russian groups that operate in nearly 60 countries worldwide. They
have been involved in racketeering, fraud, tax evasion, gambling, drug
trafficking, ransom, robbery and murder.
∙ La Cosa Nostra.
Known as the Italian or Italian-American mafia. The most prominent organized
crime group in the world from the 1920’s to the 1990’s. They have been
involved in violence, arson, bombings, torture, sharking, gambling, drug
trafficking, health insurance fraud, and political and judicial corruption.
∙ Yakuza
Japanese criminal group. Often involved in multinational criminals activities,
including human trafficking, gambling, prostitution, and undermining licit
businesses.
∙ FukChing.
Chinese organized group in the United States. They have been involved in
smuggling, street violence, and human trafficking.
∙ Triads.
Underground criminal societies based in Hong Kong. They control secret
markets and bus routes and are often involved in money laundering and drug
trafficking.
∙ Heijin
Taiwanese gangsters who are often executives in large corporations. They are
often involved in white collar crimes, such as illegal stock trading and bribery,
and sometimes run for public office.
∙ Jao Pho.
Organized crime group in Thailand. They are often involved in illegal political
and business activity.
∙ Red Wa.
Gangsters from Thailand. They are involved in manufacturing and trafficking
methamphetamine.

40. What is Human Trafficking?

Human Trafficking is the illegal in human beings for the purposes of commercial sexual
exploitation or forced labor: a modern-day form of slavery. It is the fastest growing criminal
industry in the world, and tied with the illegal arms industry as the second largest, after the
drug, trade.
Human Trafficking is a crime against humanity. It further defined as an act of recruiting,
transporting, transferring, harboring or receiving a person through a use of force, coercion or
other means, for the purpose of exploiting them. Every year, thousands of men, women and
children fall into the hands of traffickers, in their own countries and abroad. Every country in the
world is affected by trafficking, whether as a country of origin, tansit or destination for victims.
UNODC, as guardian of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime
(UNTOC) and the Protocols thereto, assists States in their efforts to implement the Protocol to
Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Person (Trafficking in Persons Protocol).
 41. What are the Elements of Human Trafficking?
On the basis of the definition given in the trafficking in persons protocol, t is evident
that trafficking in persons has three constituent elements;

∙ The Act (What is done)

Recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons
∙ The Means (How it is done)
Threat or use of force, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or
vulnerability, or giving payments or benefits to a person in control of the victim ∙
The Purpose (Why it is done)
For the purpose of exploitation, which include exploiting the prostitution of
others, sexual exploitation, forced labor, slavery or similar practices and the
removal of organs.

To ascertain whether a particular circumstances constitutes trafficking in persons, consider the

definition of trafficking in the Trafficking in Persons Protocol and the constituent elements of the
offence, as defined by relevant domestic legislation.

42. What is Drug Trafficking?

Drug trafficking involves selling drugs and drug paraphernalia, whether is it local
exchange between a user and a dealer or a major international operation. Drug trafficking I a
problem that affects every nation in the world and exists in many levels.
Drug trafficking is the commercial exchange of drugs and drug paraphernalia. This
include any equipment used to manufacture illegal drugs or use them.

43. What are Cybercrimes?

Cybercrimes are generally defined as any type of illegal activity that makes use of the
Internet, a private or public network, or an in-house computer system. While many forms of
cybercrime revolve around the appropriation of proprietary information for unauthorized use,
other examples are focused more on a invasion of privacy. As a growing problem around the
world, many countries are beginning to implement laws and other regulatory mechanisms in an
attempt to minimize the incidence of cybercrime.

44. What is Terrorism?

1. The use of violence and threats to intimidate or coerce, especially for political
purposes.
2. The state of fear and submission produced by terrorism for terrorization.
3. A terroristic method of governing or of resisting a government.

Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion. At present,

the International community has been unable to formulate a university agreed, legally binding,
criminal law definition of terrorism. Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent
acts which are intended to create fear (terror), are perpetrated for a religious, political, or
 ideological goal, and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (civilians).
Some definitions also include acts of unlawful violence and war. This history of terrorism
organizations suggest that they do not select terrorism for its political effectiveness. Individual
terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with other members of
their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives, which are often murky and
undefined.

45. What is Money Laundering?

Money Laundering is the process of creating the appearance that large amounts of
money obtained from serious crimes, such as drug trafficking, originated from a legitimate
source. It is a crime in many jurisdictions with varying definitions. It is a key operation of the
underground economy.

46. Who is the only Filipino Former President of the Interpol?

Jolly R. Bugarin was the Filipino President of the Interpol in 1980 – 1984 after the term
of Carl G. Persson of Sweden.
Chapter II

Multiple Choice Questions

This chapter is divided into four divisions of multiple choice type of examination. It is intended
to prepare the reviewee to pass the licensure examination. The suggested answer are provided at the
end of each exam, except for the last set of examination.

Test I. Multiple Choice:

Directions: Select the best answers. Letters only.

1. Mongolia’s Security forces are divided into agencies, which of this responsible for internal
defense?
a. Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs
b. Ministry of Home Affairs
c. General Intelligence
d. Ministry of Defense

2. The duration training of private and sergeant officer in Mongolia is months while those assigned
lieutenant will spend years in Mongolia Police Academy. a. 6 to 12 months, 2-4 years
b. 6 to 10 months, 1-3 years
c. 3 to 6 months, 3-5 years
d. 3 to 6 months, 1-4 years

3. “Aymag” in police of Mongolia means

a. Municipality b. City c. Province d. State

4. Kuwait government s very rigid in screening of its police officer except in the qualification of a.
 education b. citizenry c. relationship of tribal groups d. relationship of the ruling family

5. What is the lowest rank in Police Kuwait?

a. Constable b. Private 1st class c. Police Officer I d. Police Constable

6. Police Act of 1963 is the law establishing

a. Police in Nepal b. Police in Malaysia c. Police in Taiwan d. Police in Trinidad Tobago

7. Which of the following countries which decentralized policing system?

a. Indonesia b. Philippines c. Kuwait d. Germany

8. In Pakistan, this law made their police organization the norm to be followed in all provinces under
the British Rule. What is this law?
a. Police Act of 1861 b. Police Act of 1881 c. Police Act of 1871 d. Police Act of 1891
9. Republic Act number 6975 is the law creating the PNP organization under the DILG while Republic
Act Number 8551 refers to the law of “Philippine National Police Reform and Reorganization act
of 1998. What is the Taiwan’s law similar these laws?
a. Police Act no. 3 of 1889 c. Police Act no. 3 of 1888
b. Police Act no. 4 of 1889 d. Police Act. No. 4 of 1888

10. The duties of police are defined by the law on authorities of the Interior and concern the
maintenance of public order and fight against crime in Kyrgzstan. a. 2005 b. 1985 c. 1995 d.
1975

11. Although the educational qualifications may vary from province to province, generally the
requirement for constables in Pakistan is?
a. 12 years of school education
b. 10 years of school education
c. 11 years of school education
d. 9 years of school education

12. In Angola, the age qualification to become police is .

a. 18 to 55 years old b. 18 to 35 years old c. 18 to 45 years old d. 18 to 25 years old

13. In Sri Lanka, the following are the three divisions of police ranks, except: a. Gazzetted
officers b. Junior Gazzetted officers c. Senior Gazzetted officers d. Non Gazzetted officers

14. Which of the following s the lowest rank in Police Sri Lanka?
a. Police Constable Class I c. Police Constable Class 2
b. Police Constable Class 3 d. Police Constable Class 4

15. What is the highest rank in Kuwait Police

a. Lt. General b. Major General c. General d. Brigadier General

16. Punjab prison in located in?

a. Oman b. Israel c. Saudi Arabia d. Pakistan
17. The equivalent of Senior Police officer 4 (SP04 in the PNP) to that Kazakhstan Law enforcement
rank is?
a. Senior praporshik of militsiya
b. Senior starshina of militsiya
c. Senior sergeant of militsiya
d. Senior private of militsiya

18. Police officer 2 in the Philippines is in Israel?

a. RavNitzav b. RavShoter c. Nitzav d. Shoter

19. What is the appropriate number of professional police officers in Izrael?

a. 30,000 b. 7,000 c. 300,000 d. 70,000 20. What is the main mission of police in

India?

a. Safer India b. Towards Safer India c. Towards Peaceful India d. Peaceful India

21. “Chowkidars” means

a. Volunteer police in India
b. Municipal police in India
c. Rural police in India
d. Urban police in India

22. In India, there are three levels of entry into the police force. What are these? a. First is as
constable, for which at least a secondary school education is required. b. For the second level of
entry, the qualification is a degree in any discipline. c. Candidate has to sit for a written
examination, and later for an interview. d. For scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, marginal
concession are given in respect to education qualification and age
a. a, b and c b. c, b and d c. a, b and d d. c, a and b

23. United Kingdom has no national police force, only a network of individual forces, which may
coordinate more centrally in times of crisis through what are known as mutual aid procedures.
This statement is true. These statements are
a. True b. False c. Partially True d. Partially False

24. The federal government is prohibited from exercising general police powers due to restrictions in
the constitution, because the United States is organized as a union of sovereign states, which
earn retain their police, military and domestic law-making power. This statement is a. True b.
False c. Partially True d. Partially False

25. The United States has 3 styles of policing. Which of these is emphasizes the maintaining order,
usually found in communities with a declining industrial base, and a blue-collar, mixed
ethnic/racial population. This form of policing is implicitly less pro-active than other styles, and
certain offenses may be “overlooked” on a variety of social, legal, and cultural grounds, as long
as the public order is maintained.
a. Watchman b. Service c. Legalistic d. Security
26. The Royal Police of Brunei is in charge of the following functions. Except
a. Prisons b. fire services c. the issuing of licenses d. immigration

27. The country of Cambodia is surrounded by

a. Laos b. Vietnam c. Thailand d. Persian Gulf a. a, b and c b. b, c and d c. a, b and d d. all
of the above

28. Which of the following countries that include in their the two-month training course the
Information Technology designed to improve their ability to process ID cards? a. Cambodia b.
California c. Columbia d. Sri Lanka

29. What are the three security agencies under the Syrian law enforcement? a. General security
b. state security c. political security d. territorial security a. a, b and c b. b, c and d c. a, b and
d d. all of the above
30. The equipment of Police Officer I in Cambodian law enforcement rank is a. Officer cadet b.
warrant officer c. chief warrant officer d. constable

31. The flag of Iraq has three equal horizontal bands of red (top) white and black, the takbir in green
Arabic script is centered in the white band. That is meant by takbir?
a. God is great b. God loves Iraq c. God saves Iraq d. God saves Saddam

32. The equivalent of National Police Commission in the Philippines in Sir Lanka is
a. National Police Commission
b. National Public Security Commission
c. National Police Board
d. National Police Protection Commission

33. The name of Kuwait is derived from the Arabic meaning fortress built near water.
a. Akwat b. Kouwati c. Kauwat d. Kouwat

34. The – ISF al-mudiriyya al-‘aama li-Quwwa al-Amin al-Dakhili) or Forcers de Securitereriure (FSI)
in French is the national police and security force of Lebanon which means.
a. Internal security forces
b. Security for Peace and Order
c. Peace and Order Security Force
d. Police security Force

35. The highway patrol or motorway police in Germany is

a. Wasserschutzpolizei b. Autobahnpolizei c. Spezialeinsatzkommando d. Higpatrolpolizie

36. What is the equivalent of National Police Commissions in the Philippines to that of Japan Law
Enforcement?
a. National Public Safety Commission
b. National Police Agency Commission
c. National Police and Public Commission
d. National Public and Safety Commission
37. Under the Japanese historical police organization, which of the following is in charge of the
investigation and control of political groups and ideologies deemed to be a threat to public
order?
a. Tokko b. Tokeitai c. Kempetai d. Kidotai

38. Below are included functions of police in Japan which is gathering of information related to their
duties. The information they gather include the following except those
a. Working late at night who might be of help as witnesses to crime
b. Normally cooperative with the police
c. Not engage in formal employment (stand by)
d. Owns gun or swords

a. a, b and c b. no exception c. a, b and d d. all of the above

39. One of the opportunities brought by globalization to law enforcement is that criminals have
taken advantage of transitioning and more open economies to establish front companies and
quasi-legitimate businesses that facilitate smuggling, money laundering, financial frauds,
intellectual property piracy, and other illicit ventures. This statement is
a. True b. partly false c. false d. Partly false

40. The statement that “criminal groups have taken advantage of the high volume of legitimate
trade to smuggle drugs, arms, and other contraband across national boundaries” is considered a.
Threat to law enforcement brought by globalization
b. Opportunity to law enforcement brought by globalization
c. Both threat and opportunity to law enforcement
d. Challenge to law enforcement

41. Policing plays an increasingly important role in United Nations peacekeeping and this looks set
to grown in the year ahead, especially as the international community seeks to develop the rule of
law and reform security institutions in States recovering from conflict. This is the concept of a.
Transnational policing b. Global policing c. National policing d. Divided policing

42. The following are international police associations in the world, except:
a. Europol
b. IACP
c. Interpol
d. None of the above

43. Which of the following is not a member of ASEAN Chiefs of Police?

a. Indonesia b. Philippines c. Malaysia c. North Korea

44. Does Europol only act on request?

a. Yes, Europol should be informed whether the requested investigation will be initiated. b. Yes,
member states should deal with any request from Europol to initiate, conduct or co ordinate
investigations in specific cases and should give such request due consideration. c. a and b are
correct
d. only b is correct
45. Where is the present Interpol headquarters located?
a. Lyon, France b. Saint Cloud, a town located near Paris c. Italy d. London

46. As of 2012, what is the estimate total member country of the Interpol?
a. 300 b. 100 c. 200 d. 50

47. Interpol does not take political side in its work. It takes cases where the crime or the matter
relates to more than one country. It looks after many types of cases. Some of them are noted
below, except:
a. Terrorism b. Illicit drug production c. Organized crime d. rebellion

48. The countries in Europe needed a co-operation between countries. This was needed because
criminals would commit crimes in one country in Europe and then skip to another country to
avoid prosecution. Since Europe is tightly packed continent, police didn’t have enough time to
catch criminals, this was the idea why?
a. Interpol was created b. UN police was created c. Europol was created d. IACP was created

49. Which of the following is not a mission of the IACP?

a. Advance professional police service
b. Promote enhanced police administration
c. Foster cooperation and the exchange of information and experience among the police leaders
and police organizations of recognized professional and technical standing throughout the
world.
d. Arrest the suspect

50. The Taiwanese gangsters who are often executes in large corporations. They are often involved
in white collar crimes, such as illegal stock trading and bribery, and sometimes run for public
office. This is
a. Heijin b. Red Wa c. Jao Pho d. La Cosa Nostra

51. In Cambodian Law enforcement, the police are organized into six departments. Which of the
following is not one of them?
a. security b. public order c. transport d. investigation

52. Indonesia Police has command and divided into territorial force. Which of these is called
provincial police?
a. Kepolisian Daerah or Polda
b. Kepolisian Wilayah or Polwil
c. Kipolisian Resort or Polres
d. Kepolisian Sektor or Polsek

53. In the law enforcement organization of Qatar, the Police is commanded by a commandant who is
. For operational purposes, the emirate is divided into four departments: Airport, Doha, North
and Umm Said
a. senior military officer b. colonel c. brigadier d. lieutenant colonel
54. What is the equivalent of police officer I in the PNP organization to that Qatar law enforcement
organization?
a. constable b. shorta I c. policeman I d. Shurti

55. Which of the following types of United States police also known as boroughs?
a. Federal b. Country c. State d. Sheriff

56. What is known as religious or moralist police in Saudi Arabia?

a. Mubahith b. Moro front c. Mutaween d. Mara Noah

57. Mutaween is a police responsible for

a. Enforcement of the constitution
b. Enforcement of the Quran
c. Investigation
d. Intelligence
58. Which of the following is the lowest commissioned police rank in Thailand? a.
Phantamruat tir b. Roitamruattho c. Roitamruatek d. Roitamruat tri

59. What is the equivalent of roitamruat tri?

a. police major b. police lieutenant c. police captain d. police sub-lieutenant

60. Which of the following is not one of the states in United Kingdom?
a. Scotland b. Ireland c. England d. New Zealand

61. What is the age qualification to qualify for Taiwan police?

a. 21-30 b. 19-29 c. 20-30 d. 18-28

62. What is the equivalent of DILG in China law enforcement?

a. Ministry of public order
b. Ministry of justice
c. Ministry of local government
d. Ministry of public security

63. What is the equivalent of Philippine National Police in Saudi Arabia?

a. Saudi Police Force b. Saudi National Police
c. Saudi National Security Force d. Department of Public Safety

64. A law enforcement agency which not only enjoys the respect of the society, for its integrity,
professional competence, and impartially but also serves as a role model for provincial police
forces. This the vision of Federal Investigation Agency of
a. USA police b. UK police c. UAE police d. Pakistan police

65. The “no height requirement” is applicable in the following countries, except:
a. Vietnam b. UK c. Australia d. Afghanistan

66. What is the equivalent of PNP in Oman?

 a. Oman Security Police
b. Oman Department of Public Security
c. Republic of Oman Police
d. Royal Oman Police

67. The Department of Interior and Local Government in the Philippines is in Iran. a.
Department of Interior
b. Ministry of Interior
c. Ministry of Interior and Home affairs
d. Ministry of Interior and justice

68. The National Police of Angola it has the lowest rank of

a. conscript b. field marshall c. office cadet d. constable

69. The name of Comoros police is

a. Comoros Security Force
b. Comoros National Police
c. Comoros National Police Force
d. Comoros National Police Security Force

70. In Madagascar, the name of national police is

a. National Gendarmerie
b. National Madagascar Police
c. Madagascar National Police

71. Namibian Police Force has the highest rank of

a. Inspector General c. Director General
b. Police Commissioner d. 5 Star General

72. A Review whereby advisory opinions rather than judgments are rendered because
constitutionality is decided without hearing an actual case that has arisen under a particular law
is
a. adjudications b. administrative c. adversarial d. abstract

73. Attorney in France are called?

a. advocats b. counsel c. lawyer d. your honor

74. Committees in England that act as an independent watch dog on the prisons, meeting with
inmates and staff to safeguard the well-being and rights of all prisoners and to help with
problems of discipline and administrations.
a. Board of Borstals b. Board of Bundestag c. Board of Bundersat d. Board of Visitors

75. What is the Police Force Act in which the New Zealand Police Force was established as a single
national force?
a. Constabulary act of 1876 b. Police Force Act of 1886
b. Police Force Act of 1947 c. Police Act of 1958
76. The central training institution for police recruits and police officers in New Zealand.
a. New Zealand Police College
b. Royal New Zealand Police College
c. Royal New Zealand Police College
d. Royal New Zealand Law Enforcement College

77. New Zealand Police is a organization.

a. centralized b. decentralized c. disorganized d. demoralized

78. New Zealand Police is divided into how many districts?

a. 10 b. 12 c. 11 d. 13

79. Created in 1964 to provide a specialist armed response unit, similar to CO19 in the United
Kingdom.
a. Special Tactics Group c. Armed Offenders Squad
b. Special Air Service d. Special Weapon Group

80. How many ranks are there in the New Zealand Police?
a. 10 b. 11 c. 12 d. 13

81. What is the Motto of the New Zealand Police?

a. “Safer Communities Everywhere”
b. “Safer Communities Together”
c. “Safer Communities Forever”
d. “Safer Communities Police”

82. What is the percentage of officers with the rank of Commissioners in the New Zealand Police?
a. 5% b. 75% c. 15% d. 80%

83. Which of the following is not among the Chinese police components:
a. Patrol police b. prison police c. Judicial procuratorates d. Judicial Peoples court

84. Which type of Chinese police responsible for escorting suspects in cases investigated by the
prosecutors?
a. security police b. prison police c. judicial procuratorates d. judicial peoples court

85. The Chinese principal police authority. It is responsible for maintaining social and public order,
and also for the conducting investigations and arrest of suspects in criminal cases. It maintains
public order in accordance with the administrative power granted by law and through the police
force.
a. Ministry of Public Safety
b. Ministry of State Security
c. Peoples Armed Police
d. Peoples Liberation Police e

86. The first work line defense in police Japan is

 a. Kidotai b. Tokko c. Koban d. kempetai

87. How many police ranks are there in China police?

a. 12 b. 15 c. 13 d. 16

88. What is the equivalent of Police officer I to the police rank in UK?
a. Police constable I b. Kobantable c. Constable d. Patrol officer

89. What is the equivalent rank of Director General to police rank in China?
a. Police Commissioner c. Chief Constable
b. Chief Supt d. Chief of Police

90. Taiwan’s police emergency call number is?

a. 1-1-10 b. 1-1-1 c. 5-5-5 d. 911

91. The Republic of Kazakhstan has police force, its name is?
a. Republic of Kazakhstan Police Force
b. Republic of Kazakhstan Security Force
c. Kazakhstan Military Police
d. Kazakhstan Royal Police
92. Which of the following is not an entry qualification for police in Canada?
a. Completed 4 years secondary education
b. 18 years old and above
c. Certified first aid CPR
d. Must pass polygraph test

a. None of the above is qualification

b. All of the above are qualifications
c. A and c are not qualifications
d. C and d are not qualifications

93. What is the exact name of the police force in Canada

a. Royal Canadian Mounted Police
b. Canada Security Force
c. National Police Agency of Canada
d. Department of Canadian Security Force

94. Chief Superintendent in Canada police rank is equivalent to in the Philippines. a. Director b.
Sr. Spt. d. Chief Supt. d. Deputy Director General

95. Canada is the 2nd largest country in the world the biggest is Russia, what is the approximately
population of the former?
a. 33 million and 100 c. 43 million and 100
b. 53 million and 100 d. 63 million and 100

96. Ukraine police is called?

a. Mileetseeya b. Pulisia c. policia d. polisia
 97. “Making the a safer place to live, work, visit and play” is the favorite quotes of police in .
a. Switzerland b. Ireland c. Bahamas d. Egypt Oasis

98. One of the places with the highest crime rate in the world is with 6400 murders per year @ 8
million population.
a. Columbia b. Syria c. Dominica d. Sri Lanka

99. Qatar has no height requirement for police and the age qualification is?
a. 16 years old b. 20 years old c. 18 years old d. 21 years old

100. If the decentralize law enforcement system is to be adopted in the Philippines, what is the best
possible application?
a. It can be applicable in all cities
b. It can be applicable in all regions
c. It can be applicable to either city or regions that can financially sustain its operation
d. It can neither be applicable in cities nor in any regions
Test II. Multiple Choice:

Directions: Select the best answer. Letters only

1. In 1972, the Germans developed the anti-terrorisms forces which gained as one of the top anti
terrorism in the world. What is the name of this force?
a. Grinzchutzgruppe b. Grinszvhutzgruppe c. Grenschutzgruppi d. Grenzschutzgruppe

2. The terrorist group that has significant presence in China in the 20th century is a.
Yugurs b. Rugurys c. Guyurs c. Uygurs

3. What country where inmates had been forced to tie themselves to the cell bars to sleep because
of lack of floor space?
a. Brazil b. Germany c. Venezuela d. Albany

4. A form or restitution used in Islamic countries which it pays directly to the victim of his family as
compensation for the crime committed
a. community service b. probation c. restitution d. diyya

5. “We punish you not because you have stolen a chicken but because we do not want others to
follow what you have done.” This statement is true in
a. Retribution b. Incapacitation c. Rehabilitation d. Deterrence

6. Which country does not apply “warning” as a form of criminal sanction?

a. European countries b. Slovena c. Kazakhstan d. Japan

7. In Saudi Arabia the dispute involving relations of foreign businessmen are generally handled by
a. Shaira court b. Courts of appeal c. high court d. board of grievances

8. There is no formal division between civil and criminal cases in Saudi Arabia. This statement is
 a. true b. yes c. false d. no

9. This court handles legal matters across boundaries and for violations on international standards
a. Supranational court b. Transnational Court c. Super national court d. national court

10. What is the lowest level of court in Japan?

a. District b. police c. country d. summary

11. In France what level of court that has he jurisdiction over minor offenses?
a. assize b. minor c. correctional d. police

12. Court of Cassation in France has

a. 5 chambers with 15 judges
b. 4 chambers with 15 judges
c. 3 chambers with 15 judges
d. 2 chambers with 15 judges

13. What court of New Zealand that has he jurisdiction over dispute of lands?
a. Maori b. Crown c. Country d. House of Lords

14. Magistrate court handles minor offenses in

a. England b. Germany c. France d. USA

15. The criminal court organization in Germany which hears minor criminal cases is a.
Amtgerickte b. Oberlandesgerichte c. Landgericht d. Bundesgerichtshof

16. The word court is derived from Latin word

a. Co-hortus b. none of these c. cohort d. all of the above

17. Co-hurtus means

a. Being together
b. Being together in
c. Being together in the same garden
d. Together again

18. Basic people’s is practiced in

a. Japan b. France c. USA d. China

19. What is the most practice form of criminal sanction which is also the most problematic
punishment in the world?
a. Imprisonment b. Non-Custodial c. Death Penalty d. Day Fines

20. The length training of police officers in America is amounting 2-40 weeks. The training covers
physical fitness and classroom instruction. What is the average length of training? a. 5 weeks b.
15 week c. 10 weeks d. 20 weeks

21. In China, what is the age requirement so one can be qualified as police officer? a. At least 19
 years old b. 22 years old c. 21 years old d. at least 25 years old

22. The unique type of police training for higher officers in Saudi Arabia involves
a. Extensive academic training
b. Class room training
c. Physical fitness
d. Extensive training on terrorism

23. Which of the following countries has an amount of training that varies generally 2-3 years?
a. England b. France c. Japan d. Germany

24. What country’s police organization has its roots in the Napoleonic system of internal spying and
policing?
a. New Zealand b. Germany c. New York d. France

25. The two federal police agencies in Germany are called Federal Investigation Bureau and Federal
police both are under the
a. Ministry of Defense b. Ministry of the Interior
c. Ministry of the Security d. Ministry of the Justice
26. In May 2005, Germany’s Bundesgrensshutz was renamed Bundespolize to reflect new
responsibility for domestic security that combined law enforcement and intelligence. What is
meant by Bundespolize?
a. German Federal c. German Federal Border
b. Federal Army d. Federal Police

27. Bundesgrensschutz means

a. German Federal Border Guard
b. German Federal Border
c. Federal Army of External
d. Federal Army of Internal

28. The elite counter-terrorism and special operations unit of Germany is

a. Border guard Group 9 c. Grenzchutzgruppe 9
b. GSG 9 Bundespolizie d. All of the above

29. Landespolizei means

a. Security of the land b. town police c. police of the land d. state police

30. The crime using computer, an example is harassment via-email is

a. cyber crime b. human trafficking
c. cyber crimes against property d. cybercrimes against persons

31. In this mode or manner of cyber crime the hacker gains access and control over the website of
another.
a. Spider web crime b. virus worm attacks c. Trojan attacks d. web jacking

32. A transnational crime that involves an act of recruiting, transporting, transferring, harboring or
 receiving a person through a use of force, coercion or other means, for the purpose of exploiting
them.
a. terrorism b. trafficking c. anti-terrorism d. human trafficking

33. A crime committed by means of interest.

a. pornography b. internet crime c. illegal viewing d. cyber crime

34. Which of the following is not one of the constituent elements of human trafficking? a. the
act b. the purpose c. the means d. the exploitation

35. Which country is not one of the most common destination for victims of human trafficking?
a. Thailand b. Disneyland c. Netherlands d. New Zealand

36. Which country is not one of the major sources of trafficked persons?
a. Albania b. Bulgaria c. Nigeria d. Australia

37. Under the Islamic law, what is punishment of a married woman who is found guilty of adultery?
a. Stoning to death
b. Convict is taken to a barren site
c. Death penalty
d. A grave is drug to receive the body

38. In Saudi Arabia, when a person is convicted of theft for 3rd offense he shall receive the
punishment of?
a. Amputation of hand b. amputation of legs
c. amputation of fingers d. amputation of foot at ankle

39. Who shall do the amputation of parts of body which serves as punishment in Islamic law?
a. The jail law? b. the berdugo
c. the authorized jail officer d. the authorized medical doctor

40. The process of creating the appearance that large amount of money obtained from serious
crimes, such as drug trafficking.
a. Money laundering c. human trafficking
b. Cyber crime d. money investing

41. The study and description of country’s law, criminal procedure or justice process is
a. International criminal court
b. International criminal justice
c. International criminal organization
d. International criminal tribunal

42. The German equivalent of municipal police, who handle all general aspects of law enforcement
and simple investigation is
a. shoffen b. self sur c. schutzpolizei d. shari’a

43. What is the punishment of apostasy among under the Islamic law?
 a. Death by beheading
b. Imprisonment until repentance
c. 100 lashes
d. Both a and c are correct

44. How many witnesses are required in order to prove that one is guilty of adultery in Islamic law?
a. 1 b. 3 c. 2 d. 4

45. What is the punishment of rebellion it captured under the Islam law?
a. death b. death by retaliation c. imprisonment until death d. 1000 lashes

46. Chusai-san is a
a. Chinese local police c. Chinese rural police
b. Japanese local police d. Japanese rural police

47. The local police officer assigned in post in villages and rural police areas in Japan is called?
a. Kimchusan b. Chusai-san c. Kitusan d. Chuzaisho

48. The belief that social order can be achieved through moral and political reform because man is
by nature good or capable of goodness is?
a. Napoleonic though b. Dewey’s thought c. Peelan’s thought d. Confucian thought
49. Koban is a police post urban areas in Japan while Chuzaisho is?
a. Local police officers in China
b. Local police officer in Japan
c. Local police officer in Thailand
d. Local police in New Zealand

50. Gendarmerie Nationale is the French police organization operating within the Ministry of
Defense that is responsible for?
a. urban areas b. protection of gender c. rural areas d. protection of rights

51. Schupo or Schutspolize means?

a. village police b. territorial police c. municipal police d. federal police

52. The moral or religious police force in Saudi Arabia responsible for enforcing the Qur’an is?
a. Mubahith b. Mumbaki c. Mutawa d. Munaikan

53. Offenses whose inception, proportion, and or direct or indirect effects involve more than one
nation is?
a. International crime b. globalization crime c. transnational crime d. terrorism crime

54. The major anticrime campaign initiated by the communist party in China is?
a. Xianda b. Zanda c. Yanda d. Wanda

55. A type of society that has system of laws along with armies of lawyers and police who tend to
keep busy handling political crime and terrorism and a punishment.
a. Folk-communal b. urban commercial c. urban industrial d. bureaucratic
56. A type of criminal or police system where adversarial is a strong and where lawyers interpret
and judges are bound by precedent.
a. Common b. socialist c. civil d. Islamic

57. A model of police system that if the criminals are poor the government would conduct a study
so they could raise the family from poverty.
a. Ireland b. France c. Switzerland d. Thailand

58. The investigation, evaluating, and comparing the criminal justice processes of more than one
country, culture, or institution is?
a. Transnational crime
b. International crime
c. Comparative police system
d. Comparative criminal justice system

59. The package of transnational flows of people, openness to ideas and authority is?
a. Globalization universalization
b. Globalization liberalization
c. Globalization deteritorialization
d. Globalization internationalization
60. A review whereby advisory opinions rather than judgments are rendered because
constitutionality is decided without hearing an actual case that has arisen under a particular law
is?
a. Adjudicator b. adversarial c. administrative d. abstract

61. Attorneys in France are called?

a. Advocasts b. Counsel c. lawyer d. advocates

62. The religious terrorist group that supported Islam in the current Persian Gulf region during the
year 1090-1275.
a. Assasins b. Ujama c. Al-Qaida d. Yakusa

63. The effect of the drug eradication strategies such that drugs are eliminated from one region only
to have production increase in another region to meet demand is called?
a. Balloon b. UFO c. Kite d. Birds

64. Committees in England that act as an independent watchdog on the prisons, meeting with
inmates and staff to safeguard the well-being and rights of all prisoners and to help with
problems of discipline and administrations.
a. Board of Borstals c. Board of Bundesrat
b. Board of Bundestag d. Board of Visitors

65. All law that is not criminal; the body if rules that regulate behavior between individuals that do
not involve the potential of criminal sanctions (contract, torts, wills, poverty, family matters,
commercial law)
a. Common law b. community law c. commercial law d. civil law
66. The belief that social order can be achieved through moral and political reform, man is by nature
good or capable of goodness; the of group consciousness or collectivity is the main force behind
motivating people to avoid illegal or immoral activity.
a. Mao Tse Tong b. Hitleran c. Napoleonican d. Confucian

67. The illegal trading of persons across borders against their will formal financial gain is? a.
Human trafficking b. illegal recruitment c. illegal immigration d. human smuggling

68. The study and description of country’s law, criminal procedure or justice process.
a. International police
b. International criminal tribunal
c. International criminal organization
d. International criminal justice

69. The holy war by the Islamic fundamentalists who want to protect their religion from creeping
secularism and cultural imperialism posed by Western countries such as the United States is? a.
Monarch b. Italian Mafia c. Magister d. Jihad

70. A method of therapy used in Japan whereby individuals use introspection to understand the
impact of their behavior on others and others on them.
a. Mubahit b. Yugurs c. Mutawa d. Naikan
71. An individual in Socialist Law system who hears complaints andensures that government agents
are performing their functions correctly.
a. Sandigan b. Factionman c. Tribesman d. Ombudsman

72. The government structures in England consisting of the monarch, the house of Lords, and the
House of Commons is a
a. Socialist b. Federal c. Presidential d. Parliament

73. The Supreme court of Japan, divided into three separate benches of five justice, that handles all
illegal matters other than those assigned the Grand Bench, including the cases of appellate-level
jurisdiction is known as?
a. Summary b. Board of Grievances c. Kourtarok d. Petty bench

74. The French police organization within the ministry of the Interior responsible for Paris and other
urban areas.
a. Gendarmarie c. Police authority board
b. Police courts d. Police nationale

75. The process whereby the judicial or criminal fairness is perverted in order to achieve particular
political objectives.
a. Politicized justice c. political and policy
b. Political culture d. political science

76. These are lay judges in Germany used extensively in courts of appeal for minor offenses and for
first level criminal offenses.
 a. Schoffen b. schupa c. schutzpolizei d. schapo

77. Military leaders who exercised absolute rule in Japan during the year of isolation from other
cultures from 1603-1897.
a. Shoguns b. shura c. shari’a d. shoiders

78. In England, professional attorneys who are paid by the state for their work are called?
a. Stipendiary magistrates b. stipendiary lords
c. state- sponsored d. sponsored attorneys

79. The terrorist beginning in seventh-century India whose reign lasted for seven centuries and
executed million of people?
a. Thugs b. Yakuza c. Diaspora d. Terrorism

80. The process whereby the judicial or criminal fairness is properly implemented in order to
achieve particular improvement and objectives is?
a. Politicized justice b. political culture c. political and policy d. ideal political mgmt.

81. In England and Wales, the chief police officer of a territorial police force may designate any
person who is employed by the police authority maintaining that force, and is under the
direction and control of that chief officer. This statement is?
a. true b. it not be understood c. false d. any of the above
82. Most police officers in England are members of?
a. Territorial police b. special police forces c. police civilians d. British police

83. These are national police forces that have a specific, non-regional jurisdiction, such as the British
Transport Police. The serious organized crime and police act 2005 refers to?
a. Special police forces
b. Miscellaneous police forces
c. Non-police law enforcement agencies
d. Wales police forces

84. Which of the following is the highest police rank in UK?

a. Chief supt. b. chief constable c. commissioner d. director

85. The police system in England and UK is?

a. centralized b. disorganized c. decentralized d. demoralized

86. To be appointed and to become a police officer in UK, one must have the age upper limit of?
a. 28 b. 32 c. 30 d. none of the above

87. There are no formal educational requirements for recruitment in England. This statement is? a.
true b. false c. high school graduate is the required d. it is 2nd year college

88. The retirement age of police officer in UK is?

a. 55 b. 57 c. 56 d. 58
89. Peoples Law Enforcement Board in the Philippines is tantamount to England as?
a. Police Authority Board c. People’s Authority Board
b. Police Commission Board d. People’s Commission Board

90. Law enforcement in United Kingdom is organized separately in each of the legal system of
England and Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. This statement is?
a. true b. no, some are united c. false d. yes, some are separated

91. Which of the following countries that has centralized police organization?
a. Philippines b. New Zealand c. USA d. UK

92. How many divisions of police districts are present in New Zealand law enforcement?
a.12 b.14 c.13 d.15

93. The general emergency call number in New Zealand Police is 111 while the traffic call number is
a. 222 b. 444 c. 333 d. 555

94. The equivalent of Philippines Public Safety College in New Zealand is?
a. Royal New Zealand Police College
b. New Zealand Safety Police College
c. Academy New Zealand Police College
d. Public Safety New Zealand Police
95. A recently graduated constable in NZ is considered a Probationary Constable for up to two years,
until he or she has passed ten workplace assessment standards and a compulsory university
paper. The completion of the above is known?
a. As obtaining permanent appointment
b. As obtaining temporary appointment
c. As obtaining qualifications for promotion
d. As obtaining requirement promotion

96. Must be completed swimmer is minimum requirement to become police officer in what
country?
a. New Zealand b. Australia c. England d. France

97. What country requires applicant for police to have attended a recruitment information seminar?
a. Germany b. Saudi Arabia c. Australia d. New Zealand

98. Vetting means?

a. Tenders c. to evaluate for acceptance
b. Care d. to subject to expert correction

99. The national police force responsible for enforcing criminal law, enhancing public safety,
maintains order and keeping the peace throughout New Zealand is?
a. New Zealand Army c. New Zealand Constable
b. New Zealand Marine d. New Zealand Police
 100. Policing in New Zealand started in what year?
a. 1842 b. 1840 c. 1940 d. 1846

Suggested Answer
FOR TEST I FOR TEST II

1. c 26. d aoa 51. d 76. c 1. d 26. d 51. c 76. a

2. c 27. d aoa 52. a 77. a 2. d 27. a 52. c 77. a

3. c 28. a 53. a 78. b 3. a 28. d 53. c 78. a

4. b 29. a 54. d 79. c 4. d 29. d 54. c 79. a

5. b 30. d 55. d 80. 5. d 30. d 55. d 80. d

6. b 31. a 56. c 81. b 6. d 31. d 56. a 81. a

7. d 32. a 57. b 82. a 7. d 32. d 57. c 82. a

8. a 33. a 58. d 83. a 8. a 33. d 58. d 83. c

9. b 34. a 59. d 84. c 9. a 34. d 59. b 84. c

10. c 35. b 60. d 85. b 10. d 35. d 60. d 85. c

11. b 36. a 61. d 86. c 11. d 36. d 61. a 86. d

12. a 37. a 62. d 87. c 12. a 37. d 62. a 87. a

13. a 38. b 63. d 88. c 13. a 38. d 63. a 88. a

14. d 39. c 64. d 89. a 14. a 39. d 64. d 89. a

15. a 40. a 65. d 90. a 15. a 40. d 65. d 90. a

16. d 41. b 66. d 91. c 16. a 41. b 66. d 91. a

17. a 42. d 67. d 92. b 17. c 42. c 67. a 92. a

18. b 43. d 68. d 93. a 18. d 43. d 68. d 93. d

19. a 44. c 69. a 94. a 19. a 44. d 69. d 94. a

20. a 45. a 70. a 95. a 20. c 45. a 70. d 95. a

 21. c 46. c 71. a 96. a 21. d 46. d 71. d 96. a

22. c 47. d 72. d 97. c 22. a 47. d 72. d 97. d

23. a 48. a 73. a 98. a 23. d 48. d 73. d 98. d

24. a 49. d 74. a 99. a 24. d 49. b 74. d 99.d

25. a 50. a 75. a 100. c 25. d 50. c 75. a 100. d

Legends : Aoa all of the above, Cons: constable Na= not applicable
Note: In case of erroneous answers, these are not international.

Test III. Enforcement Administration

Direction: Select the best answer. Letters only

1. What is the act that reorganized the Philippine National Police and amended certain provisions
of RA 6975?
a. RA 1122 b. RA 8551 c. PD 4864 d. EO 1304 e. none of the above

2. The agency relieved of the primary responsibility on matters involving the suppression of
insurgency and other serious threats to national security is?
a. Dept. of Agrarian reform
b. Dept. of Interior and Local Gov’t
c. Dept. of Civil Defense
d. Department of Health
e. Department of National Defense

3. The ex-officio member of the Commission Proper of the Napolcom is?

a. Chief, Planning and Research Service
b. Chief, PNP
c. Chairman, DILG
d. Secretary, DND
e. President

4. It provides technical services to the NAPOLCOM in areas of overall policy formulation, strategic
and operational planning management systems and procedure.
a. The legal service
b. Financial Service
c. Insp. And Log Service
d. Personal and Administration Service
e. Planning and Research Service

5. The removal of the PNP officer from the organization for cause is called?
 a. Demotion b. Promotion c. Force Resignation d. Attrition d. AWOL

6. The central receiving entity for cases involving citizen’s complaints is?
a. Napolcom
b. Internal Affairs Service
c. Chief, PNP
d. People’s Law Enforcement Board Courts
e. Regular Court

7. This was established in all police stations to administer and attend to cases involving crimes
against chastity, sexual harassment, abuses, committed against women and children and other
similar offenses.
a. Mobile group
b. Traffic section
c. Crime laboratory
d. Operations division
e. Women’s and children’s desk

8. The multiple filing of actions before different police disciplinary authorities is?
a. Res judicata
b. Preventive suspension
c. Multiplicity of suits
d. Forum shopping
e. Appeal

9. A complaint against any personnel or office of the internal affairs service shall be brought to:
a. PLEB
b. Office of mayor
c. Regional appellate board
d. Inspector General’s office
e. National appellate board

10. Any PNP personnel who has not been promoted for a continuous period of ten years shall be
retired or separated due to:
a. Attrition by relief
b. Attrition by demotion
c. Promotion
d. Attrition by other means
e. Attrition by non promotion

11. The agency attached to the DILG for policy and program coordination is?
a. Napolcom
b. Dept. of Health
c. Dept. of Finance
d. Dept. of National Defense
e. None of the above
12. The ex-officio chairperson of the Napolcom is?
a. Chief, PNP c. secretary, DILG e. President b. Vice Chairman and executive officer d.
vice president

13. The specific provision of RA 8551 which was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme court is
a. Section 8 c. section 10 e. section 12
b. Section 9 d. section 11

14. What is the maximum tenure position of the Chief of PNP?

a. 4 years b. 5 years c. 6 years d. 7 years e. none of the above

15. In what instance or circumstance that PNP chief’s tour of duty may be extended?
a. Unavailability of successor c. war/national emergencies
b. Death of the president d. calamities

16. Any PNP member who is removed from office due to attribution but rendered at least 20 years
of service shall receive the?
a. Permanent total disability benefits
b. Death benefits
c. Retirements benefits
d. Separation benefits

17. The appellate board which shall decide cases on appeal from decision rendered by the chief,
PNP is:
a. Regional appellate board
b. National appellate board
c. Secretary of DILG
d. VCEO, Napolcom

18. The executive office of the Napolcom is the

a. Chief, IMIS
b. Chief, las
c. Vice Chairman and executive officer, Napolcom
d. Chairperson, Napolcom

19. The head of the provincial internal affair office should be?
a. A chief inspector
b. A director
c. A superintendent
d. A chief superintendent

20. The decision of the national internal affairs office shall be appealed to:
a. The regional appellate board
b. The national appellate board
c. The chairman, DILG
d. VCEO, Napolcom
21. This system observed coordination of activities among group of people, authority and
leadership, and cooperation toward a goal is called?
a. Formal organization c. police administration
b. Information organization d. police leadership

22. The structure group of trained personnel dealt with achieving police: goal and objectives is
called:
a. Police management c. organization structure
b. Police organization d. police administration

23. The principle of organization that cites that a communication should ordinarily go upward and
downward through established channel of hierarchy is:
a. Span control b. chain of command c. unity of command d. unity of direction

24. The placement of a subordinate into the position for which his capabilities best fit him in the
police organization is:
a. Staffing b. directing c. organization d. planning

25. The staff specialist or unit in line organizations that provides service knowledge in a police
organization is called?
a. The line organization c. the functional organization b. The line and staff
organization d. the structural organization

26. In the Philippine National Police, the nature of complaint against PNP member is known as?
a. Individual complaint c. public complaint
b. Citizen’s complaint d. administrative complaint

27. The period of time that has elapse since the oath of office was administered in which previous
years active service may be included or added is called:
a. Active services b. length of services c. oath of service d. oath of office

28. The consequence of an act, which temporarily deprives an officer in the police service from
privilege of performing his duty is referred to as:
a. Dismissal b. resignation c. retirement d. suspension

29. The method of separation from the police services after completing the required age for length
of service is called:
a. Retirement b. separation c. dismissal d. suspension

30. Under R.A. 8551, the PNP shall be organized to ensure accountability and uprightness in the
police exercise of discretion as well as to achieve:
a. Reformation and rehabilitation
b. Organization and administration
c. Efficiency and effectiveness
d. None of the above
31. Team policing was originated in:
a. Japan b. Scotland c. Singapore d. Detroit
32. Team policing was intended to develop a greater sense of understanding and increasing
cooperation between members of the team and community residents. This is evidenced by one
of its characteristics which is:
a. Geographic stability of patrol force
b. Maximum interaction between team member
c. Maximum communication between team members and community residents
d. Unified delivery of police service

33. The cause and effect of team policing are the following except:
a. Reduce public fear on crime
b. Improve police community relation
c. Facilitate career dev’t
d. Decrease police morale

34. Automobile patrol was adopted in the Philippines on:

a. May 17, 1954
b. May 17, 1950
c. May 17, 1035
d. May 17, 1942

35. Television patrol was first use for traffic control in:
a. West Germany c. Boston
b. New York d. Philadelphia

36. The division of the Police organization which is considered as backbone of the organization is:
a. traffic b. investigation c. patrol d. record

37. If the industrial plan is efficient and timely with the risk cost involved the plan is said to be:
a. suitable b. feasible c. acceptable d. reliable

38. If the plan of the police organization can be carried out with the available resources and with in
the capability of the police unit, the plan is considered?
a. suitable b. feasible c. acceptable d. reliable

39. The procedure involved on activity of several offices within the department is called:
a. offices procedure b. field procedure
c. headquarter procedure d. special operating procedure

40. The procedures which applicable to routine operations should be outlined for the guidance of
officers in the field are called:
a. field procedures c. office procedures
b. Tactical plans d. operational plans

41. Plan that works programs of the line units as established by an analysis of the need for services
 is known as:
a. field procedure c. headquarters procedure
b. tactical plan d. operational plan
42. The plan made to organize agencies and individual group for cooperative effort with the police
department is called:
a. tactical plan c. extra department plan
b. management plan d. field procedure

43. The type of plan that involves the preparation and development of techniques that assist in the
accomplishment of each of the primary police task is called:
a. field procedure c. tactical plan
b. policy plan d. operational plan

44. The basic plan of the department which define relationship between the component unit in
terms of specific responsibilities is called:
a. organization plan c. management plan
b. policy plan d. personnel plan

45. This consist of procedures by which PNP personnel are rectitude, utilized and treated in their
employment is under:
a. policy plan c. operational plan
b. tactical plan d. management plan

46. The procedure which involved the duties of dispatcher, jailer, matron and other personnel
concerned which reflected in the duty manual is:
a. Office procedure
b. Headquarter procedure
c. Special operating procedure
d. Field procedure

47. It is an account consisting of biographical which when adopted by an individual will assume the
personality he wants to adopt. This is referred to us:
a. cover story c. organization cover
b. cover story d. undercover assignment

48. The type of cover using actual or true background is called:

a. natural cover c. cover with in a cover
b. artificial cover d. multiple cover

49. In the elicitation process, the elicitor accumulates the sources of knowledge about a particular
subject. This elicitation approach is called:
a. Manhattan from Missouri approach
b. Reaser blow approach
c. Joe blow approach
d. National pride approach

50. Informants that are not under compulsion to report information to the police are considered as:
 a. Spontaneous enforcement
b. Ordinary – out-of-the- will informants
c. Criminal informants
d. Confidential informants

51. A kind of probe in intelligence that service to pin down a subject in a specific area is called:
a. High pressure probe
b. Clarity probe
c. Competition probe
d. Hypothetical probe

52. The method of casing which may be not be sufficient to produce a certain amount of usable
information is known as:
a. Map reconnaissance
b. Personal reconnaissance
c. Hearsay
d. Prior information

53. A person who conducts surveillance which includes only observation is considered as: a.
surveillance b. decoy c. convoy d. contract

54. The secret observation of a person, object or situation is called:

a. tailing b. shadowing c. stakeout d. surveillance

55. A person whom a subject of surveillance picks or deal while he is under observation is called:
a. undercover man c. contact
b. convoy d. decoy

56. A person who casually imparts information to an officer without intension of providing
subsequent information is:
a. Spontaneous informant
b. Special informant
c. Incidence informant
d. Voluntary informant

57. A type of negative control in intelligence operation which include verbal reprimand.
a. threat control c. black mail
b. escrow account control d. disciplinary action

58. In intelligence operation, one of the following consist the psychological process involved in
becoming aware of an existence of fact
a. Perception c. Attention
b. Report d. Mental capability

59. The sincere and valid offer of help and assistance to a subject of elicitation is known as
a. Teacher-pupil approach
b. Good Samaritan approach
 c. Kindred soul approach
d. Partial disagreement approach
60. What is the minimum age qualification of a person in order to quality as a security guard or
private detective?
a. 21 years old b. 18 years old c. 20 years old d. 25 years old

61. What is the minimum number of active personnel of a security agency in order to issued a
regular license to operate?
a. 100 guards b. 200 guards c. 300 guards d. 150 guards

62. How many years is the duration of the temporary license to operate be issued to a new applicant
of a new private security agency?
a. six months b. one year c. two years d. five months

63. How many years is the duration of a regular license to operate duly issued to a private security
agency?
a. one year b. two years c. six months d. three years

64. What is the minimum number of guards in order that a private security agency will be issued a
regular license to operate?
a. 30 guards b. 200 guards c. 100 guards d. 150 guards

65. How many guards is the minimum requirement in order that a company security force will be
issued regular license to operate?
a. 30 guards b. 100 guards c. 150 guards d. 200 guards

66. How many guards is the minimum requirement in order to establish and maintain branch offices
in other provinces or cities?
a. 10 guards b. 15 guards c. 30 guards d. 50 guards

67. What kind of security or unit where the number of security personnel is not specified as part of
the organizational requirement?
a. Government security unit
b. Private detective agency
c. Company guard force
d. Private security agency

68. What kind of authority or order be issued to a security guard on duty while escorting big amount
of cash valuables outside its jurisdiction or area of operation?
a. Duty details order issued by the security directory concerned
b. Mission order issued by the nearest PNP station
c. Memorandum order issued by the PNP regional directory
d. Mission-order issued by the chief PNP

69. What is the total number of the prescribed high-powered firearms that a private security
agency/company guard forces is authorized to posses?
a. Ten percent of the total number of guards employed by the security agency concerned. b. Five
 percent of the total number of firearms already possessed by the security agency concerned.
c. Two percent of the total number of guards employed by the agency concerned.
d. Unlimited number provided the security agency can afford the required high-powered
firearms.

70. How many loads of ammunitions an individual security guard is authorized to carry while in the
performance of duty?
a. 6 loads b. 10 loads c. 15 loads d. 25 loads

71. Previously, the highest rank of a security officer under the new implementing rules and
regulations is:
a. Security director general c. executive manager
b. Security manager d. security director

72. A security is not a peace officer; hence he is not cloth with police authority. What circumstances
where a security guard can legally effect arrest?
a. When the person to be arrested has committed, is actually committing, or about to commit
an offense in his presence.
b. When an offense has in fact been committed, and he has reasonable ground to believed that
the person to be arrested has committed it.
c. When the person to be arrested is an escape from prison.
d. All of the above

73. Previously, the duration of a pre-licensing training of security guards is 1974 hours, but under
the revised implementing rules and regulation of RA 5487, the duration is now: a. 48 hrs b. 58
hrs c. 100 hrs d. 150 hrs

74. Who has the power to deputize any security to assist the PNP in the performance of the its
duties in times of disaster or calamity?
a. Chief PNP b. DILG Secretary c. The President d. Municipal/City Mayor Concerned

75. What is the maximum number of guards that a private security agency can employ including its
branches?
a. 1000 guards b. 500 guards c. 1500 guards d. 2000 guards

76. The highest type of awards that a security guard receives for outstanding achievement during
the performance of his duties or while serving in the agency and the exercise of profession is: a.
Medalyang Kagitingan
b. Medalyang Katapatan sa Paglilingkod
c. Medalya ng Kaatapangan
d. Medalya ng Kadakilaan

77. The authorize headgear of a security guard while on duty is

a. Pershing cap
b. Jacky cap
c. Blue beret cap
d. Overseas cap
78. The new requirement for the renewal of license to exercise profession by security personnel is?
a. drug test b. NBI clearance c. SSS clearance d. BIR clearance
79. What is broadest type of security organization?
a. physical security b. crisis security c. VIP security d. communication security

80. What is the key element in the security system of plant or installation?
a. human guard
b. protective alarm devices
c. natural barriers
d. key control system

81. Any act or condition which may result in the compromise of information, loss of life, loss or
destruction of property or disruption of the objective of the installation is:
a. security hazard c. espionage
b. saboteurs d. relative criticality

82. it is the susceptibility of the plant or establishment to damage, loss or disruption of operation
due to various hazards.
a. Relative vulnerability c. natural hazards
b. Relative criticality d. man-made hazards

83. Hazards that are caused by earthquakes, volcanic, eruption, storms and extreme temperature
and humidity are example of:
a. natural hazard c. God-made hazards
b. man-made hazards d. Evolution of the earth hazards

84. This is the kind of pilferer who steal due to his inability to resist the unexpected opportunity and
has little fear by detection
a. Casual pilferer c. habitual pilferer
b. Systematic pilferer d. opportunist pilferer

85. A person who steals with preconceived plans and takes away any or all types of items or supplies
for economic gain is
a. systematic pilferer c. kleptomaniac person
b. casual pilferer d. habitual pilferer

86. What kind of barriers are structural constructions like fences, walls, floors, roofs, grills, bars, road
blocks or other physical means to deter or impede penetration?
a. man made barriers c. structural barriers
b. natural barriers d. natural-man made barriers

87. What do you call barriers like mountains, cliffs, canyons, rivers, sears, marshes or terrains that
are difficult to traverse?
a. natural barriers c. God-made barriers
b. man-made barriers d. Geographical barriers
88. What system control panel or console operator by immediately informing through other
communication channel the local police and other law enforcement agencies the fire
department or other appropriate agencies, this is called:
a. Central station system
b. Proprietary system
c. Auxiliary system
d. Local alarm system

89. When the system consists of rigging up visual or audible alarm near the object to the protected
and in cause of alarm, the response will be made by the local guards and other personnel within
sight or hearing, this system called:
a. Local alarm system
b. Auxiliary system
c. Proprietary system
d. Central station system

90. In the choice of eventual installation of an alarm system for specific need, what factors must be
considered?
a. Natural and criticality of the area or installation
b. Vulnerability and accessibility of the premises or area
c. Location construction and types of buildings
d. All of the above

91. One of these physical safeguards is used to assist security but not a replacement in the
protection of assets and lives in an installation
a. Alarm devices
b. Natural barriers
c. Man-made protective barriers
d. Perimeter barriers

92. This is a place an individual installation where a security agency will establish its personnel
identification and checking system.
a. A control point
b. Detachment headquarters
c. Guardhouse
d. Branch office

93. It is complete study and analysis of the business operation, its properties, personnel and
installation to determine the adequacy and/or deficiency of existing safeguards. a. Security
survey
b. Inspection
c. Security planning
d. Security management

94. Which if the following composed the PNP?

a. Member of the INP
 b. Members of the PC
c. NAPOLCOM and CIS
d. All of them

95. Under the general qualification for appointment in the PNP, male applicant must be with a
height of atleast?
a. 1.62 m b. 1.64 m c. 1.57 m d. 1.54 m

96. What is the rank of the chief of directorial staff?

a. Deputy director b. police director
c. police chief superintendent d. police senior superintendent

97. It is known as the Police Act of 1966.

a. R.A. 6975 b. R.A. 8551 c. P.D. 765 d. R.A. 4864

98. The kind of promotion granted to a candidate who meets all the basic qualification for
promotion is:
a. special b. meritorious c. regular d. ordinary

99. What is the nature of appointment of PNP personnel under the waiver program? a.
permanent b. temporary c. contractual d. probationary

100. The number 4 man in the PNP Organization is

a. Dep. Dir. Gen for Opns.
b. Dep. Dir. For Admins.
c. The Chief Directorial Staff
d. Regional Dir. Of the NCR

101. Intelligence reports classified as A-2 means

a. The information comes from a completely reliable source and is doubtfully true
b. The information comes from a completely reliable source and is probably true c.
The information comes from a usually reliable source and is probably true
d. The information comes from a usually reliable source and is possibly true

Suggested answer for Test III/LEA exam

1. b 26. b 51. a 76. a

2. b 27. b 52. c 77. a

3. b 28. d 53. a 78. a

4. e 29. a 54. d 79. a

5. d 30. c 55. c 80. a

6. e 31. b 56. c 81. a

 7. e 32. c 57. d 82. a

8. d 33. d 58. a 83. a

9. d 34. a 59. b 84. a

10. e 35. a 60. b 85. a

11. a 36. c 61. b 86. a

12. c 37. d 62. a 87. a

13. a 38. c 63. b 88. a

14. a 39.c 64. b 89. a

15. c 40. a 65. a 90. d

16. c 41. d 66. a 91. a

17. b 42. c 67. c 92. a

18. c 43. b 68. a 93. a

19. c 44. b 69. a 94. d

20. b 45. d 70. d 95. a

21. a 46. b 71. d 96. a

22. b 47. a 72. d 97. d

23. b 48. a 73. d 98. c

24. a 49. a 74. a 99. b

25. c 50. b 75. a 100. c 101.b

Previous questions on the board examination on Cooperative Police System

1. What is the equivalent of police officer I in the Philippines in Cambodian law

enforcement? 2. The Police officer I in rank in the Philippines is in Indonesia police. 3. The
counterpart of the Department of Interior and Local Government in the Philippines is in
Australia.
4. if the police retirement age in the Philippines is 56, in Japan it is . 5. The main law enforcement in the
Philippines is the Philippines National Police while Japan it is .
6. What is the equivalent of PNP Police Community Relation to that of Singapore
police? 7. What is the equivalent of NAPOLCOM in Japan Law enforcement?
8. What is the most common form of Koban transportation?
9. The first work line defence in police Japan is
10. What is the highest rank in the Royal Malaysian Police?
Test IV: Law Enforcement Administration

Directions: Select the best answers: Letters only

This examination was retrieve from the file of Professor Benjamin O. Dulipas. There are no suggested
answers provided.

1. He exercises the power to revoke for cause the licenses issued to the security guards.
a. Chief, PNP
b. Under secretary for peace and order
c. Secretary of DILG
d. Chairman, NAPOLCOM

2. In counter intelligence, surveillance is categorized according to intensity and sensitivity. When there is
a intermittent observation varying in occasions, then this surveillance is called: a. loose b. open c.
discreet d. close

3. The amount and nature of demands of the police service are not the same on all of the three (3)
shifts. It is therefore necessary to make available maximum manpower at the same police service is
of greatest demand. This organization is
a. cliente b. purpose c. time d. process

4. The PNP has a program which ensures the deployment of policemen in busy and crime prone areas.
This is called:
a. patrol deployment b. roving patrol c. patrol and visibility d. police visibility

5. Planning is the formal process of choosing the following, EXCEPT one:

a. Purpose for which the organization performs
b. An organizational mission and overall objectives for both the short run and the long run
c. Strategies to achieve the objectives
d. Division, departmental, and individual objectives based on organization objectives.

6. All regional appointment of commissioned officers commence with the rank of:
a. Senior Police Officer I c. Police Officer III
b. Inspector d. Senior inspector

7. In busy and thickly populated commercial streets like those in Divisoria, police patrol is very
necessary. Which of the following types of patrol will you recommend?
a. horse b. mobile c. foot d. helicopter

8. it is the product resulting from the collection, evaluation, analysis, integration, and interpretation of
all available information which concerns one or more aspects of criminal activity and which is
 immediately or potentially significant to police planning:
a. investigation b. information c. data d. intelligence

9. These are work programs of line division which related to the nature and extent of the workload and
the availability of resources.
a. administrative plan b. operational plan c. strategic plan d. tactical plan
10. It is the premier educational institution for the police, fire and jail personnel:
a. Philippine Military Academy (PMA)
b. Development Academy of the Philippines
c. Philippine College of Criminology (PCCR)
d. Philippine Public Safety College (PPSC)

11. A screw who is assigned of a mobile car usually consists of a

a. A driver and intelligence agent
b. A driver and traffic man
c. A driver and a recorder
d. A driver, a recorder and supervisor

12. Police officers must develop the of recording the facts as they are learned and the evidences as they
are obtained.
a. obligation b. habit c. perspective d. duty

13. An industrial complex must establish its first line of physical defense. It must have: a. the
building itself b. perimeter barrier c. communication barrier d. window barrier

14. All of the following are members of the People’s Law Enforcement Board (PLEB), EXCEPT: a. Three (3)
members chosen by the Peace and Order Council from among the respected members of the
community.
b. Any barangay Captain of the city/municipality concerned chosen by the association of the
Barangay Captains.
c. Any member of the Sangguniang Panglunsod/Pambayan.
d. A bar member chosen by the integrated bar of the Philippines (IBP).

15. It is a circumspect inspection of place to determine its suitability for a particular

operation. a. Inspection b. surveillance c. survey d. casing

16. In the civil service system, merit and fitness are the primary consideration in the a.
two-party system b. evaluation system c. promotion system d. spoils system

17. The minimum age requirement for security manager or operator of a security agency
is: a. 40 years old b. 30 years old c. 25 years old d. 35 years old

18. Which of these statements is correct?

a. Conduction is heat transfer through combustion
b. Conduction is heat transfer through solid materials.
c. Conduction is heat transfer through air motion.
d. Conduction is heat transfer through electromagnetic waves.
19. Which of the following questions should be asked to an intelligent during the debriefing?
a. His education profile and school attended
b. His personal circumstances such as his age, religious affiliation, address, etc.
c. His political inclination and/or party affiliation.
d. His observation and experiences in the intelligence function
20. Private security agencies have to registered at the :
a. Security and exchange commission
b. Department of interior and local government
c. National police commission
d. National bureau of investigation

21. It is a natural, man-made or physical device which is capable of restricting, deterring or delaying
illegal access to an installation.
a. fence b. wall c. barrier d. hazard

22. it provides means and ways by which all personnel and employees are trained to make them security
conscious and disciplined.
a. Security check b. security education c. security investigation d. security promotion

23. This is a single uninterrupted line of authority often represented by boxes and lines of an
organizational chart which should flow in order by rank from top command to the level of the
organization.
a. Organization control c. scalar chain
b. Administrative control d. span of control

24. What form of intelligence is involved when information is obtained without the knowledge of the
person against whom the information or documents may be used, or if the information is
clandestinely acquired?
a. covert b. overt c. active d. underground

25. The provincial governor shall choose a provincial director from a list of eligible the same province,
city or municipality and a recomendee of the PNP director.
a. six (6) b. three (3) c. five (5) d. four (4)

26. Which of the following is the most important characteristic of a good operation plan?
a. Only one officer is responsible for its execution.
b. A need for on-the-operation modification or amplification is minimized.
c. It presents objective and allocation of resources but not the methodology.
d. All details of the plan are properly indentified and evaluated and such details are known by
implementers.

27. Your fire station received a call that Department store “A” is burning. Considering the huge facility
and merchandise of the said department store, there is a need to:
a. Study the problem in advance and formulate methods of attack.
b. Wait for further information about the progress of the incident.
c. Proceed to the area and start putting off the fire.
 d. Organize a committee to direct firefighting.

28. Republic Act 6975 provides that the ratio of the police manning the population is:
a. One (1) policeman for every seven hundred (700) inhabitants
b. One (1) policeman for every one thousand five hundred (1500) inhabitants
c. One (1) policeman for every five hundred inhabitants
d. One (1) policeman for every one thousand (1000) inhabitants
29. In disaster control operations, there is a need to establish a where telephones or any means of
communication.
a. command post b. operation center c. field room d. safe house

30. Registration of security agency must be done at the:

a. Securities and exchange commission
b. National Police Commission
c. Department of National Defense
d. PNP Criminal Investigation Group

31. Bicycle patrol has the combined advantage of since they can be operated very quietly and without
attracting attention.
a. Reduced speed and greater area are covered
b. Mobility and wide area coverage
c. Shorter travel time and faster response
d. Mobility and stealth

32. The budget is a in terms of expenditures requirements.

a. tactical plan b. financial plan c. work plan d. control

33. The term used for the object of surveillance is subject while the terms for the investigator
conducting the surveillance is:
a. rabbit b. surveillant c. decoy d. target

34. It is the police function which serves as the backbone of the police service. In all types of police
stations, there is a specific unit assigned to undertake this function in view of its importance. a. vice
control b. criminal investigation c. traffic enforcement d. patrol

35. Two or more persons forming an organization must indentify first the reason for establishing such
organization. The reason is termed as:
a. strategy b. vision c. mission d. objective

36. Which of the following statement is FALSE?

a. Patrol officers are assigned to the New Cops on the block.
b. Foot patrols places the patrol officers to greater danger than mobile patrol.
c. Helicopter patrol is less than foot patrol.
d. The PNP employ foot patrol

37. It is the weakest link in the security chain.

a. managers b. barriers c. personnel d. inspections
38. It is the protection of high ranking officials from harm, kidnapping and similar acts.
a. asset protection c. physical security
b. document security d. VIP security

39. This is designed to outline a series of related operations to accomplish a common objective normally
within a given time and space.
a. contingent plan b. strategic plan c. supporting plan d. campaign plan
40. Which of the following is a logical chronological step to do first?
a. Forecast of workload
b. Find out how much money was given last year
c. Establish a priority for each task or activity
d. Take no monitoring of present equipment

41. Which of the statement below is TRUE?

a. In a small police station, the need for a full-time records officer is justifiable b. As the police
station increase its size and so with routine desk duties and records task to the extent that the desk
officer and records task to the extent that the desk officer cannot handle them alone.
c. Police records are not that important in police administration.
d. In large departments, the desk officer devote full-time exclusively to record tasks.

42. A police station should have a which includes every step outlined to be officially adopted as the
standard method of action the police organization.
a. tactical plan b. procedural plan c. management plan d. operational plan

43. Which of the following is considered as the most important factor in formulating an effective patrol
strategy?
a. Training of station commander.
b. Adequacy of resources of the police station
c. Rank of the patrol commander
d. Salary rates of the police personnel

44. Who among the following has the summary disciplinary powers over errant police members? a.
District Director b. Provincial Director c. Chief of Police d. Chief, PNP

45. The direction that is provided on a one-on-one basis is called?

a. Administration b. management c. supervision d. organization

46. You are the patrol supervisor for the morning shift but you don’t have enough men to cover all the
patrol beats. Which of the following will you implement them?
a. Assign roving mobile patrol with no foot patrol.
b. Assign mobile patrols only in strategic places.
c. Maintain your patrolmen at the station and just wait for calls for police assistance. d. Assign foot
patrol in congested and busy patrol beats but assign also mobile patrol to other beats which are not
covered by foot patrol.

47. This plan relates to the problems of equipping, staffing and preparing the police station to do the job
 rather the actual operation of the organization.
a. management plan c. procedural plan
b. tactical plan d. operational plan

48. The importance of the firm or installation in relation to national security is termed as: a. relative
necessity b. relative security c. relative vulnerability d. relative criticality
49. In understanding a long range program directed towards implication of the police records, the first
step should be a study of
a. Mechanics in which the current records system operates
b. Utilization of existing record system
c. Administrative structure of the organization
d. Records systems of similar organization

50. These procedures relate to the assignment and method of performance of police tasks away from
headquarters.
a. Field procedures c. staff procedures
b. Headquarter procedures d. system procedures

51. The Father of organized military espionage is:

a. Akbar b. Alexander the Great c. Genghis Khan d. Frederick the Great

52. It is the degree of difference that exists among the structures, tasks and managerial orientations of
various departments.
a. decentralization b. integration c. centralization d. differentiation

53. If a high wind has an extinguished effect on a fire, the most probable extinguishing method to be
employed is:
a. smothering b. cooling c. fuel removal d. dilution

54. Listed below are all types of patrol, EXCEPT one:

a. horse patrol b. foot patrol c. T.V. patrol d. motorcycle patrol

55. Upon arrival at his assigned beat, the patrol office must immediately report t to the: a.
desk officer b. commander c. Unit supervisor d. sector supervisor

56. Which of the following is the most common reason for an informer to give information to the police?
a. To be known to the police
b. To receive a monetary reward
c. To be a good citizen
d. To revenge

57. In surveillance, the following are done to alter the appearance of the surveillance vehicle, EXCEPY
one:
a. Changing license plates of surveillance vehicle
b. Putting on and removing hats, coats and sunglasses
c. Change of seating arrangement within the surveillance vehicle
d. Keeping three cars behind the subject car
58. To improve delegation, the following must be done, EXCEPT one:
a. Establish objectives and standards
b. Count the number of supervisors
c. Require complete work
d. Define authority and responsibility
59. Fredrick the Great is known as the:
a. A Father of Military Espionage
b. Intelligence Father
c. Great Intelligence Officer
d. Father of Criminology

60. Police personnel may be effectively distributed according to any of the following classifications
EXCEPT one:
a. by time b. by area c. by function d. by supervision

61. Protective lighting, perimeter barriers and system are known in industrial security as forms of
physical security.
a. relieving b. accounting c. reporting d. guarding

62. What administrative support unit conducts identification and evaluation of physical evidences
related to crimes, with emphasis on their medical, chemical, biological and physical nature? a.
logistics service b. crime laboratory
c. communication and electronics service d. finance center

63. Those who are charged with the actual fulfillment of the agency’s mission are
personnel.
a. staff b. supervision c. management d. line

64. Which of the following is contained in the heading of an intelligence report?

a. reporting unit c. signature of the director of operation
b. conclusion d. assessment of the operation

65. Licenses of the private security guards are processed and issued by the:
a. Philippine National Police
b. National Police Commission
c. Department of Interior and Local Government
d. Security and Exchange Commission

66. When the subject indentifies or obtains knowledge that the investigator is conducting a surveillance
on him, the latter is:
a. cut out b. sold out c. burnt out d. get out

67. a fire hydrant should be carefully opened when in use in order to:
a. prevent water runner
b. ensure that the drip valve is all the way close
c. close the coupling
 d. reduce vibration of the hydrant

68. small alleys like those in the squatters are of Tondo can be best penetrated by the police through
a. foot patrol b. mobile patrol c. highway patrol d. helicopter patrol

69. Some of the instruction in foot surveillance are the following: EXCEPT one
a. Stop quickly and look behind
b. Drop paper and nevermind what happens to it
c. Window shop and watch reflection
d. Retrace steps

70. On many occasions, the bulk of the most valuable information comes from the:
a. Business world can c. underworld informant
b. Newspaper clipping d. communication media

71. Highly qualified applicants such as engineers, nurses and graduates of forensic sciences can enter
the police service as officers through the:
a. regular promotion b. commission c. lateral entry d. attrition

72. The first step a dispatcher must take when a felony-in-progress call has been received either by
telephone or by a direct alarm signal is to:
a. Assign an investigator to investigate the witnesses
b. Clear the air for emergency broadcast
c. Call for investigators to report to the crime scene
d. Send augmentation force

73. The number of subordinates that can be supervised directly by one person tends to: a. Increase as
the physical distance between supervisor and subordinate, as well as between individual
subordinate increases.
b. Decrease with an increase in the knowledge and experience of the subordinates increase in
difficulty and complexity.
c. Decrease as the duties of the subordinates increase in difficulty and complexity. d. Increase as the
level of supervision progresses for the first line supervisory level to the management level.

74. Police inspector Juan Dela Cruz is the Chief of Police of a municipality. He wants his subordinates to
be drawn closer to the people in the different barangay. Which of the following project can he adopt
then?
a. COPS on the blocks c. long-term plan
b. Oplan Bakal d. Complan Pagbabago

75. A plan with a time horizon of 5 to 10 years is called:

a. annual plan b. strategic plan c. long-term plan d. mid-term plan

76. What should be undertaken by a security officer before he can prepare a comprehensive security
program for his industrial plan?
a. security conference b. security check c. security survey d. security education
 77. This patrol method utilizes disguise, deception and lying in wait rather high-visibility patrol
techniques.
a. Low-visibility patrol
b. Directed deterrent patrol
c. Decoy patrol
d. High-visibility
78. It enforces all traffic laws and regulations to ensure the safety of motorists and pedestrians and to
attain an orderly traffic.
a. Civil relations unit c. traffic management command
b. Traffic operation center d. aviation security command

79. This is a method of collecting information wherein the investigator merely uses his different senses.
a. observation b. casing c. research d. interrogation

80. In cutting a roof to ventilate, the fire fighter should avoid:

a. Cutting a very large hole
b. Cutting small several holes
c. Cutting roof boards near the beam
d. Making roof boards near the beam

81. Plans can be changed to meet future requirements which where not considered during the planning
stages. This indicates in planning.
a. responsiveness b. flexibility c. efficiency d. effectiveness

82. In stationary surveillance, the following must be observed, EXCEPT one:

a. never meet the subject face to face
b. avoid eye contact
c. recognize fellow agent
d. if burnt out, drop subject

83. Pedro is a thief who is eyeing at the handbag of Maria. POI Santos Reyes is standing a few meters from
Maria. The thief’s desire to steal is not diminished by the presence of the police officer but the for a
successful theft was.
a. ambition b. feeling c. intention d. opportunity

84. In intelligence evaluation, the rating of A4 means:

a. Completely reliable source-doubtfully true information
b. Usually reliable source-probably true information
c. Fairly reliable source –probably true information
d. Usually reliable source-probably true information

85. Special anti-crime squad, should be used during the normal times to intensity patrol in crime-prone
areas and it should be restricted to and be given missions to accomplish. a. an area corresponding to
two (2) beats
b. any area in the barangay
c. specific areas
 d. general patrol areas

86. It includes every procedure that has been outline and officially adopted as the standard method of
action in the police organization.
a. progress plan b. procedural plan c. operational plan d. tactical plan

87. A peace and order council is organized in every city/municipality by virtue of:
a. Executive order 386 c. executive order 1012
b. Executive order 309 d. presidential decree

88. Graduates of the Philippine National Police Academy (PNPA) are automatically appointed to the rank
of:
a. Senior superintendent c. senior police officer I
b. Inspector d. superintendent

89. PNP in-service training program are under the responsibility of the:
a. PNP Directorate for Plan
b. PNP Directorate for Human Resource and Doctrine Development
c. PNP Directorate for Personnel and Records Management
d. PNP Directorate for Comptrollership

90. A plan of coping up an attack against buildings equipped with alarm system in an example of:
a. Extra-departmental plan c. procedural plan
b. Management plan d. tactical plan

91. The random and unpredictable character of patrol, cultivation of the feeling of police omnipresence,
high hazard areas, adequacy of the number of men to meet the need, likelihood of criminal of the
number of men to meet the need, likelihood of criminal apprehension, and safety of patrol officers
determines:
a. Patrol coverage and deployment
b. Degree of police community relation
c. Type of weapons to be used
d. Deployment of intelligence agents

92. Before the objectives of a plan can be formulated, the following must be recognized first except one:
a. The resources are necessary to carry out the plan
b. The person to implement the plan
c. The time to implement the plan
d. The need to plan

93. One way of extending the power of police observation is to get information from persons within the
vicinity. In police work, this is called:
a. data gathering c. interrogation
b. field inquiry d. interview

94. The presence of a uniformed patrol officer deters the desire and destroy the for one to commit a
crime.
 a. opportunity b. intention c. need d. ambition

95. Dog have an acute sense of thus, the utilized to tracking down lost persons or illegal drugs.
a. smell b. hearing c. eating d. drinking

96. Which of the these statements are TRUE?

a. Radiation is heat transfer through combustion.
b. Radiation is heat transfer through solid materials.
c. Radiation is heat transfer through air motion.
d. Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic wave.

97. Which cause the greatest number of fires?

a. spontaneous ignition c. electrical wiring
b. leaking gaps pipes d. smoking and matches

98. Intelligence makes heavy use of geographic information because law enforcement officials must
know exact locations to interdict the flow of drugs.
a. logistic b. human cargo trafficking c. narcotics trafficking d. economic resources

99. Which of the following means is most ideally suited for evacuation and search-and-rescue
operations?
a. motorcycle b. helicopter c. patrol car d. bicycle

100. This is a method of collecting of information wherein the investigation tails or follows the person or
vehicle.
a. research b. undercover operation c. casing d. surveillance
Chapter III

Comparative Police in Matrix

This chapter presents a matrix of highest to lowest ranks of police in Asian Countries.
Country Police Force Department Highest Rank Lowest Rank

Afghanistan Afghanista Ministry of the Police General 2nd Patrolman

National Police Interior
(ANP)

Armenia Police of the Ministry of Police Colonel Junior Sergeant

Republic of Defense General
Armenia

Azerbaijan National Police Ministry of Unavailable unavailable

of the Republic Internal Affairs
of
Azerbaijan

Bahrain Bahrain Ministry of Interior Unavailable Unavailable

 National
Police

Bangladesh Bangladesh Police Ministry of Inspector Constable

Home Affairs General of
Police (IGP)

Butan Royal Bhutan Ministry of Gagpeon (Chief Gagpa

Police (RBP) Home and of Police)
Cultural
Affairs

Brunei Royal Brunei Home Affairs Unavailable Constable

Police Force Ministry

Burma Burma National Ministry of Unavailable Unavailable

Police Home Affairs

Cambodia Cambodian Ministry of Brigadier General Officer Cadet

Police Force Internal Affairs

People’s People’s Armed Ministry of Commissioner Constable 2nd Class

Republic of Public Security General

China Police Force

Cyprus Cyprus Police Ministry of Justice Chief of Police Constable

Force

East Timor National Police Ministry of Unavailable Unavailable

of East Timor Internal Affairs
(Timor Leste)

Georgia Georgian Department of Commissioner Constable

National Police Public Safety of Police

Hongkong Hongkong Operations and Commissioner COnstable

Police Force Support of Police

India Indian Police Ministry of Commissioner Police

Service Internal Affairs

Indonesia Indonesian Ministry of Police General Second

National Police Internal Affairs Bhayangkar

Iran Iranian Ministry of Unavailable Unavailable

 National Interior and
Police Justice

Iran Iraqi Police Service Ministry of Interior Chief of Police Patrolman

Israel Israeli Police Force Ministry of Commissioner Constable

Internal Security

Japan National Police National Public Commissioner Police Officer

Agency Safety Commission General

Jordan Public Security Public Security Unavailable Unavailable

Force Directorate of
the Ministry of
Interior

Kazakhstan National Police National Procurator Ryadovoy

of Kazakhstan Security General
Committee of
Ministry of
Internal Affairs

North Korea National Police Ministry of DaeWon Chonsa (Private)

Agency Public Security (Grand
Marshal)

South Korea Korea National Ministry of Commissioner Police Officer

Police Agency Government General
(KNPA) Administration
and Home Affairs

Kuwait Kuwait Ministry of Lieutenant Constable

National Internal Affairs General
Police

Kyrgyzstan Kyrgztan Police Ministry of Interior General Police Officer

Laos Laos National Ministry of General Constable

Police Public Security

Lebanon International Ministry of Interior Director General Gendarme

Security Forces

Macau Macau Ministry of Superintendent Guard

National Internal Affairs
Police Force

Malaysia Royal Ministry of Inspector Constable

 Malaysian Home Affairs General of
police Police (IGP)

Maldives Maldives National Commissioner Lance Constable

Security and of Police
Defense
Branch

Mongolia Mongolia Ministry of General Private

Public Justice and
Security Force Home Affairs

Myanmar Myanmar Ministry of Police Major Private

Police Force Home Affairs General

Nepal Nepal Police Force Ministry of Inspector General Constable

Home Affairs

Oman Royal Oman Police Ministry of Interior Lieutenant Conscript

General

Pakistan Pakistan Police Ministry of Interior Inspector General Constable

Force

Papua New Royal Papua New Unavailable Commissioner of Kiap (patrol

Guinea Guinea police officer)

Constabulary

Philippines Philippine Department of Director General Police Officer I

National Police Interior and
(PNP) Local
Government

Qatar Qatar National Ministry of Interior Unavailable Shurti

Police

Russia Militsiya Ministry of Police Colonel Police Cadet

Internal Affairs

Saudi Arabia Department of Unavailable Unavailable Unavailable

Security

Singapore Singapore Ministry of Commissioner Police Constable

Police Force Internal Affairs of Police
 Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Police Defense Ministry Inspector Police
Service General of Constable
Police Class 4

Syria Syria Public Ministry of Interior Director General Police Private

Security Police

Republic of National Police Ministry of Interior Police Police Rank 4

China (Taiwan) Agency Supervisor
General

Thailand Royal Thai Ministry of Interior Police General Constable

Police Force

Turkey Turkish Police Ministry of Director General Police Officer

(General Internal Affairs
Directorate of
Security)

Turkmenistan Turkmenistan Ministry of Unavailable Unavailable

National Police State Security
Force

Dubai (UAE) National Police Ministry of General Unavailable

Forces Interior (VP Commander
Pres., and
Prime Minister
of UAE)

Uzbekistan Uzbekistani Ministry of Interior Director General Constable

Police Force
(Militia)

Vietnam Peoples Police Ministry of General Unavailable

of Vietnam Public Security

Yemen Yemen Ministry of Interior Unavailable Unavailable

National
Police Force

Chapter IV

Police Ranks

This chapter contains and present the list of police ranks from highest to lowest. This was
included to gain appreciation on the structures of police ranks in various countries. To view the
complete list please refer to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/police_rank.
Australia Belgium

Commissioned Ranks Highest commissioned rank

Deputy Commissioner Hoodfcommiosaris/commisaire
Assistant Commissioner Divisionnaire (Chief Commissionaire)
Commander Commissioned rank
Superintendent Commissaris/Commisaire
Inspector (Commissioner)
Senior Non-Commissioned Ranks Senior non commissioned rank
Senior Sergeant Hoofdinspectuear/inspecteur
Sergeant Principal (chief
Non Commissioned Ranks Inspector/superintendent)
Senior Constable Non commissioned rank
Constable Inspecteur/inspecteur (Inspector,
Probationary constable Equivalent to constable or officer)
Recruit Auxiliary rank
Each state has their own distinc Agent van politie/agent de police
t rank structure (auxiliary officer)

Braizil Canada

Coronel (colonel) Ranks of the royal Canadian

Tenente-coronel (lieutenant – Mounted Police
Colonel Commissioner
Major (major) Deputy Commissioner
Capitao (captain) Assistant Commissioner
1st tenente (1st lieutenant) Chief Superintendent
2nd tenente (2nd lieutenant) Superintendent
Aspirante-a-oficial (cade, student Inspector
Rank Corps Sergeant Major
Subtenente (under-lieutenant) Sergeant major
1st sargento (1st sergeant) Staff sergeant major
3rd sargento (3rd sergeant) Staff sergeant
Cabo (corporal) Sergeant
Soldado de 1 classe (1st class Corporal
Soldier) Police constable 1st class
Soldado de 2nd classes (2nd class (Gendarme)
Soldier, student rank) Police Constable 2nd class
(Gendarme)
Police constable 4th class
(gendarme)
 Cadet
Police ranks for Provincial (with
the exception of the sorete du
Quebec and Alberta Sheriffs) and
the majority of Municipal Police
services are distinct from one another.

Chile China
Policia de Investigaciones de Commissioner General
Chile (PDI) Commissioner 1st Class
Director General Commissioner 3rd Class
Prefecto General Supervisor 1st class
Prefecto Inspector Supervisor 2nd class
Prefecto Supervisor 3rd class
Subprefecto Superintendent 1st class
Comisario Superintendent 2nd class
Subcomisario Superintendent 3rd class
Inspector
Constable 1st class
Subinspector
Constable 2nd class
Detective
Carabineros De Chile
Hong kong
General Director
Commissioner (Cp)
General Inspector
Deputy commissioner (DCP)
General
Senior assistant
Coronel
Teniente Coronel

Mayor Commissioner (SACP)

Capitan Assistant Commissioner (ACPT)
Teniente Chief superintendent of police
Subteneiente (csp)
Sub-oficiales Senior Superintendent of police
Suboficial mayor (SSP)
Suboficial Superintendent of police (SP)
Sargento 1st Chief Inspector of Police (CIP)
Sargento 2nd Senior Inspector of Police (SIP)
Cabo 1st Inspector of Police (IP)
Cabo 2nd Probationary Inspector of Police
Carabinero (PI)
Station Sergeant (SSGT)
Sergeant (SGT)
Senior Police Constable (SPC)
Constable (PC)
France Iceland

Corps de Conception et de 1. National commissioner

Direction 2. Vice national Commissioner, Police chief,
Services direction Headmaster of the National Police School 3. Vice
Inspector General Police Chief of Reykjavik, deputy police

Controller General chief

Divisional Commissioner 4. Chief constable
Commissioner 5. Vice chief constable
Corps de Commandment 6. chief sergeant, assistant chief
Major (commandant de police) constable 7. sergeant, inquisitor
Captain 8. policeman
Corps d encadrement et 9. police intern, temporary replacement officer,
D application district police officer
Major
Brigadier chief de police
Brigadier de police
Sour-brigadier de police
Peace guard
First year peace guard
Studying peace guard
Employ jeune
Adjoint securite
India
Ranks of Gazetted Officer
Director Intelligence Bureau
Additional Commissioner of
Police or Deputy Inspector
General of Police
Joint Commissioner of
Police or Inspector General of
Police
Commissioner of Police
Special Commissioner of Police
Deputy of Commissioner of Police
Additional deputy commissioner of
police Assistant commissioner of
police
Assistant superintendent of police
Assistant superintendent of police
Ranks of Non-Gazetted Officer
Inspector of police
Sub-inspector of police
Assistant sub-inspector of police
Police head constable
Senior police constable
Police constable
Iraq
Chief of police
Chief of superintendent
Superintendent
Chief of inspector
Inspector
Captain
Lieutenant
Sergeant
Patrolman
Indonesia
Police General Police Commissioner
General Police Inspector General
Police Brigadier General
Mid rank officers
Police great commissioner
Police great commissioner
Adjutant
Police commissioner
Low rank officers
Police commissioner adjutant
First police inspector
Second police inspector
Warrant officers
First police inspector adjutant
Second police inspector adjutant
Non-commissioned officers
Chief police brigadier
Police brigadier
First police brigadier
Second police brigadier
Enlisted
Police brigadier adjutant
First police brigadier adjutant
Second police brigadier adjutant
Chief bhayangkara
First bhayangkara
Second bhayangkara
Ireland
Commissioner
Deputy commissioner
Assistant commissioner
Chief superintendent
Superintendent
Inspector
Sergeant
Garda
Student garda
Reserve Garda
Japan South Korea

1. Commissioner General Commissioner general

2. Superintendent general Chief superintendent general
3. Superintendent supervisor (Keishi-kan): 4. Senior superintendent general
Deputy superintendent General, The Chief of Superintendent general
Regional Police Bureau, The Chief of Prefectural Senior superintendent
Police Headquarters, others. 38 capacity. 5. Superintendent
Chief superintendent (Keishi-cho). The chief of Senior inspector
prefectural police headquarters. Inspector
6. Senior Superintendent (Keishi-sei). The chief Assistant inspector
of police station. Senior police officer
7. Superintendent (keishi). The chief of police Police officer
station.
8. police inspector or captain (keibu) Latvia
9. assistant police inspector or
lieutenant 10. police sergeant Lowest to highest
11. senior police
12. police officer, old patrolman (junsa) Ierindnieks/private
Kursants
Kapralis/corporal
Serzants/sergeants
Virsnieka vietneiks/warrant officer
Leitnants/first lieutenant
Kapteinis/captain
Majors/major
Pulkvezleitnants/lieutenant
Colonel
Pulkvedis/colonel
Generalis/police general

Lithuania Macau

A class officers Superintendent general

Superintendent
Commissioner Intended
Senior commissioner Sub-intended
The chief commissioner Commissioner
Commissioner – general Sub-commissioner
Chief
B. Class Officers Sub-chief
Inspector 1st class guard
The chief inspector 2nd class guard
Commission inspector Guard

C. Class Officers
Junior police officer
Police officer
Senior police officer
Sergeant

Malaysia Netherlands

Inspector General Grade Chief

Inspector General of police (IGP)
Deputy inspector general of police
(DIG) Commissioner of Police (CP)
Deputy Commissioner of Police (DCP)
Senior Assistant Commissioner of Police
(SAC) Senior Assistant Commissioner of
Police II Senior Commissioner of Police
(ACP)
Superintendent
Superintendent of police (SUPT)
Deputy superintendent of police
Constable (Hoofscommissaris)
Commissioner (Commissaris)
Superitendent (Hoofdinspecteur)
Inspector (Inspector)
Sergeant (Brigadier)
Constant First Class (Hoofdagent)
Constable (agent)
Police Patrol Officer (surveillant)
Police trainee (aspirant

(DSP)
Assistant superintendent of police (ASP)

Inspector Grade
Chief inspector
Inspector (INSP)
Probability inspector (P/INSP)

Enlisted Grade
Sub-inspector (S-INSP)
Sergeant Major (SM)
Sergeant (SGT)
Corporal (CPL)
Lance corporal (L/CPL)
Constable
Philippines Singapore

Commissioned officers
Director general (DGEN.) Senior Police officers
General
Deputy director general (DDG) Commissioner of police
Deputy commissioner of police (DCP)

Lieutenant General Senior (DCP)

Director (Dir) Major General Senior Assistant
Chief Superintendent (C/Supt.) Commissioner (SAC)
Brigadier General Assistant commissioner (AC)
Senior Superintendent (S/Supt.) Deputy assistant
Colonel Commissioner (DAC)
Superintendent (Supt.) Superintendent of police (SUPT)
Lieutenant Colonel Deputy superintendent of police
Chief Inspector (C/Insp.) Major (DSP)
Senior Inspector (S/Insp)- Assistant superintendent of police (ASP)
Captain Inspector of police (INSP)
Inspector (Insp) Lieutenant Police Officers
Note: rank in italics is the army equivalent. There Senior station inspector (2) of police
is no second lieutenant rank-equivalent in the (SS12) Senior station inspector of police
PNP. (SSI)
Station inspector of police (Si)
Non Commercial Officers Senior staff sergeant (SSSGT)
Senior Police Officer IV (SPO4) Staff sergeant
Senior master sergeant/chief Sergeant (SGT)
Master sergeant Corporal (CPL)
Senior police officer III (SPO3) Lance corporal (LC): Gurkha rank.
Master sergeant Special constable (SC): non
Senior police officer II (SPO2) Regulars
Technical sergeant Police constable (PC):
Senior police officer I 9SPO1)
Staff sergeant
Police officer III (PO3) sergeant
Police office II (PO2) Corporal
Police Officer I (PO1) Private
First Class
Sri Lank Spain

Gazetted officers Cuerpo Nacional de Policia

Inspector General of police (IGP)
Senior Deputy Inspector General of police
(SDIG) Deputy Inspector General of Police
(DIG) Senior Superintendent of police (SSP)
Assistant Superintendent of police
(ASP) Chief Inspector of police (CIP)
Inspector of police (IP)
Sub inspector of police (SI)
Non-Gazetted officers
Police sergeant major (PSM)
Police sergeant class 1 (PS)
Police sergeant class 2 (PS)
Police constable class I (PC)
Police constable class 2 (PC)
Police constable class 3 (PC)
Chief
Superintendent (Spanish: Comisari
o Principal)
Superintendent (Comisario)
Chief Inspector (Inspector Jefe)
Inspector
Sergeant (Subinspector)
Corporal (Official)
Constable (Agente)
Guardian Civil – Civil Guard
Lieutenant General (Teniente)
General
Division General (General de
Division)
Brigade General (General de

Brigada )
Colonel (Coronel)
Lieutenant Colonel (Teniente)
Coronel
Major (Comandante)

Police Constable Class 4 (PC) Captain (Capitan)

Lieutenant (Teniente)
Second Lieutenant (Alferez)
Senior Warrant Officer (Suboficial)
Mayor)
Junior Warrant
Officer (Subteniente)
Sergeant First class (brigada)
Staff sergeant (Sargento Primero)
Sergeant (Sargento)
Master corporal (Cabo Mayor)
Corporal (Cabo Primero)
Lance Corporal (Cabo)
Constable first class (agente de 1st)
Constable (agente)
Taiwan (The Republic of China)
National Police Agency (Republic of China)
Police Supervisor General
Police Supervisor Rank One
Police Supervisor Rank two
Police Supervisor Rank three
Police Supervisor Rank four
Police Officer rank one
Police Officer rank two
Police officer rank three
Police officer rank four
Police rank one
Police rank two
Police rank three
Police rank four
Thailand
Royal Thai Police
Commissioned officers
Police General (phon tamruat ek)
Police lieutenant general (phon
Tamruat tho)
Police major general (phon
Tamruat tri)
Police brigadier general (not in use
Now (phon tamruat jattawa)
Police senior colonel(phan
Tamruat ek phiset)
Police colonel (phan tamrat ek)
Police lieutenant colonel (phan
Tamruat tho)
Police major (phan tamruat tri)
Police captain (roi tamruat ek)
Police lieutenant (roi tamruat tho)
Police sub-lieutenant (roi tamruat tri)
Non Commissioned Officers
Police senior sergeant major (dap
tamruat) Police sergeant major (ja sip
Tamruat)
Police sergeant (sip tamruat ek)
Police corporal (sip tamruat tho)
Police lance corporal (sip tamruat tri)
Policeman/constable (phon tamruat)
Turkey United Kingdom

Turkish police Police ranks of the United Kingdom

Director general (emniyet genel muduru) 1st For territorial police
degree police chief (1. Sinif emniyet muduru) (detective/uniformed)constable
2nd degree police chief (2. Sinif emniyet (detective/uniformed)sergeant
muduru) 3rd degree police chief (3. Sinif (detective/uniformed)inspector
emniyet muduru) 4th degree police chief (4. (detective/uniformed)chief
Sinif emniyet muduru) Superintendent Inspector
(emniyet amiri) (detective/uniformed) superintendent
Chief inspector (baskomiser) (detective/uniformed) chief
Inspector (komiser) Superintendent
Sub-inspector (komiser yardimcisi) Assistant chief constable
Police officer (Turkish:polis memuru( Deputy chiefs constable
Chief constable
United States Ranks up to chief superintendent
Can be held in either a uniformed in either a
Chief of police/police uniformed or detective capacity, whereas after
Commissioner/superintendent/sheriff that the “Chief Officer” ranks are concerned with
Deputy chief of police/deputy the overall management and effective running of
Commissioner/Deputy the force.
Superintendent/undersheriff Within London’s Metropolitan Police service the
Inspector/commander/colonel ranks are identical to those outside London, until
Major/deputy inspector chief superintendent. In London the chief ranks
Captain are:
Lieutenant Commander
Sergeant Deputy assistant commissioner
Detective/inspector/investigator Assistant commissioner
Officer/deputy sheriff/corporal Deputy commissioner
Commissioner constabulary, which is made up of
Venezuela volunteer police officers with identical powers to
Comisario Jefe regular officers, maintains its own ranking
Comisario structure (varies, but most common):
Sub Comisario Chief officer
Inspector Jefe Assistant chief officer
Inspector Special chief inspector
Sub Inspector District officer (similar in role to an
Detective Inspector) Section officer(Similar in role to
Agente a sergeant) Special constable
Officre’ The special constabulary in Scottish police forces
Doctor does not maintain any structure and all
members of the special constabulary are special
constable regardless to length of
service/experience, etc.
 Special constable are always subordinate to
regular constables.
Traffic wardens and police community support
officers to not have a rank structure.

Vietnam

Dai tuong cong an-police

General
Thu tuong cong an-police
Senior lieutenant general
Trung tuong cong an –police
Lieutenant general
Thieu tuong cong an –police
Major general
Middle rank
Dai ta cong an – police colonel
Thu ong ta Cong an – Police senior
Lieutenant colonel
Trung ta Cong an – police
Lieutenant colonel
Thieu ta Cong an – Police Major
Low rank
Dai uy cong-an – police captain
Thuong uy cong an – police
Senior lieutenant
Trung uy cong an – police lieutenant
Thieu uy cog an – police sub-lieutenant

Chapter V

Types of Police

This chapter enumerates and summarizes the different types of police of various countries.

Afghanistan

1. Afghan Boarder Police ABP

2. Afghan National Civil Order Police (ANCOP)
3. Afghan National Police – ANP
4. Afghan Special Narcotics Force (ASNF)
5. Counter Narcoutics Police of Afghanistan (CNPA)
6. Khadamat – e Etela’at-e Dawlati
7. National Directorate of Security (NDS,
 8. Ring of Steel
9. The Sarandoy
10. Vice and Virtue Ministry

Australia

2 Major Types of Police Australia

1. Australian Federal Police (AFP) is responsible for the investigation of crimes against
Commonwealth law which occurs throughout the nation. The AFP also have responsibility for a
community policing role (similar to the state police) in Commonwealth territories such as the
Australian Capital Territory.

2. Various State Police

The state police forces are responsible for enforcing state law within their own states (including
cities within the states)

China

1. Public Security Police. It makes up to 86% of all police personnel in China. It provides not only
basic uniformed patrol but also twelve other specialized functions including criminal
investigations, fire control border patrol, and monitoring of all modes of transportation.

2. State Security Police. Established in 1983, it is responsible for preventing espionage, sabotage,
and conspiracies.

3. Prison Police. It is responsible for supervision of convicted offenders in prison.

4. Judicial Procuratorates Police. They escort suspects in cases investigated by the procuratorates
(prosecutors in the Phils.).
5. Judicial People’s Court Police. They maintain security and order in the various courts and also may
carryout death sentence.

Japan

1. Koban
2. Chuzaisho
3. Kidotai
4. Kempetai
5. Prefectural

Germany

1. Bundespolizie/Federal police
2. Landespolizie/state police
 2.1 Schutzpolizei. This is the equivalent of municipal police particularly patrol officers in the
Philippines, they are the first to arrive at the scene of most crime and handle all general
aspects of law enforcement and simple investigations.

2.2 Kriminalpolizei. This is also called Kripo. They are plainclothes police who handle serious
crime investigation and situations that require developing case against the suspect.

2.3 Bereitschaftspolize. These are officers – in training living in barracks, but they serve as civil
police when situation arises.

2.4 Kommunen/local

The Verkehrspolize (traffic police) was the traffic-law enforcement agency and road safety
administration of Germany.

The Wsserschutzpolizei (water protection police) was the coast guard of the third reich.
Tasked with the safety and security of Germany’s rivers, harbors, and inland waterways.

The Bahnschutzpolizei (railway police) was made up of part time police officers who were
also employees of the Reichbahn (state railway). The Bahnchutzpolizei was tasked with
railway safety and also preventing espionage and sabotage of railway property.

Postal police (Postchutz) was tasked with security at Germany’s post offices and ensuring
the security of other communications media such as telephone and telegraph lines.

The Feuerschutzpolizei fire protection police) thus consisted of all professional fire
departments under a national command structure. The Orpo Hauptamt had also authority
over the Freiwillige Feuerwehren, the local volunteer civilian fire brigades.
The security and assistance Service (Sicherheits and Hilfsdienst or SHD) was created in 1935
as air protection police. It was the civil protection service in charge of air raid defense and
rescue victims of bombings in connection with the Technische Nothilfe (Technical
Emergency Service) and the Feuerschutzpolizei (FireBrigades).

United Kingdom

1. Terrotorial police forces

2. Special police forces,
2. Non-police law enforcement agencies
4. Miscellaneous police forces

USA

1. Federal
 2. State Police, State Patrol or Highway Patrol
3. Country Police
4. Sheriffs’ department
5. Municipal
6. Special district police

Guidelines in reviewing

How to fail the board examination?

1. Read once in a while.

2. Do not buy or gather review materials. Be satisfied with what you have
3. Do not attend or join review classes. Attend review class irregularly.
4. Dot not believe on the result of your mock board examination.
5. Do not pray. Do not believe in God.
6. Sleep while others are reading.

How to pass the board examination?

1. Read 3 hours a day.

2. Gather review materials.
3. Attend the review lectures regularly.
4. Believe on the result of your mock board examination.
5. Depend on God.
6. Spend more time in reading than relaxing.
How to top the board examination?

1. Read and understand what you are reading.

2. Buy or gather review materials as many as you can.
3. Attend review classes regularly. Take down notes.
4. Believing and improving the result of your mock board examination.
5. Put Go first in everything you do.
6. Read more than 8 hours in 24 hours.